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Guardians of the Islamic Revolution Ideology, Politics, and the Development of Military Power in Iran (1979–2009)

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Guardians of the Islamic Revolution Ideology, Politics, and the Development of Military Power in Iran (1979–2009) Guardians of the Islamic Revolution Ideology, Politics, and the Development of Military Power in Iran (1979–2009) by Afshon P. Ostovar A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) in The University of Michigan 2009 Doctoral Committee: Professor Juan R. Cole, Chair Associate Professor Kathryn Babayan Assistant Professor Farina Mir Sussan Babaie, American University of Cairo Copyright © 2009 Afshon P. Ostovar ii Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been possible without the assistance of several individuals and the continual support of the University of Michigan’s Rackham Graduate School and Department of History. The latter institutions provided me with the organizational scaffolding and financial resources to pursue and complete my doctoral degree. The Department of History’s administrative staff—particularly Lorna Altstetter, Kathleen King, Diana Denney, and Sheila Coley—are truly the unsung heroes of every doctoral student’s career, and especially mine. They made navigating the endless paperwork and bureaucratic processes of graduate school nearly painless and far more efficient than I could have hoped. My research was greatly assisted by the kind efforts of Jonathan Rodgers, Middle East Bibliographer at the University of Michigan’s Hatcher Graduate Library, who helped me obtain various Persian sources and microfilms that proved invaluable to my study. The librarians at the Hoover Institution Library and Archives spent many hours assisting me in navigating their extensive visual and textual collections. My writing benefitted from the tolerant culture of Ann Arbor’s cafés, which allow graduate students to loiter at all times of the day and night. I am especially thankful to the Sweetwaters on Plymouth, where I spent hours of each day writing the last half of this dissertation. Even though I had a well-lit, spacious, and surprisingly chilly basement in which to work, the atmosphere at this café allowed me to focus on my writing in ways I could not at home. My pursuit of a doctoral degree in history would not have occurred had I not benefited from the mentorship of Richard Eaton during my undergraduate years at the University of Arizona. Although my intellectual path has led me away from the premodern world—at least for now—Professor Eaton’s lessons on Islamic history remain foundational to my work. Thomas Trautmann was likewise a kind supporter of my work ii and a trusted adviser during my stay at Michigan. My thinking on cultural history and European religious movements was greatly enriched by Helmut Puff. Abbas Milani offered valuable advice and suggestions at the outset of my study. Farina Mir’s scintillating scholarly mind helped sharpen my project from its earliest incarnation as a prospectus, and the anticipation of her comments kept me from straying too far from the sources. I owe my appreciation and love for the visual to Sussan Babaie and her inspirational approach to scholarship. She has been instrumental in this project’s success, and her friendship has been one of the brightest points of our years in Ann Arbor. I am indebted to Kathryn Babayan for showing me the vast possibilities of textual sources, for teaching me novel approaches to Iranian and Islamic history, and for her continual support and friendship. I hold the highest measure of gratitude for Juan Cole, whose mentorship, advocacy, pragmatism, and skillful advice have enabled the completion of this dissertation and whose enthusiastic support has helped me transition to a professional career. The endless hours of isolation spent producing a doctoral dissertation is enough to drive any graduate student a little insane. I am thus eternally indebted to all my friends and family whose love, understanding, and unconditional support served as the anchors that kept me grounded and free of any actual psychological trauma. My parents in particular managed to balance their anxiousness for me to finish with the patience that only parents can posses. My cat, Saffron, has in her own way kept my ego in check at all times. Even as I found her need for affection occasionally aggravating—particularly her incessant desire to sleep atop my books as I read them—she has been a constant reminder of the world outside my studies. The last two years of my graduate career were blessed by the arrival of my beautiful daughter Ladan, whose presence has already enriched my life beyond calculation. She serves as both my paramount motivation and the most welcome distraction. My wife Michele is to whom I owe the deepest and most enduring gratitude. Her boundless love, selflessness, and patience are the sole reason I was able to survive this doctoral program and complete this work. If anyone was ever deserving of an honorary doctorate, it is she. Thank you, Michele. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements............................................................................................................. ii List of Figures................................................................................................................... vii List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... viii Note on Transliteration ........................................................................................................x CHAPTER I. Introduction: Military Power and the Making of the Islamic Republic.......1 Conflict, Military Power, and Politics .....................................................................5 Military Power in Post-Revolutionary Iran ...........................................................10 CHAPTER II. From Ali to Khomeini: A Brief History of Shiism and the Islamic Movement in Iran (632–1978 C.E.)...................................................................................17 PART ONE: SHIISM THROUGH THE 19th CENTURY ....................................19 The Formation of Shiite Islam ...............................................................................19 Later Developments in Shiism and the Rise of the Clergy....................................25 PART TWO: THE ISLAMIC MOVEMENT IN IRAN........................................30 Roots of the Islamic Movement in the Twentieth Century....................................30 The Islamic Movement and Revolutionary Ideology ............................................37 Conclusion .............................................................................................................43 CHAPTER III. Guardians of an Islamic Revolution: Coercion and Consolidation in the Post-Revolution (February–December 1979)..........................................................46 Revolution and a New Regime ..............................................................................49 Early Leadership and Factions...............................................................................58 Countering the (New) Opposition..........................................................................66 The Clergy and a New Constitution.......................................................................72 iv Conclusion..................................................................................................................76 CHAPTER IV. Exporting the Revolution: The Rise and Decline of the Khomeinist Left (1980–1989)............................................................................................78 Roots and Early Expressions of Revolutionary Internationalism..........................80 The Iraq Conflict and an Emergent Conservatism.................................................84 Battling Baathists All the Way to Jerusalem .........................................................87 Exporting the Revolution: the Case of Lebanon ...................................................89 Waning Interventionism, Rising Conservatism .....................................................97 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................101 CHAPTER V. Image and Identity: Visualizing the Revolutionary Guards (1979–88).........................................................................................................................104 PART ONE: CONTEXTS ...................................................................................107 An Overview of IRGC Publications ....................................................................107 Cultural Activism in a Time of War ....................................................................110 PART TWO: TEXTS...........................................................................................112 Branding a New Resistance .................................................................................112 A Militant Iconology............................................................................................114 Imagining Karbala and its Warriors.....................................................................117 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................126 CHAPTER VI. Politics of Demobilization: Veterans and Militarism in the Postwar Decade (1989–1999)........................................................................................................129 Extra-Military Deployments: Postwar Reconstruction under Rafsanjani ...........132 Commanding “Right”: Legal and Religious Justifications for Coercive Activism
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