ISSN 2520-7679 Peoples' Preface Vol. o1, Issues 01, Oct 2017

Editorial Advisory Board

Professor Farid Uddin Ahmed, Ph.D Peoples’ Preface Chairperson, Dept. of Development Studies A Journal of Research Initiatives Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chittagong University Professor Md. Siddiqur Rahman, Ph.D Vol. 01 Dept. of Anthropology, Jahangirnagar University Issue 01 Professor AKM Mazharul Islam October 2017 Head of Anthropology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology Sukanta Sen Executive Director, BARCIK Raasheed Mahmood Associate Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, Dhaka University

Editor Panel Editors

Hasan Shafie Bokhtiar Ahmed, Ph.D Professor and Chairperson Associate Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, Rajshahi University Dept. of Anthropology Md. Saiful Islam, Ph.D Dhaka University Associate Professor, Dept. of Development Studies, Dhaka University S M Arif Mahmud,Ph.D Executive Editor Associate Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, Dhaka University Faruk Saha, Ph.D Md. Ershad Ali Associate Professor, Dept. of Development Studies, Dhaka University Secretary Avijit Roy Peoples' Preface Forum Assistant Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, Rajshahi University Associate Coordinator, BARCIK N M Robiul Auwal Chowdhury Assistant Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, Comilla University Syed Arman Hossen Assistant Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, Dhaka University Fahmid Al Zaid Assistant Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, Dhaka University Md. Abdur Rahman Assistant Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, Comilla University. (Logo) Md. Liton Hossen Assistant Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, Rajshahi University Peoples’ Preface Forum Saulbinus Lamin Coordinator, KMC, BARCIK

Copyright: Peoples' Preface Forum Peoples’ Preface Vol. 01, Issue 01, October 2017 Published October 2017 CONTENTS

Declaration APPRECIATION v Peoples‘ Preface is an official publication of Peoples’ Preface Forum. It is a peer-reviewed journal devoted to the advancement of ARTICLES 1-160 researcher in multidisciplinary areas. The opinions expressed are the Risk Perception and Response Motivation: A Theory of Behavioural Models Under author(s)‘ responsibility. Articles of perspectives authors are advised Risks and Uncertainties 1-39 to consult the ``guidelines for contributors'' section. Hasan Shafie

This journal has been published with the financial support from Terminating diversity, germinating ‘otherness’: The case of food and food habit 41-54 the members of Peoples’ Preface Forum Raasheed Mahmood and Salma Ahmed

Gender Relations in Water Crisis: Perspectives from Southwest Bangladesh 55-80 Subscription Rate: Touhid Imam Single Copy: Taka 200 (US $ 5), Annual Subscription: Taka 400 (US $ 10), Payment may be made through bkash number Slavery to the Mirror 81-95 Maria Tahsin (01716275595)/ a crossed cheque/Bank Draft payable to Md. Ershad Ali, Executive Editor, Peoples' Preface. Migration as Adaptation Strategy: A Consequence of Climate Change Accelerating Intense Settlement in Urban Areas 97-112 Printed at: Alpha Printers, 167 Gausul Azam Super Market, Nilkhet Fahima Aqtar

Contextualizing the Challenges for Effective and Equitable Governance of Water Resources in Urban Neighbourhoods 113-126 Amith Dutta

Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: A Case Study of Sylhet District. 127-143 Abid Kamal

Solid Waste Management System of Satkhira Pourashava, Satkhira 145-160 Narayan Chandra Somoddar, Dipon Thunder, Mrinal Kanti Madhu, Digbijoy Dey

GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS 161-162

Appreciation

It is our great privilege to proclaim the first publication of the journal titled “Peoples Preface on Multidisciplinary Issues.” The Peoples Preface feel honor to provide a special ground for the researchers and academicians in which they can become enthusiastic to do research and publish them in exploring their enthusiasm and passions. This ground is passionate and motivated to denote the researchers’ knowledge to strengthen their expertise and potentials in respective research areas. It is a peer reviewed journal which has a core interest to serve as the platform finding multidisciplinary arenas in home and beyond with clear findings to serve people uttering the peoples' voice. We am grateful for those who especially contributed with articles and mental/other supports for the first volume of Peoples’ Preface.

We are thankful to the reviewers and the editorial panel for making the articles publishable with their special attention and cognitive views. We hope with a great expectation that all articles of this journal would be interesting to the readers in which they can enhance their thinking for further research.

Finally, We hope the “Peoples Preface” would serve people with new information for the researchers and academicians to pursue their study on different perspectives around the world.

Md. Ershad Ali Secretary Peoples’ Preface Forum

1 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 2 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties

RISK PERCEPTION AND RESPONSE Introduction MOTIVATION A THEORY OF BEHAVIORAL The paper aims at analyzing the decision factors influencing the MODELS UNDER RISKS AND protective response motivation of people living under risk and UNCERTAINTIES uncertainties induced by natural hazards and extreme climatic events. The cultural aspects and perceived realism of risks have remained Hasan Shafie1 discounted in the technical models of risk analysis and assessment. Studies of risk have raised the challenges of incorporating cultural Abstract and technical considerations into the risk management framework (Fischhoff et al 1984a; Fischhoff et al 1984b; Rayner 1992; Rowe The paper aims at analyzing the decision factors influencing the 1977; Sitkin & Pablo 1992; Sitkin & Weingart 1995; Slovic 1987; protective response motivation of people living under risk and Starr 1969).Factors altering the perceptions of people may lead the uncertainties induced by natural hazards and extreme climatic community people to underrate or even not perceive risks even events. The cultural aspects and perceived realism of risks have though the actual risk might be out there. Risk perception assumes remained discounted in the technical models of risk analysis and that the perceiver, within a social setting, selects certain risks for assessment. Risk perception assumes that the perceiver, within a addressing, while suppresses some others from attention (Douglas social setting, selects certain risks for addressing, while suppresses 1985). Therefore, understanding the factors that contribute to form some others from attention. An individual’s own estimates of risk and change risk perception has significant bearing upon policy may be very different from that of the others as well as from outcomes and programme implementations for risk management. apparently ‘objective’ estimates of risk calculated in terms of The present paper, however, makes the point that psychological and statistics and probability distributions. Therefore, people may cultural theory of risk, and risk perception give us a richer context to respond to risk and uncertainties in a wide variety of ways because understand factors contributing to risk assessment and analysis. risk is more about thought, beliefs and constructions rather than about reality. Given this backdrop, the present paper develops the Risk research has been influenced by a wide range of theoretical Response Motivation Theory (RMT) to understand the likelihood of perspectives and methodological approaches. Studies on risk adopting any preventive measures, early detection and prediction of perception may vary, to a large extent, in terms of micro-macro responses to risks, as well as the extent of willingness to pay for levels of abstractions. Drawing on the analysis of individuals, the performing any recommended behavior having significant bearing social psychological theory of risks is concerned with how upon policy outcomes and programme implementations for risk individuals reacts to uncertainties, the formation of risk perception management. and judgment of risks at the individual level (Brehmer 1987; Loewenstein et al 2001; Tversky & Kahneman 1975). While, Key words: Risk Management; Uncertainties; Risk Perception; focusing on the macro level processes, the cultural theory of risk Response Motivation; Natural Hazards; Climate Change; (Douglas 1985)looks at the relationships amongst individuals and Vulnerability. argues that “risks are defined, perceived, and managed according to principles that inhere in particular forms of social organization" (Rayner 1992). However, according to the cultural theory of risk 1 Hasan Shafie is Professor at the Department of Anthropology of the University of perception, the perceiver of risk is not an isolated individual; rather Dhaka, Dhaka- 1000, Bangladesh 3 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 4 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties he works, lives and has social relationships within a social context. Risk , Risk Perception and Protective Response Therefore, the cultural theory argues that “what societies choose to Intellectual Roots and Background call risky are largely determined by social and cultural factors, not nature” (Johnson & Covello 1987).Within the wider social factors The subject of risk has become very popular in recent time, while and processes, the individuals are motivated to make choices and many different kinds of risk are discussed in the recent literatures, decisions for risk response, and these choices become aggregated as for instance, business risk, social risk, economic risk, safety risk, patterns. The social and institutional arrangements set conditions for investment risk, military risk, political risk, and so on. The individual’s behaviour, provide broad frameworks for the shaping of conceptualization of this term has changed over time and context. their attitudes and beliefs, and are also closely tied to questions of The meaning of risk varies depending on discipline and approach as what is to be valued and what is not (Douglas 1985). Since risk it is a complex phenomenon by nature (Althaus 2005; Breakwell perception is affected by both individual and cultural factors, this 2007; Renn 2008; Slovic 1999; Zinn 2008). Evidences show that an paper pursues a theoretical framework, the Response Motivation elementary form of ‘risk’ assessment dates back to the dawn of Theory (RMT), to explain the diversity in perceptions, making of human civilization and the Babylonians, in 3200 BC, were the first choices and decisions of response or action. to develop initial understanding of risk of potential hazards (Althaus 2005; Kasperson & Stallen 1991; Krimsky & Plough 1988). After This paper aims at exploring the relevance of risk perception in that, throughout history, civilizations gave birth to a wide variety of explaining the behaviour of people in the context of disaster risk situations (Althaus 2005). The development of trade, investment preparedness and mitigation. Earlier studies in this field suggest that and other economic activity introduced what we now call business there is hardly any consensus on how to treat risk perceptions of the risk, safety risk, investment risk etc. depending on the contexts. frontline people in conventional risk assessment and management processes, because individuals and groups are differently positioned The definition of ‘risk,’ like that of any other key term in academic and conceptualize risk in contesting ways. This paper presents an and policy issues, is inherently controversial. Risk is commonly integrative model, Response Motivation Theory (RMT), to gain understood as having potentials that a given threat will exploit understanding on processes of response formulation and reasons for vulnerabilities of an asset or group of assets and thereby cause choosing response alternatives under risk and uncertain conditions. damages. In the dictionary we find risk is the “possibility of loss or While exploring the alternative possibilities to cope with a potential injury” and the “degree of probability of such loss.”Risk, therefore, threatening event, the RMT would focus on the perceptions of risks includes the likelihood of hazards’ exposure into actual delivery of and coping ability, and thereby be effective in predicting hazards risk loss, injury, or some form of damage. Risk is the probability of a loss behaviour (Gardner & Stern 2002; Hass et al 1975; Witte & Allen or the magnitude of the possible loss. Risk is a function and product 2000). The RMT would help us explain the varying degrees of of probability and magnitude of loss(Vlek & Stallen 1981). In this motivations for people to reduce their risks. It can be applied to perspective, risk is equated with the variance of the probability determine and predict individual’s responses under hazards’ risks distribution of all possible consequences of uncertain future and uncertainties posed by climatic variability. As a result, effective events(Merkhofer 1987; Vlek & Stallen 1981). Considering risk as risk communication strategy can be developed and people can be probability distribution over adverse consequences, the level of risk motivated to engage in desirable coping responses not only to reduce can be measured in terms of the probability of the possible outcomes hazard risks (Floyd et al 2000b; Mulilis & Duval 1995; Pechmann et and measures of the magnitude (severity) of the damages of those al 2003; Rippetoe & Rogers 1987). outcomes(Breakwell 2007; Renn 2008; Sjöberg et al 2004; Zinn 5 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 6 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties

2008). But this measurement of probability relates to the operate at an individual level, influencing perceptions or cognition longstanding debate between subjective versus objective that sees the bearers of risk perceptions as discrete individual people, interpretations of probability. or, alternatively, as collectivism that sees them as irreducibly social entities, influenced by cultural factors (Lupton 1999; Rosa 2003). The objective interpretations suggest that probabilities are real and Therefore, the realist versus constructionist distinction has different they can be estimated through statistical analyses. The subjective implications about individualism, where the bearers of risk interpretations view probabilities as human beliefs and not intrinsic perceptions are seen as discrete individual people, or collectivism, to nature. Therefore, probabilities are attributions by the individuals where they are regarded as social entities, such as institutions, social to characterize their respective uncertainties. Following this line of groups, subcultures or societies (Renn 2008; Strydom 2002; Taylor- reasoning, people’s perceptions of risk depend on how likely they Gooby & Zinn 2006; Zinn 2008). Concerning ontology and think they might be exposed to the event and how serious they particularity, a distribution of different approaches to risk over a two consider the damages would be. However, Hume may be credited to dimensional scale (Figure- 01) is presented below: have founded the subjective interpretations of probability as he says, “Though there be no such thing as Chance in the world; our ignorance of the real cause of any event has the same influence on the understanding, and begets a like species of belief or opinion” (Hume 1748). Knight, on the other hand, suggested an objectivist perspective, arguing that probabilities are dependent on the observer’s accuracy of information(Knight 1921). According to him, probabilities reflect ‘measurable uncertainty’ and opinions represent ‘unmeasurable uncertainty.’ In his famous definition of risk, Knight suggested that risk relates to objective probabilities, while uncertainty relates to subjective probabilities (Knight 1921). Therefore, distinctions between ‘objective’ and ‘subjective’ risk can be made by referring the former to the product of scientific research and the later to the risk perception of the people.

Approaches to risk may be categorized in a number of ways, following the recent literature. The common categories are of two folds: the foundations of knowledge or ontology, and the base unit of the analysis or particularity (Renn 2008; Taylor-Gooby & Zinn 2006). At an ontological level, different theories carry different Exposure and uncertainty, the two essential components of risk, implications about the extent to which risks are assumed as real cannot be defined from an operational standpoint because entities beyond their social context, as having an independent operational definitions apply only to that which can be perceived. existence, external to the individuals or social groups who perceive For example, one can be exposed without being aware of the and respond to them, and thus a human product. At the level of exposure and similarly, one can be uncertain without realizing it. particularity, understanding of risks may result from processes that 7 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 8 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties

Therefore, instead of an operational definition of risk, we can only basis of the knowledge and information they have as well as by attempt to define our perceptions of exposure and uncertainty, and personality type because personality defines whether a person is risk thereby our perception of risk. The paper argues to use subjective averse or a risk taker (Wildavsky & Dake 1990). The contextualist probabilities for defining only the perceptive aspects of uncertainty perspective, however, begins with the social structure, institutional and exposure components of risk. According to this view, risk is form, or cultural elements (Douglas 1992; Kasperson & Kasperson contextual and culturally constructed, and is dependent upon the 1996; Otway & Wynne 1989; Palmlund 1992; Rayner 1992; Tansey initial assumptions which can never be proved or disproved. Thus, it & O'Riordan 1999; Wynne 1983; Wynne & Otway 1983). can be said that the observed risk is subjected to and is affected by the risk observer. Besides, addressing risk is quite tricky because any Cultural theory has gained wide acceptance for understanding how act of measuring, understanding, assessing or managing risk changes groups in society interpret risk and build trust or distrust in the risk. institutions creating and regulating risk(Tansey & O'Riordan 1999). It is a way of interpreting how and why individuals, at the micro Cultural and Social Psychological Approaches to Risk level, form judgments about risk and threat. Cultural theory does not address the variations in individual’s understanding of nature. In this paper, risk is understood in terms of perception rather than by Although cultural theory agrees with subjective variations in the quantitative methods. The ways people understand risk has important positionality of individuals, yet it predicts of some cultural biases in theoretical and social implications. How risk based decisions are the collective understanding of risks. Focusing on politics as made? Why do the terrorists generate more fear appeals than that of inherently a collective process (O'Riordan & Jordan 1999), the the health practitioner? Considering these questions suggest that our understanding of risk based decision making is underpinned by human behavioral and social psychological aspects. Risk perception has a cognitive dimension (Sjöberg 1996). According to this cognitive approach, risk is understood as a function of general properties of the risk object (Sjöberg 1996). Studies of risk perception have identified twoimportant dimensions for the subjective risk judgment(Fischhoff et al 1984a; Fischhoff et al 1984b; Slovic 1987; Slovic et al 1985; Vlek & Stallen 1981). These dimensions summarize a large number of individual determinants of perceived risk. They may be described as: (a) the degree to which the risk is unknown and (b) the degree to which the risk evokes a feeling of dread or fear.The former represents cognitive aspects of concern and expresses aversion to uncertainty, whereas the latter captures a risk's ability to evoke aninstinctive response.

However, risk can be understood both from individualist and contextualist perspectives(Krimsky & Golding 1992). The individualist paradigm suggests that people respond to risk on the 9 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 10 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties cultural theory is founded upon the relationships amongst human studies. Powe and Bateman have added value to the ‘measurement of beings, while it argues that “risks are defined, perceived, and perceived realism’ by using social psychological constructs(Powe & managed according to principles that inhere in particular forms of Bateman 2004). social organization" (Rayner 1992). At the same time, the theory makes the point that such judgments are not formed independent of Risk Perception and Response social context. These processes, however, entail social debates about rights to know, justice for those likely to be affected by impacts or Risk perception and the motivation behind the choice of response loss, as well as about blame, responsibility and liability(Douglas among alternative options constitute an interesting problem-field that 1992; Douglas & Wildavsky 1983). The theory also explains how certainly calls for social psychological diagnosis. The social risks are both constructed and selected, while being politicized, risks psychological explanations are endowed with higher analytical become inseparable from issues relating to power, justice and potentials rather than the result of economic choices based on legitimacy. Thus, risk is never completely objective or separable contingent valuation. Motivations behind intentions and self- from social and cultural contexts, since it is brought into being and protective actions are significant issues in the context of selecting managed as part of social processes (Lupton 1999; Zinn and generating responses against hazard risks. Risk perception is the 2008).Therefore, the cultural theory provides some normative most significant drive for human behaviour, since facts tend to play a guidelines and insights into the processes whereby decisions marginal role for people in risk evaluation process (Renn 2008). regarding risk are made. The term ‘perception’ refers to the continuous cognitive processes Parallel to the development of cultural theory, economic theories can whereby individuals interpret and arrange sensory information in be made relevant to explain the patterns and rationale of human order to give meaning to their surrounding environment (Lindsay & behaviour regarding ‘contingent valuation’ (CV) of and ‘willingness Norman 1977). Stimulations from the surrounding environment are to pay’ (WTP) for coping responses. Along these lines, the ‘theory of filtered in or filtered out depending on where people put their reasoned action’(Ajzen & Fishbein 1980) and, of late, the ‘theory of attention. People become consciously aware of these ‘attended planned behaviour’(Ajzen 1985; 1991; Ajzen & Driver 1992; Ajzen stimuli’ and begin to analyze and interpret the perceived objects in & Madden 1986; Barro et al 1996; Conner & Armitage 1998; Davis order to give them meaning and context. Therefore, risk perception et al 1989; Fishbein & Ajzen 2005; Fishbein & Ajzen 2009)can be can be viewed as an inherently subjective assessment of uncertainties used to analyse the ‘contingent valuation’ of risk reduction and mediated through social, cultural and communication processes coping responses. Pouta and Rekola applied the similar framework to (Renn 2008; Slovic et al 1981; Tulloch & Lupton 2003). The way investigate attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural people analyze their perception depends on or influenced by many control in predicting behavioral intention (Pouta 2005; Pouta et al factors including their past experiences, feelings, imagination, 2002; Rekola 2001). On the other hand, a significant body of values, memories, beliefs as well as their worldviews, ideologies and literature, especially the influential study by Kahneman and Knetsch, values that are impacted by a variety of psychological, social, argues that psychological theories can enhance the productivity of cultural, governmental and political aspects (Fischhoff et al 1984b; analysis than that of the pure micro-economic perspectives Peters et al 2006; Renn 2008; Sjöberg 2002; Sjöberg et al 2004; (Kahneman 2003a; b; Kahneman & Knetsch 1992; Kahneman et al Sjöberg & Wåhlberg 2002; Slovic 1999; Slovic et al 2004; Slovic et 1993). Yet, the perception of realism and risk, the two cognitive al 1981).Depending on these factors, the same object or hazard event processes of mediation seem not to be addressed explicitly in these can be perceived very differently by different people. Risk 11 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 12 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties perception can thus be defined as the subjective processing of abstractions. The first level of abstraction would focus on the sensory experiences and/or information about a potential hazard cognitive mediation processes combining the psychological event, and the evaluation of its seriousness, probability and perspectives of risk experience and perception, and the emotional acceptability (Renn 2008; Sjöberg et al 2004; Slovic et al 1981). engagements to different types and situations of risk. Social and cultural mediation processes, at the second level, would shed light on Subjective risk evaluations and judgments are context dependent the social and cultural stimuli raising particular risk characterizations (Sjöberg et al 2004; Slovic 1999). The social psychological and reactions. Besides, these two levels would also approach the perspective of risk provides an empirically based explanation of individual and collective expressions of risk perceptions as well as contextual attributes impacting risk response and behaviour. the interdependence of psychological, social and cultural factors of According to this framework, perception of risk leads to decision risk perception (Renn 2008). making and generating responses. The assigned meaning of a risk stimulus shapes the choices and actions to respond to it. Decision for Risk Perception: Mediation of Heuristicsand Emotion responding or not depends on the degree of motivation. For every response there is always a set of alternatives from which to choose, Risk perception is derived out of two thought processes: (1) heuristic even though sometime it might appear as if there are no alternatives. evaluation of risks; and (2) emotional response to risk. The first People may differ greatly in their choices and actions while process refers to the mental procedures usually applied in a search responding to a risk situation. Besides the two basic factors of risk for decisions or problem solutions. Heuristics are commonly based judgment, likelihood and consequence evaluation, the cultural and on analogies between problem at stake and previously experienced psychological conditions play significant role in forming risk problems of similar types, and thereby searching the effective perception (Renn 2008; Tulloch & Lupton 2003). However, the solutions to the present problem from already experienced solutions psychological perspective argues that risk perceptions tend to form (Lindsay & Norman 1977). Heuristics are applied in everyday life to certain patterns which shape the motivation for generating intension explore the effective and efficient ways of making decisions and and response. While taking decisions under risk situations, the basic solving problems. They are also used as the primary mechanisms for patterns of constructing images of risks are of two folds: firstly, risk evaluating risks in terms of severity, uncertainty and vulnerability. appraisal patterns founded upon the attributes of risk source, and Therefore, the formation of risk perception, at the primary level, is secondly, context appraisal derived from the attributes of the context guided by heuristic processes of intuitive judgments or where the risk reveals itself and is embedded (Renn 2008; Sjöberg commonsense reasoning (Lindsay & Norman 1977; Renn 2008). 2002). The affective and emotional components mediate the second order of The traditional psychological studies on risk perception had been risk perception. Recent work in cognitive and social psychology limited to the core attributes of a risk and weak in understanding its makes it clear that emotion plays a critical role in the perceptions of contexts in which it is embedded and manifested(Sjöberg 2002; Zinn risk, and at the time, risk responses are determined by the interplay 2008).This paper suggests an articulated model of risk perception to between cognitive evaluations and emotional responses transcend the limitations of the traditional approaches by (Loewenstein et al 2001; Renn 2008; Roeser 2006; Slovic 1999; incorporating psychological, social and cultural aspects influencing Slovic et al 2004).There are contestations between views about how individual and social risk perceptions (Renn 2008). Such articulated emotions contribute to the cognition of risk. The two major positions model would be founded upon interfaces between different levels of that understand emotion as opposed to reason: emotion as bias and 13 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 14 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties emotion as expressive perception. Instead of being conclusive of the understanding: (1) direct observational understanding of subjective classic debate on the relationship between emotion and reason, meaning of a given response; and (2) explanatory understanding of Kahan suggests that, ‘emotion functions not as a heuristic substitute motive, or, what makes an individual do a particular response in a but rather as a perceptive faculty uniquely suited to discerning what particular circumstance. Since we are interested in the subjective stance toward risk best coheres with a person’s values’ (Kahan meaning of response, we must reveal the motive of a response in the 2008).The profound impact of emotion on risk perception is context in which it is embedded. Motivation is the word derived generally agreed, however. Distinct emotional states- from ‘fear’ to from the word ‘motive’ which means need, desire, want or drive that ‘dread’ to ‘anger’ to ‘disgust’- and distinct emotional phenomena- propels someone in a certain direction. Max Weber defines motive as from affective orientations to symbolic associations and imagery- a complex of meaning, which appears to the actor himself or to the have been found to explain the perceptions of risk (Curtis & Biran observer to be an adequate ground for his conduct. The motivational 2001; Kahan 2008; Peters & Slovic 2007; Peters et al 2004; Slovic et structures of individuals and the patterns of their purposes are al 2007). According to Slovic, emotions serve as orienting relative to societal frames. Max Weber suggests that, “… in a free mechanisms that control such essential psychological actions as society the motives which induce people to work vary with … attention, memory and information processing, and guide individuals different social classes. … There is normally a graduated scale of in judging risks and uncertainties(Slovic 2000). motives by which men from different social classes are driven to work. When a man changes ranks, he switches from one set of Motivation and Responding to Risk motives to another.”A vast wealth of literature regarding theories of motivation, might be categorized as content and process theories, Motivation is about energizing and directing a response system reveals the complex facets and functions of motivation in human life. (Slovic 1999). The motivations behind responding to a risk scenario may vary among individuals in terms of both amounts and kinds. As The content theories of motivation focus on human needs as the such, people may have different levels of motivation and different basic drivers of motivation. The cognitive perspective, in content underlying attitudes and rewards may influence their motivational theories, assumes that people have innate drives to understand, make orientations. The intensity, direction, and persistence of efforts sense of, and gain control over their lives. People are driven either by toward attaining a risk reduction goal can be highly individualized. their desire to achieve success or by their desire to avoid failure(Deci Moreover, people may have different levels of arousal under similar et al 1999). The humanistic perspective, another facet of content conditions because motivation involves both emotional and cognitive theories, analyzes the motivation patterns based on human needs to processes. Responding to risks and uncertainties might be rational in develop, cultivate self-esteem, and maintain relationships. Along this orientation, since the actors act in their own self-interest, and at the line, Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory suggests that same time, it may be emotionally driven, particularly when individuals are progressively driven by physiological, safety, and responses are uncontrolled reactions to some emotional stimuli, for love needs, at the lower order, as well as by esteem and self- instances, fear or dread appeals etc. actualization needs, at the higher order (Good & Brophy 1990; Owens & Valesky 1995). An alternative to Maslow's need theory, The basis for understanding the meaning of response under risks and Alderfer addressed the problem of relating need-satisfaction to uncertainties may be either rational (logical or mathematical) or strength of desires by proposing a three-fold conceptualization of emotionally empathetic (capturing the emotional context in which human needs: existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs the response took place). According to Weber, there are two kinds of (E.R.G.)(Koltko-Rivera 2006; Maslow 1954; White 1959).Thus, the 15 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 16 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties driving forces of motivation are anchored in three levels of needs outcome or reward may be either tangible or intangible according to including human desires for physiological and material well-being the key distinction made between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (existence needs), fulfilling interpersonal relationships (relatedness in cognitive theories. Intrinsic motivation causes men to perform needs) and sustained psychological growth and development (growth activities to pursue their own satisfaction, while extrinsic motivation, needs). Accordingly, the ERG theory, unlike Maslow’s theory, does in contrast, drives men to achieve something concrete and tangible not assume that the satisfaction of lower-order needs as a rewards. However, people are probably not exclusively motivated prerequisite for the emergence of higher-order needs(Alderfer 1969; either extrinsically or intrinsically, rather they are likely to derive 1972). Again, McClelland suggests another set of acquired needs their motivations along the continuum between internal and external assuming that human motivation is impelled by inner forces, often control of locus (Fudge & Schlacter 1999). operating beneath the level of consciousness, in the form of needs, desires and impulses (Alderfer 1972; Hersey et al 2011; Schneider & Intrinsically motivated behaviours are performed out of interest for Alderfer 1973). The three types of acquired needs are the enjoyment of the activity itself, satisfying the innate achievement(nAch), power(nPower) and affiliation(nAff) and people psychological needs, rather than for any instrumental value (Good & acquire needs through their life experiences(McClelland 1967; 1973; Brophy 1990; Hoeger & Hoeger 1999). On the contrary, extrinsically 1988). motivated behaviours are, thus, instrumental to some separable consequence or outcome. Human beings are inherently active, The process theories of motivation, on the other hand, attempts to inquisitive, curious, and playful, while being naturally motivated to explain the ways people attach meaning to rewards or outcomes and learn and explore, they do not require any extraneous incentives to make decisions to perform a particular course of actions. An undertake such activities. This natural motivational tendency is a individual may act in a certain way based on the expectation that the pervasive and significant feature of human nature that affects act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of performance, persistence, and well-being during life courses (Ryan that outcome to the individual. Motivation is seen as a function of & Deci 2000). However, natural intrinsic motivation, as recent individuals’ perceptions of his or her own environment and the studies have demonstrated, has found to be undermined in presence expectations thus formed(Bandura & McClelland 1977; Rogers of any extrinsic reward contingencies to control behaviour (Ryan & 2003). This expectancy theory of motivation, developed by Vroom La Guardia 2000). In other words, tangible rewards tend to have in 1964 (Vroom 2005), identifies the role of three interacting factors, negative effects on intrinsic motivation because they undervalue as driving force of motivation, that include effort-performance individual’s own feelings of self-competence, autonomy, and expectancy, performance-outcome expectancy or instrumentality, relatedness. Recent studies suggest that strategies that focusing and valence (Vroom et al 2005; Vroom 2005). Expectations are primarily on the use of extrinsic rewards entail significant risk of derived from individual’s beliefs that increased efforts would result diminishing rather than promoting intrinsic motivation. Therefore, in improved performance, which, in turn, would generate higher promotion of intrinsic motivation based on optimizing the rewards or outcomes. Therefore, the more values the expected psychological need satisfactions have greater potentials in reward receives from the individual, the more motivated he or she motivating people in striking a particular course of responses. would be to perform the necessary efforts to achieve that reward. The expectancy theory of motivation, along with its three components, has been experimentally confirmed and validated in numerous studies (Fudge & Schlacter 1999). Moreover, the expected 17 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 18 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties

Decision-Making: Interface of Reason and Emotion Slovic et al 2007). The experiential system has direct and primary reliance on affect and emotion in motivating behaviour while The process of decision making has long been analysed from navigating in a seemingly complex, uncertain, and sometimes cognitive perspectives in psychological research (Deci et al 2001; insecure world (Epstein 1994; Evans 2003; Slovic et al 2007). On the Ryan & Deci 2000). The descriptive decision research, because of other hand, several studies have suggested that the experiential mode rationalistic origin, has long been cognitive in orientation, rather than and the analytic mode of thinking are continually active and affective. Many studies have attempted to justify the determinant interacting and that affect and emotions are essential to rational role of rationality and cognitive strategies underlying judgment and action (Barrett & Salovey 2002; Epstein 1994; Forgas & George decision making through models of constructed preferences (Medin 2001; Lopes et al 2005; Mayer et al 2004; Salovey & Grewal 2005; et al 1995). Decisions, according to these studies, are considered as Zajonc 1980). reason-based choices, while reasons justify the selection of one option over another (Montgomery 1983; Payne et al 1993; Payne et Table- 0I: Two Modes of Thinking: Comparison of the Experiential and al 2000; Shafir et al 1990; Shafir et al 1989; Simon 1956; 1979; Analytic Systems. 1980; Slovic 1995). However, the apparently underrated role of Aspects Experiential System Analytic System affective component in decision making received due attention in recent time, particularly when the principles of utility maximization 1. Nature : Holistic Analytic have been found to be descriptively inadequate (Shafir et al 1993). Affective based on Logical based on reason 2. Orientation : pleasure-pain (what is sensible) The importance of affective and emotional components in human 3. Relation : Associative connections Logical connections judgment and decision making is increasingly being recognized in Mediated by ‘vibes’ Mediated by conscious decision research (Slovic et al 2007). The significant role of affect in 4. Behavior : from past experiences appraisal of events decision making was initially recognized by Zajonc by arguing that Reality is encoded in the very first reactions are often derived from affective stimuli and Reality is encoded in concrete images, 5. Encryption : abstract symbols, words, subsequently guiding information processing and judgment (Slovic metaphors, and and numbers et al 2007). Our judgments and decisions are shaped by our likings narratives and attractions, as he suggests that we choose what we find Relatively slower and 6. Information More rapid and oriented ‘attractive’ and then we justify our choices by various reasons : oriented toward delayed Processing toward immediate action (Zajonc 1980). Besides, researchers in thinking, knowing, and action information processing have recently acknowledged the role of affect Self-evident and testified in both cognitive systems underlying our inferences and actions by experience i.e. Justification based on 7. Validity : (Zajonc 1980). People, in everyday life, apprehend reality in two ‘believing through logic and evidence fundamentally different ways (see Table- 01). The first way, known experiencing’ as the experiential system, comprises a set of autonomous Source : Modified and Adopted from Slovic et. al. 2004: 313 subsystems that include intuitive, automatic, natural, non-verbal, narrative, and experiential mechanism, while the second cognitive system permits abstract and analytical reasoning as well as rational and hypothetical thinking (Kahneman 1991; Loewenstein 2001; 19 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 20 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties

The Response Motivation Theory: An Integrative Model of Risk avoid negative outcomes are the sources of motivations for Response protective health behavior (Floyd et al 2000a; Godin & Kok 1996; Maddux et al 1995; Montano & Kasprzyk 2008; Weinstein 1993). Origin and Background of RMT However, the relative utility of these theories continues to raise significant issues in understanding health-related behaviors for over The factors that motivate people to initiate protective responses decades. against any potential threats, risks and uncertainties have continued to be a significant theoretical question. Several theories emerged to The Response Motivation Theory (RMT) is developed from the explain how health attitudes are formed and protective behaviors are PMT and articulates similar constructs and a set of conditions to generated or maintained. The significant theoretical development analyze and predict behavioral outcomes under risks and explaining health-protective behaviors includes: (1) Health Belief uncertainties. The RMT and based on expectancy-value theory based Model (HBM); (2) Protection Motivation Theory (PMT); (3) Theory on the belief that a given action would likely to produce a set of of Reasoned Action (TRA); (4) Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB); expected outcomes(Bandura 1982; 1992; 1993; 1997; DeVries et al and (5) Subjective Expected Utility (SEU) theory. The models 1990; Maddux et al 1982; Sallis et al 1992). The RMT is organized commonly assume that people cope with threats either by addressing along two cognitive mediating processes: the appraisal of threat the threat or by addressing their emotional reactions to the threat. process and the appraisal of self-ability process. The two cognitive Additionally, these theories also share a common component of cost- processes, generating protective behavioral intention and protection benefit analysis that people employ to assess the opportunity cost of behavior, are based on several constructs including perceived precautionary action in terms of expected benefits. On the severity, perceived likelihood, fear appeal, estimated response- methodological level, the measuring variables in each of the theories efficacy, estimated self-efficacy and costs-benefit assessment. Most differ, for instance, the HBM and PMT consider the perceived of the RMT constructs are adopted from the PMT,with significant response efficacy of protective response as an important variable, revisions, to expand the scope of its applicability to a diverse array while the other theories do not directly harvest on the individual's of topics beyond health-related issues. Thus, the Response assessment of response efficacy. Although the HBM and PMT have Motivation Theory (EMT) can be applied to understand and predict significant similarities, yet the differences are rooted in their ways of behavior under any risks scenario or threat situation. analysis and abstractions. The HBM employs a set of variables as directly contributing to protective behavior, while the PMT focuses Towards a Theory of Response Motivation on the negotiation between two different cognitive processes initiating health behavior. Only the PMT, among these models, The Response Motivation Theory(RMT) is a behavioral model to includes self-efficacy as a separate and significant component assess the driving forces behind coping responses against the risks of influencing motivational, cognitive, and affective processes in disasters and climate change impacts (Figure- 03). The RMT generating protective health behavior (Bandura 1992; Floyd et al emphasizes on the analysis of the cognitive processes mediating 2000a). Self-efficacy is an essential component in defining attitudinal and behavioral responses to risks for the conceptual behavioral intentions and responses to health threats (Bandura 1977; clarity to the understanding of risks appeals and perceptions in 1982; 1989; 1993; Schwarzer 1992). Comparative meta-analysis of relation to disasters and climate change threats. The idea, however, these theories suggests their similarities, and significant degrees of originated in health belief models for exploring fear appeals overlap, in basic assumptions that perceived threats and desire to (Damasio 1994; Finucane et al 2003), which was subsequently 21 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 22 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties revised to include three cognitive processes: sources of information, cognitive mediating process, and coping modes(Prentice-Dunn & Rogers 1986; Rogers 1975; Rogers & Prentice-Dunn 1997; Witte & Allen 2000). Lately, Boer and Seydel explained the main frame of analysis in terms of severity, vulnerability, response-efficacy, self- efficacy, protection motivation (intention), and protection behavior(Prentice-Dunn & Rogers 1986). The framework has been successfully applied to a series of studies to explain intentions to consume foods as health protection means as well as to predict behavioral responses, especially food choice, related to the perceptions of the health risks associated with cancer and heart disease (Boer & Seydel 1996). factors that could motivate that individual to respond to cyclone risk Risk and coping perception measures, derived from RMT by making his housing structure resilient? Following the RMT, the framework, can be applied to determine the effect of the cognitive cyclone risk of that individual would be decreased by his (a) belief in processes on response or behavioral outcomes of the frontline a high severity of the cyclone risk, (b) belief in a high vulnerability people. The RMT would shed light on the cognitive processes of to the cyclone risk in terms of both physical property and health, (c) generating risk responses to disaster and climate change. The RMT feeling of dread or fear of the damages that cyclone could bring model is founded upon two cognitive processes: risk appraisal and about, (d) belief that high wind resilient housing behaviors are an coping appraisal. Risk appraisal is composed of three interrelated effective way to avoid the risk of cyclone, (e) belief that one can components: (1) perceived severity of the hazards’ exposure successfully avoid the risk of cyclone if he tries, and (g) willingness (severity); (2) perceived probability or likelihood of hazards’ to mobilize the response cost of building or repairing resilient exposure that may occur (vulnerability); and (3) emotional housing. apprehensions of risk (fear appeals). The second cognitive process, self-ability appraisal is underpinned on three interconnected aspects: (1) perceived efficacy of the coping response to reduce risk (response-efficacy); (2) perceived self-ability or individual’s own capacity to carry out the coping response (self-efficacy); and (3) the social and economic costs of the response (response costs).

Threat perceptions need to reach a certain threshold level before people become motivated to consider protective action. Let us consider the example to cyclone risk in the coastal areas of Bangladesh to illustrate the RMT. The likelihood of an individual being impacted by the risk of cyclone can be decreased by building high wind resilient housing structure or by strengthening and repairing the housing structure to be more resilient. What are the 23 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 24 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties

oneself and one’s property and result in a change in the adoption rate of risk reduction behaviors.

Recent empirical studies on protective health behavior have validated the different cognitive components of the RMT and results have shown the relevance of these components in predicting both behavioral intention and action (Chadwick et al 2004; Cox et al 2004; Floyd et al 2000a). Moreover, meta-analyses of empirical studies suggest that variables concerning self-ability appraisal to estimate the capacity to cope or control have greater reliability in predicting behavioral intention and action than those measurements based on appraisal of threat (Beck & Frankel 1981; Ferguson & Gallagher 2007; Houlding & Davidson 2003; Ilgen & Glass 2013; Lee & Larsen 2009; McClendon & Prentice-Dunn 2001; McMath & Prentice-Dunn 2005; Prentice-Dunn et al 2009; Scarpa & Thiene 2011). The RMT, however, do not necessarily imply a higher likelihood of behavioral intention to act associated with a highly perceived threat. Instead, significant mediating interactions take place between the cognitive appraisals of potential threats and self On the contrary, the likelihood of not doing anything about the risk capacity to cope or control before generating any behavioral of cyclone is increased by factors like, intrinsic rewards (e.g. intentions. The RMT predicts that a combination of high perceived enjoying your traditional housing or remembrance of deceased father threat with low estimated self-capacity to cope or control may lead or grandfather who built it), extrinsic rewards (e.g. approval family towards traumatic and maladaptive response(Floyd et al 2000a; Fry members and neighbors), and most importantly, the costs of that & Prentice-Dunn 2005; Milne et al 2000), while in conditions of adaptive response e.g. the costs of building or repairing housing to high perceived threat and high estimated self-capacity to cope or make it wind resilient. Therefore, increased likelihood of an adaptive control would likely to generate problem focused response (see response (resilient housing) depends primarily on the six cognitive Figure- 04). processes i.e. perceptions of severity, vulnerability, feeling of dread, perceptions of self-efficacy, response efficacy and response cost. The Conclusion degree of these cognitive perceptions can enhance the persuasive effects of a risk communication strategy that elicits protection Risk concerns both likelihood and consequences of an upcoming motivation. By eliciting a desire to protect oneself and one’s event. According to Adams,“risk, according to the definitions most property, the risk information can then arouse, sustain, and direct commonly found in the safety literature, is the probability of an activities for self-protection, and maintaining these risk mitigating adverse future event multiplied by its magnitude”(Adams 1995). behaviors over time. Strong beliefs in severity, vulnerability, self People employ different ways of perceiving and assessing risks that efficacy and response efficacy will arouse the motivation to protect they entail in everyday life. They also vary in their estimates and focuses upon probability or consequence(Drottz-Sjöberg 1991).An 25 Peoples’ Preface Risk Perception and Response Motivation 26 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 1-39, October 2017 A Theory of Behavioural Models Under Risks and Uncertainties individual’s own estimates of risk may be very different from that of Bandura A. 1977. Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of the others as well as from apparently ‘objective’ estimates of risk Behavioral Change. Psychological Review 84:191-215 calculated in terms of statistics and probability distributions(Iversen Bandura A. 1982. Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. 2004; Rundmo et al 2011; Sjöberg & Wåhlberg 2002; Ulleberg & American psychologist 37:122-47 Rundmo 2003). Therefore, people may respond to risk and uncertainties in a wide variety of ways because risk is more about Bandura A. 1989. Human agency in social cognitive theory. thought, beliefs and constructions rather than about reality. Against American psychologist 44:1175-84 this backdrop, the RMT is developed to understand the likelihood of Bandura A. 1992. Exercise of personal agency through the self- adopting any preventive measures, early detection and prediction of efficacy mechanism. In Self-efficacy: Thought control of action, ed. responses to risks, as well as the extent of willingness to pay for R Schwarzer, pp. 3-38. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing performing any recommended behavior. Corp

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41 Peoples’ Preface Terminating Diversity, Germinating ‘Otherness’: 42 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 41-54, October 2017 The Case of Food and Food Habit

TERMINATING DIVERSITY, GERMINATING Introduction: From Nature to Culture ‘OTHERNESS’: THE CASE OF FOOD AND In the mysterious nature of the ‘nature’ not all the species share the FOOD HABIT same food. What is food for one species may not be entertained by the other. This acceptance and avoidance generally depends on the RaasheedMahmood1 food chain of specific species. For example, the food habit of cat and Salma Ahmed2 mouse is not the same. Rather it is the mouse which is a favorite Man ist was man isst food on cat’s food menu. While evaluating the scenario through (You are what you eat) scientific lens this predatory relationship forms part of the natural -A German aphorism balance. In the same vain human species is also a part of the above mentioned natural food chain. But the fact is that we possess a Abstract reasoning capacity that differentiates us from other animals of the nature. And this natural capability in turn enables us to transcend the The present paper attempts to explain food and food habit as a domain of nature and to enter in the arena of culture. Thus for the socio-cultural practice that constitute our identity. But we often human being, evaluation of food and food habit does not solely stand forget the fact that this self-making practice may be used as a means for as a natural activity. With the utilization of reason most of the to produce the abominable ‘others’ whose foods and food habits are foods and food habits are seen to be evaluated by the popular notion treated as inconsistency in the making of one’s own identity. As a i.e. culture. That is why we come across the distinctions between result, we see the deployment of food related socio-cultural practices wholesome/unwholesome food, edible/inedible food, as weapons to build the hegemony of dominant identities while eatable/uneatable, religious/non-religious food, seasonal and/or marginalizing and/or terminating the same practices of the ‘others’. periodical food and many such constructions. This constructions Keeping this conviction in mind, the present paper investigates the even goes further like- the beef eaters are Muslims, Christians can be political processes, both at local and global levels, crafted to be used identified with their craze for pork, mouse is eaten by the indigenous for producing ‘otherness’ in order to affirm one’s cultural people3, widow in Hindu religion should follow a long list of food superiority. In doing so, the ‘universalization’ claim, made in the prohibition while widower is not supposed to follow any such name of globalization of foods and food habits, has been critically bindings. Our food menu, therefore, is heavily influenced by a discussed prior to examining the political-economic agendas of number of factors-patriarchy, religion, territory, economics and powerful countries and companies that have been trying to outline a politics. This is how we develop the ideology of ‘otherness’. By homogenous interpretive grid about foods and food habits.

Key Words: Food, Food Habit, Otherness, Globalization, Universalization 3This particular notion has been observed by Shafie and Mahmood (2003:172) among the dominant Bengalis of north-west Bangladesh where a large number of indigenous people also live. These indigenous people, 1 during the hard days of Ashwin and Kartik(months of Bengali calendar that Associate Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, University of Dhaka corresponds to the period between middle of September and middle of 2Lecturer, Department of Journalism and Media Studies, Jahangirnagar November) sometimes eat mouse, snails and oysters which is scorned by University the Bengali as dirty and uncivilized. 43 Peoples’ Preface Terminating Diversity, Germinating ‘Otherness’: 44 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 41-54, October 2017 The Case of Food and Food Habit resisting certain culture specific foods we consume the ‘otherness’ predatory and unequal import rules and regulations. Thus when an and by adopting that we welcome others’ consumption. ‘other’ people enters into the McDonald for a different taste she/he may possesses a wish to expand her/his socio-cultural horizon People of the world follow a diverse food preference, rules, culinary without knowing the fact that how their ‘otherness’ has been tamed. practices, ingredients, and many socio-cultural determinants are It means that otherness, aggression, repression, imperialism and attached with food and food habit. A number of factors can be seen many other forces are also working through the politics of food and as instrumental behind these diversities. Geographical, social, food habit. The case of ‘terminator seed4’ can be cited here that has political, historical, ecological-all these factors together have been invented in US research laboratories to eliminate local or constituted human ‘food habit’. While people are found appreciating ‘other’! varieties produced by developing or ‘muted5’ countries. each others’ food habit they also show much repugnance towards Being critical to this politics Vandana Shiva, Director of the that of others’ and hence evoke the notion of ‘otherness’. Here lies a Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology- India dialectic between difference and otherness i.e. desire for categorizing diligently unveils the politics of ‘patent right’ set forth by the US others’ food on the one hand and an inclination to avoid it-which is dominated or manipulated WTO. To quote her: clearly related to the domain of food and food habit. This dialectic stands for one of the prime factors to give birth to cultures around Delta and Pine Land (now owned by Monsanto) and the the world since culture emerges out of differences and interactions. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) have Thus food culture can be said to be interwoven with the greatest established new partnership through a jointly held patent achievement of human being that we call ‘civilization’. Within this to seed which has been genetically engineered to ensure civilizational journey we come across international division of food that it does not germinate on harvest thus forcing culture- Chinese food, Indian food, Bangladeshi food, Australian farmers to buy seed at each planting season. food along with intra-national division like MoglaiKhana (Mughal Termination of germination is a means for capital dish), South Indian Dish, DhakaiBiriani (rice fried with meat) etc. accumulation and market expansion. However, Not only personal likings and dislikings are responsible for the abundance in nature and for farmers shrinks as markets culmination of these wide varieties of foods, there also exists a grow for Monsanto. When we sow seed, we pray, "May notion of ‘otherness’ that simultaneously determines the construction this seed be exhaustless". Monsanto and the USDA on of the ‘self’. the other hand are stating, "Let this seed be terminated so that our profits and monopoly is exhaustless" (Shiva Food and ‘Otherning’: Politics of Local-global Nexus 1998).

In this globalizing world, with the perplexed paradoxes between universalization and peripheralization, people are observed to hang 4‘Terminator seeds’ are produced with the help of the GURTs (Genetic Use around a dilemma. At the one hand they are not willing to fall behind Restriction Technologies). These genetically modified seeds are sterile in the opportunities of global world and at the other hand they show nature i.e. plants grown from these seeds don’t have the capacity to produce strong accentuation not to relinquish their local cultures. This seeds for the next harvest. Therefore, during every agricultural season dilemma has been heightened when we see the dualistic nature of the farmers are bound to buy the seeds from the market.

USA, the champion of pro-globalization, having a leap service for 5 globally suitable corporate commerce but underneath absorbs a We have borrowed the idea of ‘Muted Group’ originally developed by Edwin Ardener (1975) and used the concept here. 45 Peoples’ Preface Terminating Diversity, Germinating ‘Otherness’: 46 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 41-54, October 2017 The Case of Food and Food Habit

She doesn’t stop her critical inquiry here. More investigation reveals men on the ship Pequod were supposed to be hunting as the fact that US Corporation, The Rice Tec, has claimed the Basmati many sperm whales as possible, in order to harvest oil— rice, a century old crop culture practiced by the Indian farmers, as but the whales, and therefore the oil, were being their own invention of a novel rice line. She also informs us that depleted at a rate far faster than their natural ‘Neem’, which the mothers and grandmothers of Indian sub- replenishment. And just when the commercial rationale continent have used for centuries as a pesticide and fungicide, has for hunting the whales became untenable, along comes been patented by W.R. Grace, another U.S. Corporation. Shiva calls Ahab the damaged genius on his hunt for Moby-Dick, this phenomenon as ‘biopiracy’ which is devised by western this time for revenge, not oil. Ring a bell? corporations for stealing the centuries old collective knowledge and inventions carried out by the third world people. Even she couldn’t Monsanto is pursuing a rational policy of the satisfy herself with the word ‘biopiracy’ perhaps for the fact that this maximization of profit. Like all bureaucracies, its sort of jargon may bring conspicuous theoretical sophistication but internal organization works by conducting ethical does not fit the concrete realities of the world. Thus she reproaches responsibility away from individual actors. You can sell these corporations, backed by the world’s mightiest power, as your own mother to perdition, provided your uniform thieves and goes on to say that this thievery, which is functioning in (with a pay-stub in the pocket) shows that the person the name of a new mode of partnership between agribusiness and responsible is not really you: it’s the corporate person. third world, cannot lay the ground for partnership since the unequal Left to work its designs, Monsanto will extend and nature working underneath does not justify the very connotation of maintain its control over the world’s food supply—just the word ‘partnership’. Quoting the US/India TRIPs dispute she at the moment when grain stocks and yields are falling condemns the WTO/TRIPs agreement for safeguarding the thieves farther short of demand, and Peak Oil and Gas begin to and victimizing the original innovators (Shiva 1998). close in on the kitchen table. Large scale famine would be difficult to avoid. How can they permit themselves Dr. Jamey Hecht finds a metaphorical resemblance between this behavior? By narrowing their focus on the wrong Monsanto and Herman Melville’s famous novel Moby-Dick’s object (profit), and keeping it there, no matter what. central character Captain Ahab. It would be an injustice to the (Hecht 2006). readers if we paraphrase his words since the way Dr. Hecht criticises Monsanto with his satirical words demands to be cited in original This is how the US lobby has produced a policy intended to destroy form. He states: the local farmers by increasing their dependency on foreign seeds so that they remain ever submissive. On the other hand to foreclose Monsanto has something important in common with these realities from the scenario they deploy thousands of NGOs who both Captain Ahab (from Herman Melville’s 1851 make pretentious claims to include the local varieties in globalized novel, Moby-Dick) and the Nazi regime. Each represents agendas out of the fear that in the long run the impoverished local a strange combination of rationality and madness. As farmers can turn out to be a permanent burden which does not fit the I’ve written elsewhere, Melville’s captain has an utterly present form of neo-colonialism. Thus here we find a process of irrational obsession with the White Whale, but his ‘otherness’ through the recognition of ‘difference’. But that doesn’t suicidal pursuit of that creature draws upon years of mean that the ‘others’ don’t have the agency to understand this trick. technical expertise and deliberate planning. He and his There are many occasions when such tricks had been revealed and 47 Peoples’ Preface Terminating Diversity, Germinating ‘Otherness’: 48 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 41-54, October 2017 The Case of Food and Food Habit the ‘others’ showed their resistance to such processes in various determines who will ‘enjoy’ her/his breakfast with cornflakes, butter, forms (Sardar 1988). toasted bread, jam, and banana and who will ‘do’ the same with ‘pantabhat’ (rice old by more than one night, kept steeped in water Food and ‘othering’: Socialization and the Political Economy of so that it can be eaten later) with raw onion and chili, rather the Table Manner economic and class dichotomy along with that of rural-urban plays a significant role. This class distinction has fundamentally been Perhaps the practice of ‘otherness’ through food is rooted in the very heightened with the introduction of imposed modernism by the nature of human being. It starts right from our family orientations. colonial invaders. Thus we see that apple is more valued than native We learn how to maintain ‘otherness’ or ‘degree of otherness’ with guava though nutritionists claim the higher food value of guava7. In the distinction between food and drinks. We learn to offer only the same vain while corn was relegated as ‘chotoloker8’/poor, drinks, very often tea, to the strangers, less acquainted people or illiterate, sordid people’s food, now a day cornflakes has entered in a distant relatives. According to the degree of acceptability sometimes new form in the elite breakfast menu (Hussain 2003). In both the biscuits can be offered. On the other hand, the close relatives and cases the value of the items are not judged according to scientific friends are invited followed by feast and more importantly informal notion rather their relative prices determine the whole process as an chatting. So ‘otherness’ speaks or is spoken in various forms. For the outcome of cultural construction. Recently catering industry has respectable, we have sumptuous dishes while for the ‘others’ we added more values to this existing dichotomy. It has produced some pretend to prove the hardship that the household is going through. class oriented menu-bindings which is the outcome of urban Douglas, though in a western context, deciphers a similar fashion processes of cross-regional intermixing and hybridization. Thus where she finds that with the degree of intimacy and distance our catering industries have been offering such menus that entertain the table manner differs followed by the boundary explicating meanings economic inequalities among the classes specially keeping the urban of drinks and meal (Douglas 1999:236). class distinctions in mind9. Thus the urban Bengali marriage culture

With the intervention of various socializing agencies we not only learn to differentiate our ‘self’ through culture specific foods, spices from 18 times in 1990 to 84 times in 2004. The rich-poor gap in the country and/or the combination of both, also this is how we learn to identify keeps widening as growth benefits have been unequally distributed (Haque the ‘other’. Thus the internalization of food habit is developed from 2006). our very childhood at home. 7 To see the whole list of fresh fruit comparison developed by the Centre for Science in the Public Interest visit their ‘Nutrition action health letter’, May, Apart from these criteria the political-economy of a society also 1988. Web link: http://www.cspinet.org/nah/fantfruit.htm plays significant role in developing different food habits along with the exercise of creating the ‘others’. In a third world country like 8We have developed the term ‘chotolok’ as opposite of the term Bangladesh, where stark contrast between the minority rich and the ‘bhadralok’. The term ‘bhadralok’ was used by J.H. Broomfield (1968:5- majority poor is evident6, it is not only the socialization process that 14) to identity the western educated intelligentsia which emerged in colonial Bengal during the nineteenth century.

6 The speakers in a pre-budget consultation meeting held on April 29, 2006 9 Even though predominantly urban centered yet, the catering industry has at National Press Club, Dhaka, Bangladesh said that the income disparity started to make its way in rural areas of Bangladesh, especially in the between the poor and the richest five percent of the country has increased district towns. 49 Peoples’ Preface Terminating Diversity, Germinating ‘Otherness’: 50 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 41-54, October 2017 The Case of Food and Food Habit can be shown as a combination of catering plus conspicuous Media should not be thought as running behind in heightening this ceremonies and expenses plus display of jewelry plus beauty parlour polarization. Look at the catering shows broadcast in Bangladesh. plus conspicuous feast on the day of the marriage ceremony = The rural is almost absent there. Every recipe requires nut, butter, demonstration of one’s economic prowess. capsicum, even if it comes to the preparation of Taro (KochurMukhi). Along with these we find the urban and rural Doesn’t it mean that the apparent uniformalization is the outcome of version of brewing. While wine, rum and scotch connote the urban unequal power relations where some posses the authority and some life style, the rural has been attached with poorly brewed remain deprived? Calhoun thus poses his suspicion while haria/mohua/tari (deshi mod/rural wine). The former is valued as encountering Ulrich Beck who asks that ‘to belong or not to belong, ‘boddhorloker’/gentlemen’s drink and the latter as that is the cosmopolitan question’ (Beck 2003 cited in Calhoun 2004: ‘chotoloker’/sordid like drink. The whole process thus invokes not 244). For Calhoun what is most crucial in this sort of claims about only the notion of cultural ‘otherness’ but of economic ‘otherness’ as cosmopolitanism is that some people possess the power, endowment well. It indicates that acceptance or resistance towards any particular and access to ask the question where the rest are left alone food is not solely dependent upon the nutritional value. Food menu disempowered, muted and colonized who are only expected to could never escape the nature of class consciousness. Food as an assimilate with the dominant values (Calhoun 2004:244). essential natural component for the survival of our existence eventually has given rise to a wide range of food prejudices, politics Calhoun’s critical understanding helps us to derive at the conviction of dependence and aid followed by the neo-colonial mode of slavery. that the end of the age of the ‘politics of difference’ is ensuing and what is replacing it can be termed as ‘politics of sameness’. Various scientific views concerned with food habits also widely ParthaChaterjee thus questions the idea of ‘hybridization’ and says participated in producing the ‘other’. For instance nutritional science that ‘in spite of making a plea for acknowledging variableness and or recipe books help us to identify the scale of acceptance and its contingency, it manages to impose, paradoxically, a quality of associated rules. With these assisted guidance we try to overcome sameness upon all products of dissemination. How are we to the dilemma between difference and otherness since the gap between distinguish between hybrid and hybrid? How do we pin down the the psychology of otherness and the choice of difference, scale of location of the local? (Chaterjee1995:20).Chaterjee’s point reminds acceptance and avoidance is very subtle in nature. It is like the us of the fact that there remains much to discuss yet about the constituency of satisfaction and disgust; closely related with their inequalities operative behind the difference between western and juxtaposition in either side of the oppositional paradigm. Taste, eastern notion of cosmopolitanism, transnationalism, globalization, therefore, satisfies us while distaste disappoints. But in our day-to- democracy, citizenship, secularism, religion and society as a whole. day life we transform these natural differences into ‘otherness’. That Calhoun’s critical stance toward this situation holds the conviction: is how the less vigorous or impotent one is ridiculed as ‘vegetable’. ‘The liberal state is not neutral. Cosmopolitan civil society is not It indicates our construction of ‘otherness’ where the ‘natural’ neutral. Even the English language is not neutral. This doesn’t mean vegetables are viewed at the bottom of the food hierarchy and that any of the three is bad, only that they are not equally accessible consequentially the vegetarians are constructed as the ‘other’. to everyone and do not equally express the interests of everyone’ (Calhoun 2004:237). The conventional hierarchy of food status and potency figured out by Twigg (1983) can be pertinent here:

51 Peoples’ Preface Terminating Diversity, Germinating ‘Otherness’: 52 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 41-54, October 2017 The Case of Food and Food Habit

T Too Strong Human beings proscription hundreds of years behind which have been handed down A Carnivorous to the present time as oral tradition with, in most cases, numerous B Uncastrated animals distortions. That is why the urban consumers, while encountering the O rural eaters’ avoidance of leafy vegetable during the rainy season or O specific species of aquatic resources in particular season, tend to stigmatize them as superstitious. But recent researches have unfold DOMINANT CULTURE’S BOUNDARY the scientific basis of these popular beliefs where it is clearly stated that in the rainy season these leafy vegetables are used as the M Strong breeding places of various insects and thus eating them at this time is Blood red meat harmful both-ways i.e., for the insect’s regeneration and for human E powerful being since the vegetables are containing numerous insects (Jeffries A non-blood poultry 2005). Similar findings go for the aquatic resources as well. less-powerful T fish The making of the ‘other’ with the notion of diet has vividly been exemplified by Roland Barthes. According to him like any language, VEGETARIAN BOUNDARY diet has rules of exclusion, signifying opposites (Barthes [1961] 1979 cited in Mennell 1985:11). For Barthes ‘an item of food ANI Less strong eggs constitutes an item of information. All foods are seen as signs in a MAL Cheese system of communication’ (Barthes 1979 cited in Beardsworth and Keil1997:63). Following this line of understanding we can PROD demonstrate various kinds of territoriality and nationality provoking UCTS totemic drinks e.g. wine in France, milk in Denmark, tea in Britain, haria/tari in the culture of the indigenous people, scheduled caste VEGAN BOUNDARY and low income rural people of India and Bangladesh, Lassi (a kind of milk-shake) in Punjab and many so on. FRU Too weak fruit IT & leaf vegetables Conclusion: From Tolerance to Acceptance root vegetables VEGETA cereals With all these instances we can come to the conclusion that longings BLES for health and illness, concerns for natural balance and territorial Figure: Hierarchy of foods (Twigg 1983:21) distribution do not remain the only locus of the specificities of our food habits. More profound determinants are seen functioning- In the same vein we observe the bias of so called rational sciences in territoriality, religion, social orientation and class consciousness. their construction of ‘modern’/western/progressive science and While the former factors are undoubtedly natural in their ethno/traditional/non-western/backward science. This backwardness manifestation but the latter are against the nature and thus, as have of ‘ethnoscience’ can be made possible since we have left the been discussed, in most cases discriminatory. This discriminatory original meaning of most of the culture specific prescriptions and aspect is the birth place of ‘otherization’. So if we admit the fact that 53 Peoples’ Preface Terminating Diversity, Germinating ‘Otherness’: 54 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 41-54, October 2017 The Case of Food and Food Habit next to the most important achievement of homo sapiens - angle of http://southasia.oneworld.net/article/view/132404/1/Viewed on: 07 July, straightness and understanding - cultural food habit stands as the 2017. second most fundamental criteria that separates us from other Hecht, Jamey 2006. Biodiversity, GMO, and the future.inThe Wilderness animals, we will come to realize that stereotypes, stigmatizations, Publications. disgusts centred around ‘others’ stem from this anti-natural, unequal Web link: http://www.fromthewilderness.com/ free/ww3/ 042006_ or so called cultural construction of food habits. For instance, the biodiversity_gmo.shtml viewed on: 05 July, 2017. two meanings of eating or avoiding pork i.e. the natural basis of its food value on the one hand and its’ communal/religious evaluation at Hussain, Umar 2003. Bores and the bored: Random reflections. In Holiday the other do not connote the same. Because in the latter case, (Internet edition), January, 24.http://www.weekly holiday.net/240103/ communal or religious prejudices are employed as the scale of com.htmlViewed on: 10 July, 2017. evaluation. Such line of reasoning conveys the massage that Jeffries, Dane 2005.In rainy season it is not advised to take leafy vegetables transcending the notion of ‘otherness’ does not depend on the urge why? for repugnance or tolerance. We must extend our liberal attitude http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2005-06/1119568616.Gb.r.html towards a notion of ‘acceptance’ where giving priority to the ‘other’ Viewed on: 03 July, 2017. will stand for the most significant human quality. Mennel, Stephen 1985. All manners of food: Eating and taste in England and France from the middle ages to the present. New York: Basil Blackwell References: Ltd.

Ardener, E. (1975). Belief and the problem of women and The 'problem' Sardar, Ziauddin 1998. Postmodernism and the other: The new imperialism revisited. In S. Ardener (Ed.), Perceiving women, Pp. 1 - 27. London: of western culture. London: Pluto Press. Malaby. Shafie, Hasan A. and Mahmood, Raasheed 2003. The plight of an ethnic Beardsworth, Alan &Keil, Teresa 1997.Sociology on the menu: An minority: The Munda of northwest Bangladesh. Asian Anthropology, Vol. invitation to the study of food and society. London: Routledge. 2, Pp. 161-178. Broomfield, J.H. 1968. Elite conflict in a plural society: Twentieth-century Shiva, Vandana 1998. Monocultures, monopolies, myths and the Bengal. Berkeley: University of California Press. masculinisation of agriculture. Paper presented at The Workshop on "Women's Knowledge, Biotechnology and International Trade "Fostering a Chaterjee, Partha 1995. The disciplines in colonial Bengal.in Partha New Dialogue into the Millennium" during the international conference on Chaterjee (ed.) Texts of power: Emerging disciplines in colonial Bengal. "Women in Agriculture" Washington D.C., June 28 - 2 July 1998 Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Web link: http://members.iinet.com.au/~rabbit/vandana.htm Viewed on: 02 Calhoun, Craig 2004. Is it time to be postnational? in Stephen May, Tariq July, 2017. Modood, and Judith Squires (eds.) Ethnicity, nationalism, and minority rights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Twigg, Julia 1983. Vegetarianism and the meanings of meat.in Anne Murcott (ed.) The sociology of food and eating. UK: Gower Publishing Douglas, Mary 1999. Deciphering a meal. In Mary Douglas Implicit Company Limited. meanings: Selected essays in anthropology. London: Routledge.

Haque, ANM Nurul 2006. Bangladesh: The widening rich-poor gap. in One world South Asia. 08 May, 2006.

55 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 56 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

GENDER RELATIONS IN WATER CRISIS: Setting the Scene PERSPECTIVES FROM SOUTHWEST My research field was a little village named Kanthalbaria. BANGLADESH Administratively, it is a little village of Kashimari Union, Touhid Imam1 Shyamnagar Upazila of Satkhira District. I stayed there for around 2 months in early 2010 for research and closely observed the village Abstract and the people living there. In addition to understanding the salinity crisis, I tried to internalize their lives and livelihoods, their happiness This paper is a portrayal & analysis of the situation and context of and sorrow, the crisis they face, the struggle they reach at each and the women’s condition and gender relations in a small village of every day to collect potable water, the gender relation etc., in southwest Bangladesh. This area is suffering from salinity intrusion context of water scarcity. I stayed in village, shared my meal with and fresh water scarcity- induced by different natural and the village inhabitants, went miles away with them to see the fresh anthropogenic causes. This study reveals that women are water resource, carried water container for my personal water need. I disproportionately affected by the water crisis, as they are often tried to conduct informal interviews with female members of that responsible for collecting water. This takes time away from work, village with permission of their elders. Sometimes I took the help school and caring for family. Lack of water and sanitation lock from the educated personnels of that village, also from the female women in a cycle of poverty. healthcare staff who helped me a lot to collect and synthesize necessary data. My continuous explanation of doing such academic Keywords: Fender Relations, Woman & Water, Salinity, research helped me a lot to reduce the suspicion, confusion and Vulnerability, Access to Water, Inequality, Resistance. negligence.

As a researcher, I have considered tools and techniques for this study Among 238 households of the Kanthalbaria village, I have selected from anthropology, which needs justification. An anthropologist, 45 households in random basis, where 25 was Muslim household and being a social scientist as well, is an artist, who portrays life by 20 was Hindu household. The total population covered in my sample seeing what everybody has seen, but thinking what nobody else has selection was 180 (Male 95, Female 85) with religious, occupational, thought. Anthropology is remarkably defined by its approach than age, and sexual varieties. its subject matter, and anthropological approach is being regularly applied to study real-world issues: from aborigines to artificial This paper will pursue the status of women and gender relation in the intelligence, and from genetics to gender relation in salinity crisis. context of water scarcity. Simply put, “Water”, to be meant as “fresh water” here, is of immense value in the village Kanthalbaria. Collecting potable water is much harder than to collect some food. Water gradually has achieved a prime value and has linked with health and hygiene, human relations and social network, wellbeing of local people, with power and politics as well - in the sense of access to water, control and management of the sources, 1 Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of People's Republic accumulating capital and surplus etc. of Bangladesh (Former Faculty of Department of Anthropology, University of Dhaka) 57 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 58 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

However, in this village, water permeates in households through the The Value of Water: Services We Receive hands of females exclusively, because man do not carry or fetch potable water as they regard it as kind of “feminine” job. It is the Human being and the society are intimately interlinked with their women who carry this essential liquid from distance for their family- ecosystem. Water or fresh water is the very important part of the no matter what happens or how they are. Water scarcity again, has ecosystem. According to the Millennium Assessment Report 2003 created the opportunity to form a certain ‘space’ for the women of and 2005, fresh water and the hydrological cycle also sustain inland Kanthalbaria, which in turn forming female companionship and water ecosystems, including rivers, lakes, and wetlands. These their resistance- in face of male domination and power exercise ecosystems provide cultural, regulating, and supporting services that (Abu-Lughod, Lila. 1990), or for managing cooperation and contribute directly and indirectly to human well-being through information exchange exclusively among the group of women. Thus, recreation, scenic values, and maintenance of fisheries. Freshwater vital to humanity, water could be linked as a strong social content. also plays a role in sustaining freshwater-dependent ecosystems such as mangroves, inter-tidal zones, and estuaries, which provide set of The Gender Roles by Tradition services to local communities.

In Western and some non-Western societies, traditionally gender Box. Ecosystem Services Provided by Fresh Water and the Hydrologic Cycle roles are strictly divided into feminine and masculine category and Provisioning Cultural Supporting are assigned to males and females at latest at the moment of birth. Regulatory services services services services Powerful cultural mechanisms operate to ensure that “boys will be boys and girls will be girls.” The process of training girls to be  Water  Maintenance  Recreation  Role in feminine and boys to be masculine is largely unconscious but (quantity of water (water nutrient culturally determined. Social values we have created that boys are and quality; related cycling supposed to grow up to be powerful, to hide their weaknesses, to be quality)  Buffering of sports, (role in independent, demanding, and aggressive, raw. Occupations thought for non- flood flows, fishing etc.); maintenan appropriate for men are therefore mainly in politics, economics, and consumpti erosion control  Tourism; ce of sports. Girls are encouraged to be good mothers and expected to ve use (for through water/  Existence floodplain become what is needed to fulfill this role, such as being giving, drinking, land Values fertility), emotional, and intuitive. They are expected to sacrifice their domestic interactions (personal primary ambitions and personal needs in order to please and care for others. use, and flood satisfaction production If they do not adhere to these gender roles—if they are, for example, agriculture control ; ambitious, demanding, and tough or rough—they are considered from free- and “unfeminine”. Although these roles have diversified, but “gender infrastructures; flowing  Predator/ industrial roles limit what men and women can feel, think, and do” (Birx, H. rivers); pray James ed. 2006. pg- 1031). use); relationshi  Water for ps and non- ecosystem consumpti resilience ve use (for 59 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 60 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

generating The salinity issue brought changes in the irrigation system and power and traditional production relation and process. Besides combating with transport/ fresh water scarcities, the people living in this area are now shifting navigation towards shrimp, prawn and crab aquaculture as alternative means of ); adaptation to survive.  Aquatic organisms The World of Women in the Village: for food In countries having traditional societies like Bangladesh, women are and in secondary position which actually germinates from the very single medicines; unit- family. Women receive inferior status in public and private domain; in social, political or in economic aspect. The world of Compiled from Millennium Assessment report 2003 & 2005. women in Kanthalbaria is not different from this traditional imposed values of inferiority, which are represented by some instances The Salinity Situation: provided below- for better understanding of the situation prevailing there. The southwest coastal region of Bangladesh covers a range of ecological and socio-economic set up with complex web of human The World of Women in Kanthalbaria interaction. Here, water salinity and scarcity for freshwater is one side of the menace, but this area of the country are being exposed to Issues Real world scene Hydro-meteorological calamities and devastated by recurrent assault Mobility Khadiza (39) is worried about her daughter’s security, as she of cyclone, storm surge and tidal waves. The rate of salinity in and is growing up. She often faces teasing and harassment when ground water, surface water and soil, generate huge difficulties in the Security she walks around in the evening. crop production process, for the local people to survive. They are Asma (28): “We have to go a long distance to see the cyclone besieged to manage drinkable water, work and food. Besides, Norms of flag. I have to wear a borka (long veil) each times to go and veil see the flag, as other male members of the family leave in the Climate change significantly has got a salty taste along the coastal early morning for work and return in the evening.” regions of this southern part. At present about 6.0 million people are Access to Halima Khatun (42) works as a birth attendant. As she said, already exposed to high salinity (5 ppt), while due to climate change, health there is no good medical facility around. Only few families it is expected increase to 13.6 million by the year 2050 and 14.8 service can bring the patient to the town for better treatment. million by the year 2080 (Mohal and hossain, 2007). The intensity of Saleha (31) works as a day labor. The contractor prefers to salinity in land is increasing per year. A recent study of BARC Working employ female workers as they work sincerely but have no (2008) shows that Lands are more affected than it was before. It is condition objection for the less payment. They can be hired and fired at anticipated that, due to reduced dry season flows under climate any time. change, surface water salinity will be on the rise along the coastal Hanufa (18) gave birth of her first child when she was only 15. After the birth of the second child at 17, she became sick rivers and the salinity front is likely to ingress further- which would Early continuously. Doctor said that lack of vitamins, some other create certain impacts in lives and livelihoods of the local people. marriage complications and possibly early marriage might be the reason for her sickness. 61 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 62 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

The World of Women in Kanthalbaria  How to purify drinking water using simple techniques such as filtration or materials available from their Issues Real world scene immediate environment surroundings. The gher owners only hire male laborer. According to popular Social belief, females are unwanted in the gher, as it is a public Water is actually acquired from diverse sources, including tubewells, attitude domain. They should be remain at home, under appropriate wells, ponds, canals, ditches, and rivers- which is not pure always. veil. Women use water from different sources depending on availability, Sazida khatun (50): “I had to pay the demand of taka 20,000 proximity and purpose of use. The water supply system in of the grooms of my two daughters. Still they are demanding Kanthalbaria is not a fixed system, but proximity often dictates the for more money, but I am unable to pay. My eldest daughter source and use of the water, particularly for poorer and female- is a divorcee. She has a son of 7-8 years. Second daughter’s Dowry headed households. Several trips must be made each day to the husband is demanding 15,000 taka more. It is not possible for nearest tubewell, Pond-Sand–Filters (PSF) or nearest surface water me to pay this amount. He is not taking back my daughter. body- to meet their water needs. The distance to be covered can She is pregnant for 3-4 months. I do not know what will range from a few yards to over 100 yards or more. It has been happen….” All cases are collected from fieldwork 2010 data observed that women and girls walk over several hours to fetch water each day (e.g. up to 2-5 hours each day) (fieldwork 2010). Women and Water: the Relation Inseparable Therefore, women have to curtail extra hours from their household works, or resting times, or playtime to combat with salinity problem. In the village under study, water permeates into the community Young girls are often responsible for fetching water in several times through the hands of women, who are the collector and managers of of a day, even missing the school. They collect drinking water from water for domestic purposes (drinking, washing, cleaning, bathing, Shyamnagar, Nakipur, and also from Kanthalbaria PSF. and cooking) as well as for some subsistence production in homestead gardening or raising of poultry and goats. Water is The Vulnerability Context in Kanthalbaria Village managed by female members of the household for many purposes, like- ensuring potable water, household-sanitation and waste Vulnerability is the susceptibility of a community, services or disposal, washing, child care, vegetable growing and food processing infrastructure to damage or harm by a realized hazard or threat etc. So, carrying and fetching water for the household needs is (Mohal & Hossain 2007). For poor people in Kanthalbaria, considered one of the primary responsibilities of the females of the vulnerability is both a condition and a determinant of poverty, and household in the village irrespective of their physical condition. refers to the inability of people to avoid, withstand or recover from However, women not only collect it but often decide: the harmful impacts of factors that disrupt their lives and that are  Where to collect, carry and store it, and not let it to be beyond their immediate control. The vulnerabilities interact with contaminated. each other, and with most households, and especially the poor are facing multiple vulnerabilities. The range of vulnerabilities  How many water sources can be used depending on their according to local people’s perception identified as follows: quality for various purposes for drinking, washing and in the kitchen  Freshwater scarcities: surface and sub-surface salinization including saline intrusion into the freshwater aquifers; 63 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 64 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

 The threat of cyclones and storm surges that causes deaths Women as Special Vulnerable Group and destruction;  Changing patterns of land use (including the growth of According to IPCC, “... climate change impacts will be differently distributed among different regions, generations, age classes, shrimp production) that are affecting the area’s morphology income group, occupations and genders” (IPCC, 2001). The IPCC and water resources characteristic; also noted: “... the impacts of climate change will fall  Resource degradation and asymmetrical access to the disproportionately upon developing countries and the poor persons resources; within all countries, and thereby exacerbate inequities in health  Deterioration and the declining viability of many distinctive status and access to adequate food, clean water, and other and threatened ecosystems; resources. People living in poverty are more vulnerable to  Widespread poverty, limited livelihoods opportunities environmental changes.” (IPCC 2001). (especially outside agriculture) and poor levels of service Our Coastal Zone Policy (2005) clearly mentions that women suffer provision. a lot to collect water due to poor availability of ‘safe water’. This is  Unequal social structures, with small powerful privileged also regarded as a barrier for the development of women. group dominating the mass of people; allied to conflicts, and Apparently, in a village society of Bangladesh where gender biased poor law and order. activities compel women to shoulder most of the household activities, salinity in drinking water causes enormous hardship to Gendered Perception of Vulnerabilities them. Traditionally women shoulder the responsibility to fetch non- saline drinking water, even if the source is located far away from her While investigating the vulnerabilities perception among the men household. Rarely do men help in fetching water. and women of Kanthalbaria, the fresh water scarcity tops the list for women while men mentioned employment as the most important The onus one woman has to take under specific circumstances can be fluctuation in their lives. Women also mentioned employment, but it quite dramatic. For example, a pregnant woman at advanced stage comes on the second place, while men mentioned water availability has to continue the duty unless other women in the community second. Women informants have identified a number of vulnerability relieve her by sharing her responsibility. Kinship plays a major role contexts in relation to water and/ or, climate variability and change, here. However, the additional responsibilities of caregiving place the which include the following: (a) increased salinity and fresh water additional burdens on women impacting their ability to work outside scarcity, (b) untimely and inadequate occurrence of rainfall, (d) the home and to deal with the effects generated by environmental increased heat /temperature, (f) delayed occurrence of winter, and changes caused by global warming, climate change and hydrological changes in the seasonality. The major shock mentioned by both men changes. The impact of poor water supply and sanitation services has and women is cyclones and severe storms. Women and men severe negative impact on poor women’s physical security, mentioned the trend towards the use of land for shrimp culture as opportunities for education, overall productivity, income-generating well as the decline in natural fish resources. Women also notice a capacity, nutritional status, time, and overall health and well-being. decline in the availability of natural fuel resources. The accumulation of these negative impacts starts in girlhood. Girls generally help their mothers to collect water, and in some parts of the area, this task becomes a girl’s responsibility when she is nine or ten. 65 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 66 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

Collecting water is physically taxing as well as time-consuming, and revealed that women and adolescent girls are affected by when water is scarce or far from home, girls need to spend more time gynecological problems by using saline water during menstrual on this task, reducing their time in school. Another anecdotal story times. The female members of the community have bitter suggested that a woman left one of her toddler at home and took the experiences about menstrual hygiene management. They said that other on her lap to fetch non-saline water from a few kilometers saline water creates painful situation during menstruation. They use adrift. On her return to her household, she found the child dead due clothes, which become harder after washing in saline water. It to snake bite. Hence woman, in their daily struggle to collect potable creates discomforts, scratches and pains when used next times. More water, faces difficult circumstances, even sexual harassment and use of the same hard clothes (due to saline effects) creates injury in assault. genital area, and sometimes it causes bleeding. As informed by the doctor of health center, a common phenomenon of females in Special Vulnerability of Minority Women menstrual hygiene practices in this area is sufferings from infection which turns sometimes to uterus infection and other difficulties. While conducting the study, it was found that the Hindu women are When water scarcity is severe, a little attention is paid to personal facing some added adversities. It is difficult for them to collect water hygiene and sanitation needs for the women particularly. Also from the ponds and filters used by the powerful, dominating carrying heavy loaded cans and pitchers often cause back-pain, Muslims. Hereby, they collect water for drinking, washing and muscle pain and other difficulties. family use from other distant Pond-Sand Filters (PSF) or ponds, which is owned by other Hindu families or communities, situated in Fetching potable water is a compulsory task for the women in Hindu paras. Allegation persists from the dominating muslim Kanthalbaria. Adolescent girls are also involved to collect drinking community that the hindu people, after all, is choto jaat, or minority water from distant sources. This may take 02 to 05 hours in a day. In group, who can pollute the fresh water resources. There are one PSF several cases, respective husbands use to complain for not serving filter and 2 little ponds in a Hindu para, at the northern corner of the food on time and women are also physically assaulted for this village. 18 Hindu families, living there in close household patterns, reason. Schools going female students often have to miss their having kin bonds between them. They share the filter water and classes for water fetching, as fresh water is an inevitable need, while pond’s water, do maintenance by themselves. Hindu women and their mothers remain busy for household chores. However, kinship adolescent girls are also facing sexual harassment and threat while plays a major role in water fetching, like taking care of families and coming out of their home to collect water. Using the saline water children in absence of female members who went to collect water, or turning the skin tone of adolescent girls rough and unattractive. For fetching water while the women is in sickness or pregnant. this reason, men from outside the area do not show their interest to marry these young girls. Gender relations in Salinized Water Context

Rising Health and Others Crisis: This is important to understand that how gender relations are influenced by the water salinization vulnerability context. Gender During my field visit in Kanthalbaria, I found many persons who are relations are the socially determined relations that differentiate male suffering from one or more water-related diseases. Diarrhea, and female perspectives and situations, roles, attitudes and behaviors Indigestion, itching, skin disease, cough and fever are some of the between them. It refer to the gender dimension of the social relations commons. With help of a local research assistant (female), It was structuring the lives of individual men and women, such as the 67 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 68 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh gendered division of labour and the gendered division of access to activities (e.g.: thrashing, husking, and parboiling) and subsistence and control over resources. The following part of this paper therefore agricultural tasks (e.g.: homestead vegetation, and fish-duck culture). looks more closely into the gender division of labor, women and Both men and women carry out some activities like fish processing, men’s access to and control over resources, decision making patterns net making and repairing, pottery, daily prayer, teaching children, and some constraints women and men encounter in relation to their etc., within the private boundary. livelihood in Kanthalbaria village. In public, women execute some specific tasks that are of an The Division of Labor in Village expenditure-saving nature. They go out, for example to collect cow dung, twigs and branches used as fuel. Some women are involved in In all societies, there are gender-based divisions of labor (Masika peddling, firewood selling or work as domestic maids in wealthier eds. 2002). In most, women do the bulk of domestic labor. houses. Men and women are involved in daily labor, industrial labor, Stereotypically, women in rural households are concerned with small trading, block farming, shrimp fry collection, milk selling etc. drinking, cooking and washing water for household use (the private for their living. Outside the home boundaries men are farmers, domain), while the interests of men focus upon water for production, fishers, traders, daily laborers, gatherers/collectors and traditional particularly irrigation water for agriculture (the public domain). healers.

In context of Kanthalbaria village, gendered division of labor refers However, the activities executed by women and men are summed up to the socially determined roles, ideas and practices that define what in the following table. Later, the activity charts of male and female is roles and activities are deemed appropriate for women and men. provided to have some comparative ideas regarding the gender roles Within the study area a common trend of dichotomization between and how water fits into them. family and society has made women mostly responsible for the production of private use values and men responsible for the Table 01 Gendered activities of men and women in Kanthalbaria village production of public values. Thus the main tasks and responsibilities of women are related to the domestic domain that includes activities Women Men Both performed within the homestead area. Men on the other hand are  Water fetching  fish more involved in the public domain and includes political and  Child care - processing economic or income-generating activities that take place or have nurturing  net making impact beyond the home and relate to access to resources.  Domestic tasks and repairing  Livestock-poultry  House repairing  pottery Irrespective of the main occupation of the household members, rearing  daily prayer women do the majority of the work in the private arena, while men  Post harvest tasks  teaching and women share some of these domestic tasks. Though men Domain Private  Subsistence children perform most of the activities in the public arena, women are agricultural tasks gradually moving into that area. Within the boundaries of the homestead, women perform the household and care tasks, such as cooking, cleaning, and child care-nurturing, as well as productive tasks. They are in charge of cattle and poultry rearing, post harvest 69 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 70 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

 Collect cow dung  Farming  Collect twigs and  Fishing branches  Trading  Domestic maid  Daily labor  Milk selling  Gatherer/collector  Shrimp fry  Traditional

Public Domain Public collection etc. healing  Services etc. Source: fieldwork 2010.

The Inequalities

In the study village, women are overburdened by the reproductive responsibilities, which are not often shared by men. The study village did not show any exception. Also, women’s economic contribution to the family remains invisible and is neglected. Thus women’s role and position at regular occupational and other levels- such as in rituals, religion, healing practices, e.g., kabiraj, or the work of the traditional birth attendant- remains disregarded. Wage exploitation takes place with the tendency to utilize cheap women’s labor. Even where men and women do similar work, women are discriminated against by giving lower wages and often by humiliation. In earthwork, men, working from 8 am to 1 pm receive taka 100 to 120, whereas the females working the same period are paid taka 60-70 only.

71 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 72 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

Table 02 Comparative income of male and female in Kanthalbaria Village Access to assets/ Control over assets/ Gender Role Working hour Payment receives resources (who uses resources (who decides Male 8am to 1 pm 100-120 taka them?) on their use?) female 8am to 1 pm 60-70 taka Tubewell/   Source: fieldwork 2010. well/pond Money   It is, however true, that widespread shrimp cultivation has ruins Work (on-farm)   agriculture which again reduced women’s scopes to work as daily Work (off-farm)   labor in agriculture sectors. In preparing the shrimp ponds (ghers), Food   male labor is prominent, though not in high scale as needed for Membership of    agricultural process. Women are depending on shrimp fry collection, NGO, which requires standing for long hours in saline water. This is Union/cooperative gradually affecting their health and resulting in income insecurity. Furniture   Jewelry    Source: fieldwork 2010 Access to and Control over Resources: From Gendered perspective Table 03 Access to Service Access to services While discussion the gender relations of the study village, it is my Men Women Men & Boys Girls Boys viewpoint that it is very important to consider who has control over, women and and access to- the resources, which again is determined by role girls dynamics of male and female inside and outside of the households. Health center   Here access refers to the availability and possibility to use the Traditional   resources, and control is the established authoritative role which healer influences the decision making processes. The findings of the access Primary  to resources or assets are summarized in the following Table. schools Secondary  school Table 03 Access to and Control of Resources according to gender roles Markets   Access to assets/ Control over assets/ resources (who uses resources (who decides Credit and  them?) on their use?) loans Man Woman Man & Man Woman Man & Development  Woman Woman project Source: fieldwork 2010

Land   Evidently, access to the assets associated with private domain is Trees   signified by male and female access simultaneously. But when it Crop   comes about control, it is the man, who actually holds the control Livestock   and lead the decision making process. In terms of access to service, 73 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 74 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh however, shown some flexibility, though clearly separate the accessible area for women. Summer Rain Winter Salinity: Seasonality of Salinity and Gender Roles Analysis Gender Roles Salinity: Low Salinity: High Medium Salinity is a seasonal crisis in the study area which varies in summer, Women Men Women Men Women Men rain and winter season. It turns acute in winter- as the water flows in river is reduced, and there is no scope to collect water from rain, nor house from ponds or water bodies as they get dry. People have to walk a Attend long way to find potable water, which is a female task primarily. In community     summer, the situation is less acute- irregular rain could supply some meeting Get capital for alternative sources for water. But it is the rainy season when salinity     reduced in a good scale. The fresh rain water drops washout the salty small business taste from upper soil and water, and thus gives people chances to Source: fieldwork 2010 survive. In my research, I tried to reveal the gender roles in these What is found is that in house activities in three salinity seasons are three seasons. What revealed is summarized below. associated tasks for female. Men are doing the tasks in public sphere, or tasks which represent his authority. Men do also take part in Table 04 Seasonality of salinity and Gender Roles Analysis childbearing, but women’s role actually does not change as per seasonal variety. The gendered roles are fixed in some sense, and it Summer Rain Winter is socially expected to perform these tasks by women of the households. Salinity: Gender Roles Salinity: Low Salinity: High Medium Gendered Perspective in Decision Making

Women Men Women Men Women Men In the Private domain of household level, two distinct decision Ensuring food making areas are important, choice of strategic activities and     availability spending of income. The study findings depicted the general idea Care for that women’s participation in decision making tends to be limited to     children decisions on small consumer purchases, buying of food, household Collect potable    consumption items, health care matters etc. In contrast with that men water take decisions on market transactions of major assets, and marriage Going to market    of children etc. In case of a financial crisis, women is sometimes Cleaning house,    forced by men to sell assets such as jewelry, poultry, cattle, or to washing clothes borrow money from others. Situations where the male is inactive, ill, Taking care of or unemployed or the family is large, can also act as catalyst for sick member of    women’s involvement in productive work. family Repairing the       75 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 76 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

In case of Public domain, however, as part of the various affirmative A Different Impact of Water Scarcity: Formation of ‘Space’ of measures to increase women’s representation in decision making and Women public representative bodies, e.g., Union Parishad, women are progressively moving forward from their static domestic boundary. Lila Abu Lughod described in her remarkable study that in the face Along with the representation in local government, women’s of male domination, women could create a certain ‘space’ for participation and leadership within NGO groups are increasing. In themselves to form their resistance (Abu-Lughod, Lila. 1990). I saw these groups they can voice their needs, choices and priorities and in Kanthalbaria that women are the managers, carriers and role share their experiences with each other. A local NGO, named players for her family and household. Nevertheless, they are SHUSHILAN has established 01 ward committee of 9 female abandoned by their husbands, got divorced, bear and accept the persons, named SHADHIKAR (‘own rights’) who work for the domestic violence or injustices as their fate. It was challenging for awareness building of the local community, especially for the female me to find out such events, as it is sensitive; and women do not want parts. There is a Union level committee comprising 54 member from to share these to the outsiders- thinking about leaking of information 6 wards (9 female member from each wards). and safety. With enough time and patients, I defined my goal, expressed my sympathy for them and finally they shared some of Resistance of Women their sorrows and experiences.

Women of the village, actually possesses a secondary position in As I felt that male dominance is supremacy here, I tried to realize the context of the village society. They are dominated by males, other side of power and control. As the women are restricted to domestic punishment is evident, and women are under the power home, not permitted to walk around the village at all times, it is the exercised by the males of the family, or society as a whole. As we water fetching opportunities which gives them scope to come outside know that where there is power, there is resistance (Foucault, 1990), of the restrictions and boundaries, create scopes to meet the others. it was a personal curiosity of the researcher to find out what type of Recently, coming out for water two to 5 times in a day, brought resistance is expressed by the females. What revealed after several women closer to one another, let them to share the information, informal discussion and observation, were much for anthropological sorrows and happiness of their lives. Irrespective of age, their interest. Female resistance in Kanthalbaria is not rare, but it takes condition is common: dominated, oppressed and victims of domestic the forms of ‘weapons of the weak’ as ‘everyday covert forms of violence, and ultimately deprived of the human rights. Fetching resistance’ (Scott, J. 1985) against the male domination and power water is the scope for these females to share the happiness and exercise. As being a weaker category, the women of Kanthalbaria sorrows. Women of several ages come and join together in some express their resistance in different ways. If they are punished by certain times of a day, for water collection. Women also bring their their husband, they usually leave the house for hours and make delay female Childs, to carry water, and informally or unconsciously, with an alibi of water collection, without caring the households, or making them acquainted with bearing the family responsibilities to boiling food on cooker. Sometimes, they let the food to be burned carry the legacy of mother. upon cooker, to resist the husband’s dictatorship. The women informants and the regular villagers were asked that what they usually do, and issues of discussion during their water fetching time. What was revealed was interesting enough. While talking to each other, women blame the man’s endeavor for altering 77 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 78 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh the God’s rule and they talk about consequent changes in weather, 10. Use and utilities of Ethno-medicines: what to do when it is a climate as these all are punishment for sin. They also indicate the medical emergency or abnormal period; what others did in lusty women, their shamelessness, trend of globalization, violating the same situation; medicinal items, herbals, organic the social norms and rules, getting outside without purdha, etc. are materials, etc.; causing such disasters as earthly punishments which are ruing their lives. The discussion works as a socializing and enculturation 11. Discussion about domestic oppression: personal experience, process for the adolescent, who might be there with her mother to or listening others, and meet the wounded to show their collect water, learning what to believe and how to behave, and the sympathy; roles and responsibilities expected from the society as a whole. Conclusion But, Water scarcity, in a sense, brought women much closer, forming a space ultimately for women. The water scarcities let them to go Empowering women is critical to solving the water crisis. Involving outside their home boundaries, and have given them ample women can make water projects 6 to 7 more times effective. When opportunity to see the outside world, share/ exchange information women have access to safe water, they can pursue skills outside of and services among them. The kinds of information shared in this their traditional roles and experience greater autonomy and space are as follows: independence.

1. Well being of each other; Understanding gender roles, relations, and inequalities can help 2. Happiness and sorrow of regular lives; explain the choices people make and their different options. It has 3. Tips for the mitigation of antagonistic relationship with become increasingly accepted that women should play an important role in water management and that this role could be enhanced husband and to draw his attention; through the strategy of gender mainstreaming. 4. Family advise from the seniors, how to maintain the family with better management, what to do in need or crisis time-in disasters, or cyclones; References 5. How and where from the money could be loaned, whom to meet for loan service; Abu-Lughod, Lila 1990 The romance of resistance: tracing transformations of power through Bedouin women- American 6. Child rearing issues, advices; Ethnologist 7. Marriage issues, proposals, suitable brides and grooms; Agarwal, B.1992 The Gender and Environment Debate: Lessons from 8. Information about opportunities to work outside: as laborer India, Feminist Studies 18, 119–157. in road construction, or doing household tasks for earning some money; Agarwal, B.1992 The Gender and Environment Debate: Lessons from India, Feminist Studies 18, 119–157. 9. Criticizing others: new brides, mother-in-laws, sister-in laws; Birx, H. James, Edited 2006 Encyclopedia of Anthropology. California: Sage. pg 1031 79 Peoples’ Preface Gender Relations in Water Crisis: 80 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 55-80, October 2017 Perspectives From Southwest Bangladesh

BSRDI 2009 [1998], Research reports on salinity intrusion in inland MoW 2005 Warpo District Information : Satkhira areas. National Water Policy 2005 Ministry of Water Resources, Government BWDB 2009 River network data; http://www.bwdb.gov.bd/ of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh CCC, 2009. Climate Change and Health Impacts in Bangladesh. Ortner, Sherry B. 1974. Is female to male as nature is to culture? In Climate Change Cell, DoE, MoEF; Component 4b, CDMP, MoFDM. Michelle Z. Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere, eds, Woman, Culture & June 2009, Dhaka. Society, pp. 67–87. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. CCC, 2009. Climate Change, Gender and Vulnerable Groups in — 1984. Theory in anthropology since the sixties. Comparative Studies Bangladesh. Climate Change Cell, DoE, MoEF; Component 4b, CDMP, in Society and History, 26: 126–66. MoFDM. June 2009, Dhaka. Scott, J.C 1985 Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Coastal Zone Policy 2005 Ministry of Water Resources, Government of Resistance, Yale University. the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Scott, J.C 1990 Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Foucault, Michel 1990 The History of Sexuality by. Vintage books. Transcripts, Yale University Reissue Asian Development Bank (ADB): Climate Change - ADB Programs GOB 2004 IPCC 2001 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, http://www.adb.org/Documents/Brochures/Climate-Change/default.asp Third Assessment Report: Climate Change 2001. From www.ipcc.ch, accessed on 10-7-2011 Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) http://www.bcas.net/ IPCC 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chang , Fourth Climate Change Cell (of the Government of Bangladesh) Assessment Report: Climate Change .2007. From www.ipcc.ch, http://www.climatechangecell-bd.org/ Accessed on 11-7-2011 Gender and Climate Change http://www.gencc.interconnection.org/ Masika, R., (eds.), 2002, Gender and Climate Change, Focus on Gender, Oxfam, Oxford. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) http://www.ipcc.ch/ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well- being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. Netherlands Climate Assistance Programme, The (NCAP): Bangladesh http://www.nlcap.net/countries/bangladesh/ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, Assessment Report 2003. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): Climate Change Ministry of Water, 2006 GoB. National Adaptation Programme of http://www.undp.org/climatechange/ Action (NAPA). World Bank: Climate Change http://www.worldbank.org Mirza, M. Monirul Qader and Neil J. Ericksen 1996 “Impact of water control projects on fisheries resources in Bangladesh”, Environmental World Health Organization (WHO): http://www.who.int Management, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 527-539. Mohal, N., & Hossain, M.M.A. 2007, What is Climate Change and How It May Affect Bangladesh Salinity and Cyclone Vulnerable Area of Shyamnagar 81 Peoples’ Preface Slavery to the Mirror 82 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 81-95, October 2017

SLAVERY TO THE MIRROR must be studied to understand humanity. The most notable and Maria Tahsin 1 attributed idea of Boas is ‘cultural relativism’. The idea is that “a person’s activities or beliefs should be understood in the terms and “You were born an original values of their own culture, not someone else’s. Cultural relativism Don’t die a copy” brought attention to the problem of ethnocentrism; it is a belief that -John Mason one’s own culture is more valuable or better than other” (Robbins, 2000). Abstract Every woman has their own way of thinking and expressing herself. This paper addresses the problem of women exploitation through So, why are we busy to construct her with our own criterion? ‘You beautification concept based on a study conducted in the Dhaka are not smart enough’; ‘you do not deserve to live in this society’; University area and has tried to find out how do they internalize this ‘you are not cultured at all’. But why? This study is about to find out concept of beautification in their personal life and what are the the reverberation and it comes out that the patriarchy is not alone consequences of this disease (beautification). These are the main anymore rather capitalism. Capitalism has made patriarchy stronger. argument of this study. This study explores what is the actual Now women are wasting their time at beauty parlor or they are meaning of beauty? Why women are becoming mentally sick by this spending time to beautify themselves at home. The last word is that beautification concept? Why women are giving emphasis on they have to be beautiful. They fully rely on beauty products and beautification more than their own entity? How does beautification beauty parlor to enhance their beauty. They should give importance rebirth the exploitation? Namely, this paper exposes the politics of to their study, their mental growth, their extra-curricular activities, women exploitation through beautification concept. creative thinking and so on. But they are busy with beauty parlor and beauty products. Keywords: Beautification, Patriarchal Society, Capitalism, Media, Women’s Freedom, Women’s Body. Capitalism finds that to the patriarchal society women body is essential. For that reason capitalism represents women as product Introduction and earns a lot of capital. At the same time capitalism has made women easy to catch for the patriarchal society. Capitalism gives It was shocking to hear some words like; “khet”, “unsmart”, emphasis on women’s body and patriarchal society never think “unsocial”, “uncultured” and so many words like this and their anything out of women’s body. For that reason, when someone is expression was different, ‘look at the hair of the girl, how rough it is! telling about the women’s freedom or women’s empowerment, it Not silky at all’. ‘Look at the fatty girl, how much she eats! God sounds ridiculous. Where is the women’s freedom? Where is the knows’. ‘Look at the face of the girl; it’s not aristocrat at all and her women’s empowerment? From the history to the human brain, skin color is like an African’. But according to Franz Boas there is women did not get freedom from anywhere. no word called “unsocial” or “uncultured”. The German-American anthropologist, Franz Boas, he introduced the idea that culture was From the very beginning of human life women are represented in a what differed between races and ethnicities and, therefore, was what negative way. To continue this legacy of women humiliation in recent days a new formula is invented to exploit women and it is about women beautification. Nowadays “beautification” has been 1MSS Student of Anthropology, University of Dhaka 83 Peoples’ Preface Slavery to the Mirror 84 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 81-95, October 2017 emerged as a new weapon for women repression. Seemingly, it could consider this unhealthy competition as their betterment. Now, not be assumed as exploitation, but through this concept the society women are working outside, but the portraits of women exploitation has built the entity of the women. has not changed; only the pattern has been changed.

This beautification concept may have perceived as natural to For that reason, women are now being trapped in their own body. someone, but we should not forget the backdrops of this concept. Nowadays, women are not thinking about their freedom, they are not The definition of beauty that has been given by the society can never involved in creative thinking anymore. Women are now obsessed be a natural concept at all. with their body where the freedom is beyond thinking.

This society is not only confined to concern about beautification; Methodology they also fixed the standards of beautification. In today’s life beautiful women are defined as fairy skin, slim, tall and so on. For assessing the domination of patriarchal society and capitalism Women’s inner beauty is not a matter of concern. There is no space through the beautification concept, a survey was conducted in the for women’s intelligence, creativity, talent; all is about women’s Dhaka University area. Women were selected as sample because physical attractiveness. Till the 19th century women were confined to they are suppressed in the patriarchal society. The survey covered their house. They were not permissible to represent themselves in total number of 40 respondents and their age limit was 23-26. This public sphere. Even they were not allowed to be educated themselves survey was conducted by using purposive sampling to collect data. except religious studies. Women were bound to covering themselves Data were collected with unstructured questionnaire considering the in order to maintain their purity. objectives of the study. And the survey used the observing participant method to collect data. On that time the society was obsessed about women’s purity and veil. Because women’s body was important. In the 21st century, we Where My Entity Is Beyond Question may think that the veil do not exist anymore. But the veil still now Definition of Women’s Beauty exists, only the pattern has changed. The new formula of veil is beautification. In the 19th century society emphasized on women’s Mirror, mirror on the wall body and the 21st century society is also obsessed with women’s Who’s the fairest of them all? body. Society bounds them to understand that if they want to survive in this competition, they have to be attractive, ‘hot’, ‘sexy’ and Is woman beautiful? Or is represented as beautiful? These types of ‘glamorous’ as well. queries constitute many controversies. Someone emphasized on inner beauty while someone on physical appearance. Patriarchal In recent context, beautification is not a concept only; it is also society has told that woman has to be fairy; facial expression should related to power, exploitation, stratification and many other untold have to be attractive, she has to be cute. At the same time her height stories. Apart, the patriarchal society talked about the women’s has to be perfect and obviously she has to be slim. This definition empowerment; on the other hand, capitalism uses women to increase can make someone feel like that since women are used to with these their capital. And obviously do not forget about the contribution of conceptions, so why are we so much obsessed with this? But we patriarchal society to enhance the domination. In today’s context have to understand the politics behind the story. Women started to women are considered as a product and subconsciously women think like that when that criterion was represented in front of them. 85 Peoples’ Preface Slavery to the Mirror 86 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 81-95, October 2017

Women are always suffering for this beautification concept. This But there were someone to perceive beautification differently. To concept is being made by the society for many purposes. This someone the beauty was about mental capabilities, behavior and their purpose is many times economic and serves profit to a particular qualifications as well. But after some conditions, their entities class. This class continuously enhances their profit by became questionable to them. advertisements. In this way this beautification concept is also constructed and women could not think out of it (Wolf, 1990). In this study, at the very first, women strongly opposed the physical appearances as the tool of measuring beauty. But interesting issues A particular class has created different issues in different time to came out when they confront the query, do you think that you are augment their capital. In today’s world women are being used as a beautiful? Then the reply was shocking. Someone told that her skin product to enhance their capital. Capitalism used media as their is not that much fairy, someone told that she is not that much tall, partner to spread propagandas to the society. In the capitalist society, other one’s opinion was that she is more than fatty. They think that if capital is the last word. Only women are being victimized in the they were a little more fairy, slim or tall, then they could be able to name of women’s freedom. In the capitalist world, women are going think themselves as beautiful. The woman who thought that beauty outside of their home but not out of their body. Still now they are means mental capabilities, behavior or qualifications. But at the end obsessed with their body. of the day somehow she relies on physical beauty. What’s the reason? On the other hand, wolf was not confined to its economic aspects; she was concerned about its political aspects too. She argued that Because the society has fixed some criteria of a beautiful woman. when women were fighting for their rights, on that right moment the When a woman gets out of that category, she started to think herself society has introduced women with this worsened concept. And as unbecoming. In this case, the women who deny the physical obviously this concept serves a political agenda (Wolf, 1990). If appearances as the marker of beauty, their entities became debatable women are getting involved with this beautification concept, they to them due to these criteria that were fixed by the society. The will never be able to raise their voice against the society’s society may show that the physical beauty does not matter. But in the domination and conspiracy. And in the reality this has already real life it matters. When women thought beauty means mental happened. By the definition of beauty, women are getting trapped capabilities, but there are some untold stories. And the story is into their body again. Now, women are obsessed with this criterion beauty means physical appearances. At the end of the day women and suffer from mental and physical disease. started to think about the standard of beauty that the society has fixed for them (Giang, 2013). My Entity Beyond Beauty At the same time, Vivian also describes that in the 1960s when “Embrace the glorious mess that you are- Elizabeth Gilbert women were getting involved in women’s freedom movement, they denied the physical appearances. But in reality the picture is This quote may seem fascinating to you, but the reality is different. different. Vivian emphasized on the authoritarian thinking of society The understanding of women about beautification has made a toward women’s physical appearances. In the 21st century the picture pathetic scenario. is still the same. The society still gives importance to the physical beauty and the capitalism makes it smoother. In this way, society has made a structure and women are becoming crazy to fulfill those 87 Peoples’ Preface Slavery to the Mirror 88 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 81-95, October 2017 criteria. Their mental ability has been ruined and women have lost circumstances and the myths by which these have been explained, their entity due to this beautification concept. denied, or distorted. She recognizes that men have been able to maintain dominant roles in virtually all cultures because women The Evasion of Women’s Freedom in the Mask of Beauty have resigned themselves to, instead of rebelling against their assigned subordinate status. In her book, she describes two major “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens premises. First, that man, considering himself as the essential being, can change the world. Indeed, it’s the only thing that ever has.”- or subject, has treated woman as the unessential being, or object. The Margaret Mead second, more controversial premise is that much of woman’s psychological self is socially constructed, with very few 8th march 1857, in the history of women’s freedom movement a physiological rooted feminine qualities or values. De Beauvoir smashing incident happened. In USA, a huge number of women denies the existence of a feminine temperament or nature. To her, all involved in a strike against risky environment, imbalanced wages notions of femininity are artificial concepts. and 12 hours working hour in a factory. As a result a huge number of women were tormented by the US police. After a long time of In one of her most telling aphorisms she declares, “One is not born a movement, on March 8, 1910, it was announced as an ‘International woman, but becomes one”. In such way, the beautification concept is Women’s Day’ in Copenhagen. constructed in the different social, cultural, political contexts to humiliate women. But at last in 1983, 8th march has been declared as a World Women’s Day and many countries in the world including Bangladesh celebrate Beautification: Natural or Constructed? this day with glorious events and many laws has been taken for keeping that movement alive. But the reality could not come out of Embracing your true self radiates a natural beauty leafy lecture and seminar. As if the right of women is detained in red That cannot be diluted or ignored.-Dr. Steve Maraboli fitas (Pruit, 2017). Is the beautification natural or constructed? This controversy is The above statement reflected the evasion of women’s freedom. The continuing through the decade. This study finds that some woman women’s freedom movement of the German Socialist leader Clara think beauty means mental capabilities and qualifications but on Zetkin was the capital goods of that time. In today’s world, women’s some point their opinions were about physical appearances. They freedom can see in the billboard, where the woman’s body is sold. could not negate this issue. To them the beautification is not Women’s freedom can find in the advertisements, where the waves something constructed, it is natural. In the context of patriarchal of woman’s body are represented. Nowadays, women’s freedom can society women’s body is more important than their mental find in the beauty contest, where the waves of woman’s body are capabilities. From the very first of our journey as a woman, we judged. Is this called women’s freedom? Is this defined as women’s always heard that women are the symbol of beauty. That is why it right? seems natural to them. But when this study related one more query on that issue, their reply gives a new window to think over it. Is there The fact behind this domination has been declared by the writing of any necessity to be beautiful? Their reply was, yes. Simone De Beauvoir (1949) in her glorious work “The Second Sex”. She attempts to assess women’s biological and historical 89 Peoples’ Preface Slavery to the Mirror 90 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 81-95, October 2017

To them beautiful women get all kinds of privileges from the society. The Aggressive Nudity of Capitalism They can easily seek the attention of others. Even the family members give extra attention to them. In this statement, they involve Women are never recognized as free entity. They always felt the in a new controversy. In the very first they told that the pressure of patriarchal society. In today’s world capitalism is another beautification concept is natural. But after a while they told that it’s child of patriarchal society. Capitalism has made agenda to continue needed to be beautiful. the legacy of exploitation. The aggressive face of capitalism has revealed with some questions. This study made some questions to If it is something natural, so why do this society give extra attention women. Do you prefer beauty parlor? The answer was, yes. Their on this issue? Why do they think that to be beautiful is important? answers make the study smoother to visualize the naked face of capitalism. When the second question was why do you prefer beauty Due to the geographical condition the physical characteristics differ parlor? Someone told that she went to beauty parlor for facial, from each other. Someone is fairy; someone is black or brown. someone for spa, stylish haircut and so on. And another question was Someone is shorter, someone is tall. Someone is fat and someone is why do you take these types of services from beauty parlor? There slim. To evaluate women the ways they are seem to be natural. But was only one answer that is to make us beautiful. Just look at the when we give emphasis on beautification and add some adjectives on answers that have been given. it, then it is no more natural phenomenon. These types of propagandas are spreading through some competition like; Lux That means they think themselves ugly. And capitalism and Channel 1 Superstar, Miss World Competition and so on. Through patriarchy is the father of these types of thinking. Capitalism has these competitions society has already fixed the criterions of a made the boundless desire to women. beautiful woman. They have made it clear that who is welcome and who is not. Women think that if they were look like the models. Capitalism needs capital and in the patriarchal society women’s body They started to think themselves to that level and the ultimate result is most important way to earn capital. Because this society always is horrible. They are gradually trapped into a net where women can has made the feelings that woman is nothing without her body. move but there is no chance to go out of it. Gradually women have lost their confidence and have tried to fulfill the demand of capitalism as well as patriarchal society. Due to these That is to say, in today’s conception about beautification is boundless desires women have lost the instinct entity of themselves. constructed and media contributes to enhance its domination. And obviously capitalism and patriarchal society together are using this Women have to be tall, slim, fairy. Why do they have to be? Because media to continue their mission of women domination. Women are patriarchal society has always tried to exploit women and today’s life being fascinated by the model and dreaming to be like that. But the beautification is the prime weapon to exploit women. For that reason women are not aware that these advertisements represent the lie. patriarchal society do not stop capitalism to spread these agendas. These are the only way to humiliate women. If it is something Because capitalism fulfills the demand of patriarchal society. natural, so why is the problem of crap hair? Why are so many Patriarchal society emphasizes on women body not the intelligence oddities in black skin? Why are so many problems with height? Why of women. are so many problems in body structure? Each and every question reflects the construction of beautification and it serves a special In today’s life media is the vast area to spread ideas, thoughts, purpose (Tocatlian, 2013). perceptions and any kind of agendas. Advertisements are one of the 91 Peoples’ Preface Slavery to the Mirror 92 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 81-95, October 2017 most popular medium to spread the agendas and it has great effect on Women’s body is always controlled by the society. To the society, the mass people. Through these advertisements capitalism represent the women body is something special that should be controlled. the idea of beautification. Billboards, newspaper and many other Society has defined women in their own way. social media represent models with perfect height, body structure, skin color, hair pattern and so on. Media have made stronger the Tshegofa described that women body is like a blank canvas to the criterions of beautification. Women are trying to be like the model society where the painter does what he wishes to draw. And and spending more time at beauty parlor and buy many beauty obviously women are not neutral entity. They are always in question. products. To be like the models is totally impossible. Because this is The society has always tried to control the women. The concept of not the real self. It is only about the camera and other technical beautification dominates women and where women’s freedom is equipment. But women do not have any option to avoid the agendas questionable (Tshegofa, 2004). because beautiful women are preferable in the patriarchal society. The germs of beautification have been injected to their bloods. Day The society represents beautification as a capital. French sociologist, by day they are becoming obsessed with this conception of anthropologist, philosopher and intellectual Pierre Bourdieu through beautification. his of class distinction, describes three kinds of capital in human’s life. And these are social capital, economic capital and cultural The Dexterity of Society about women’s freedom capital. Bourdieu showed how this capital create class distinction and these are related to each other (Allen and Anderson, 1994).In present The curses of beautification become a regular matter for women. situation beauty is considered as a kind of capital and women cannot They are being harassed by this concept in their everyday life. avoid this pressure. Women take it subconsciously and behave like Everyday women face the advantages and disadvantages of this. beautification. What will women get if they become beautiful and what obstacles they will face if they look ugly? But the politics Capitalist society represents the advantages of being beautiful and behind this story is never told. As a result, women couldn’t see the women are getting crazy to reach that goal. But this is not nothing real picture and their life stories started to change gradually. Women but the dexterity of society to repress women. Capitalist society do not have the option to avoid this disease. In everyday life they represents women as product. Then, where is the benefit of women? have to face these difficulties. Actually women are not benefited by this process. This is only the new way to dominate women. According to their statement, a beautiful woman gets all the privileges from the society. At the same time, the so called Beauty is the Illegitimate Child of Patriarchy ungracious women face many difficulties. To them, the ungracious Men and women are important part in the society. But somehow women lose their confidence due to this concept. Her acceptance women never get their importance properly. Women are always becomes lower day by day and her mental abilities are being considered as unnecessary part in the society. Women are always hampered for this ill competition. deprived from their rights and privileges. Today we are talking about women’s rights; we are talking about women’s freedom. We, the What are the reflections one can find on that statement? Is it patriarchy do all the things for women. But it is a matter of sorrow something that reflects the happiness of the women? Not at all. The that we are talking about the women’s right. What is the reason? Are women body is not neutral entity. not women the part of the society? So, why should we talk about the 93 Peoples’ Preface Slavery to the Mirror 94 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 81-95, October 2017 women’s freedom? As a human being it is her right to think freely, symbolically associated with nature, while men are associated with talk freely and move freely. Is not it right? If a male can live in this culture. society freely, we never talk about their freedom at all. Because we think that it is not a matter of consideration at all. In this way patriarchal society treat women as unessential being. In the same way the beautification concept has been made for the Because we think that they are by born free. Then, why not the women. The society constructs women according to their agendas. women are free? Because, in the society women are not considered Where the real self of women is absent. And obviously there is no as human being, they are treated like a product. Beautiful women are scope for avoiding the issue of power. Patriarchy always showed it’s more confident. That is why when they go outside they try to power to women. The concept of beautification is also a kind of beautify themselves. Since society patronizes the beauty not the weapon to the patriarchy to make women powerless. Beautification ugliness. Because, they have to win the race if they want to survive is like a disease which affects the woman’s mental capabilities as in this society. Nowadays, becoming beautiful is an extra well as destroying the backbone of women. qualification. According to their statement, there is someone who forces them to be beautiful. Who is this invisible entity? The Conclusion invisible entity is patriarchy who neglects women for what they really are. The patriarchal society never comes out of the woman’s Women’s freedom, women’s movement and women’s empowerment body. Women are always treated as product to them. Women should is very much logical in the page of history. Because, in reality the have to be soft, pure, ideal wife, ideal mother. This is the way where picture is different. In the 19th century women were confined to women are entering in a structure of patriarchy. Then, where is the household. In the 21st century women are coming out of their real picture of women? household. But the question is that are women getting freedom? This study shows that the concept of women’s freedom is a myth. This answer has been given in the writing of Sherry Beth Ortner Because society is still obsessed with women’s physical attributes (1941- ) is an American cultural anthropologist. Ortner in her more than their qualifications. That is to say, in the patriarchal article“Belief and the Problems of Women”, initiated an influential society women’s physical appearances always got the preferences. and powerful framework for studying the problem of women’s To the patriarchal society women are not considered as human being, subordination through an analysis of of gender symbolism, starting they are perceived as product. The beatification concept showed the from the idea that biological differences between men and women pathetic scenario of women’s freedom where the women’s body is take on significance only within culturally defined value systems, the last word not the women’s freedom. she located the problem of sexual asymmetry at the level of cultural ideologies and symbols. She argued that all the cultures recognize and make a distinction between human society and the natural world. Culture attempts to control and transcend nature, to use it for its own purposes. Culture is therefore, superior to the natural world and seeks to mark out or ‘socialize’ nature in order tp regulate and maintain relations between society and the forces and conditions of the environment. Ortner suggests that women are identified or

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References

Allen, E, D & Anderson, F, P, 1994 consumption and social stratification: Bourdieu’sDistinction, Volume, 21, p.70-74, Published in Association for Consumer Research Azad, Humayun, 1992, Nari, Agami prokashoni Beauvoir, S, De, 1949 The Scond Sex, A Division of Random House, Inc, New York Giang, V, 2013 Beauty Paradox, Published on 27thseptember 2013, Business insider (Careers) Moore, H, L, 1988 Feminism and Anthropology, p-13-15, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis Pruit, S, 2017, The Surprising History of International Women’s Day, Published on 6th March 2017 Robbins, P, 2000 Boasian Anthropology: Historical Particularism and Cultural Relativism, Published in 2000, Theory and Anthropology, PB WORKS Tocatlian, J, 2013 Beautiful Pressures: The Influence and Impact of Beauty on Society, Published on 4th June 2013, Tocatlian Blog Tshegofa, P, 2004 Notion of Beauty and Attractiveness Wolf, N, 1990 The Beauty Myth, HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 10 East 53rd Street, New York, NY 10022 97 Peoples’ Preface Migration as Adaptation Strategy: 98 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 97-112, October 2017 A Consequence of Climate Change Accelerating Intense Settlement in Urban Areas

MIGRATION AS ADAPTATION STRATEGY: A effects of climate change (L, Haakon. 2015). During 1991 -2010, CONSEQUENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE Bangladesh was one of the three countries — along with Myanmar and Honduras — most affected by extreme weather events ACCELERATING INTENSE SETTLEMENT IN (Harmeling, 2012). The geographical setting and meteorological URBAN AREAS characteristics have made the country vulnerable to different geo- Fahima Aqtar 1 hazards and hydro-metrological hazards. The major disasters Abstract concerned in the country are floods, cyclones, droughts, tidal surges, tornadoes, earthquakes, river erosion, fire, infrastructure collapse, Changes in human settlement patterns historically were linked with high arsenic contents of ground water, water logging, water and soil changes in climate. Against the backdrop of climate change induced salinity, epidemic, and various forms of pollution etc. regional challenges of poverty and income inequality, more and more rural people are compelled to migrate to urban areas with the However, large numbers of people are moving as a result of hope of livelihood and shelter. This paper, however, demonstrates environmental degradation that has increased dramatically in recent how this migration is taking place in Bangladesh in the context of years (IOM, 1992). Over the last few years, there has been an climate change induced challenges facing the disaster affected upsurge of interest in the likely impact of climate change on people’s people. It also illustrates further consequences of migration whether migration. About 15 million people in Bangladesh alone could be on it creates a range of outcomes, both positive and negative; which the move by 2050 because of climate change causing the worst have implications on whether migration is interpreted as an effective migration in human history (K. Abul, and F. Iqbal, 2015). The adaptation or a failure to adapt. To accomplish these, this article number of such migrants could rise substantially as larger areas of attempted to understand the perception of migrated people about the earth become uninhabitable as a result of climate change (IOM, their present living conditions compared to their previous rural 1992). Hence, what should be done? livelihood on the basis of Bourdieu’s theory of capital and Marx’s ‘sense of alienation’ theory. The paper identifies economic “pull” It has been long practiced phenomenon that migration can be an for survival and environmental “push” for the climatic hazards, to effective way of adaptation to climate change. In the context of scrutinize the reasons urban slum are gradually being Bangladesh, there is growing acknowledgment of migration as an overpopulated. outcome of climatic stresses and shocks – in effect, an adaptation strategy. But, it is a major concern that whether the migrated people Key Words: Climate Change, Migration, Adaptation, Alienation, will get the expected result by this migration? Besides, after Cultural Capital. migration, will their traditional habitat temporarily or permanently be wagged up that in turn will jeopardize their existence and Introduction seriously affected the quality of their life? To unearth the answer, Bangladesh has been identified as one of the most vulnerable here we tried to concentrate on the people’s perception about their countries in the context of climate change (Huq 2001, Huq and own lifestyle- now and before. Ayers 2003). It is also commonly used as an example of the dramatic Most of the migrated people now reside in the urban slums areas. They basically come here to lead a better livelihood as they already 1 Monitoring and Evaluating Officer, International Centre for Diarrhea Disease lost their own resources. Initially, in disaster prone areas, people Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b). 99 Peoples’ Preface Migration as Adaptation Strategy: 100 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 97-112, October 2017 A Consequence of Climate Change Accelerating Intense Settlement in Urban Areas usually target to accommodate themselves to the shelter centers. But using selective2 and snowball3 sampling. In all, 15 in-depth the scarcity and unavailability of shelter centers and less receptivity interviews and 5 key informant interviews and 5 semi-structured make the center uninhabitable. This situation becomes more intense interviews were carried out. Besides, to realize the objectives of the as they have nothing for survivals. Besides, unhealthy living study, data about respective concepts were collected through condition and insecurity left no option for them to come in urban incorporating relevant items (variable) in the interviews conducted. areas. Thus, they are ‘compelled’ to migrate. Therefore, here, the In addition, observational journal, and review of relevant literature to question arises, whether the migrated people are getting their own study were also used as secondary source of data. Data were rights or they are somewhere subconsciously losing their traditional collected from the informants who were considered as migrated habitat temporarily or permanently? And to a greater extent are community groups, associated to the study purpose. The data were losing their cultural capital (Bourdieu, P., 1986). In this regard, I, collected by the interviewer by taking migrants view as a case however, aim to provide a panoramic view of the different ways the through face to face interaction, ranging in length from one hour to link between climate change and migration on the basis of people’s two hours. own perspective about themselves and their overall condition. In addition, during the period of fieldwork, I made frequent visits to Collecting Data on Climate Change and Migration the study area and interviewed migrated people in order to comprehend why they are coming and what other external factors are The connection between climate change and migration is already adversely affecting their lifestyle. Informal discussions with complex enough to determine, making evidence very limited. Studies migrants, our own observation and reports provided by the key in this field are the most fruitful sources of insights about the informants were also important sources of information which I complexities of migration, giving way to new narratives. This study, needed for understanding the pattern of driving forces of however, is a causation of a work I conducted in Ali Akbar Deil transformative adaptation among the migrants. union of Kutubdia sub-district of Cox’s Bazar district. In 2016, I have been there to study on adaptation strategy of cyclone affected people. From the study findings, I come up with an importance of study further on the people who migrate to the urban areas for survival. I, therefore, in search of that, wanted to conduct my study in the urban slum area near the Dhaka city. Thus, I selected Chanpara- a densely populated slum of Kayetpara union of Rupgonj sub-district of Narayangonj district, as my study area which is only five kilometers away from Dhaka. 2Selective sampling involves choosing informants for in-depth and key informant interview with specific characteristics that are relevant for the To conduct the study, I, however, reviewed literature on climate purpose of research. Here, the intent was to look for informants that had a recent history of migration. change induced migration and my methods of investigation included observations, semi-structured interviews, in-depth interview, key 3In Snowball Sampling, a technique of Non-probability sampling, one or informant interview and social mapping. Respondents were chosen more key individuals are located and they are asked to name others who would be likely candidates for the study. Snowball Sampling is an effective way to build an exhaustive sampling frame of displaced populations.

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“Persons or groups of persons who, for compelling reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad”.

Thus, the reason behind this kind of compelled migration can be defined by two major factors. First, if we demonstrate on their inhabitation before migration, there are some apparent ‘push’ factors that compelled them to migrate to urban areas. For instance- because of soil erosion, they lost their living land, and they are not able to cultivate due to the salinity. Another common scenario is that their habitat got destroyed by the disasters like flood or cyclone, and the lands no longer remain cultivable even after the disaster. To survive Anthropological techniques of observation and intensive interviews hereafter, they basically do not have any resort. And these situations of the subjects were adopted for collecting data. Duration of the ‘pull’ them towards the urban area to have a better lifestyle to lead. fieldwork was about one and a half months and for the study was In turn, these diverse types/patterns of movement create a range of extended for more than a month. However, secondary sources were outcomes, both positive and negative; which have implications on used to substantiate the primary database collected through whether migration is interpreted as an effective adaptation or a fieldwork. It is noted that during fieldwork, an emphasis was given failure to adapt (K. Katha, 2011). Does the migration make any on collecting qualitative (rather than quantitative) information in differences? Or do they get a better opportunity to sustain? order to understand the processes of overall change. Besides, the household census could not be done due to time constraint. Intensive Uninhabitable Hope of interviews with some randomly selected subjects, reports of the key Changes in Living Livelihood & Climate Condition Shelter informants, informal discussions with the migrants and our own observations in the study area are the major sources of primary information collected for the present study. Environmental Migration degradation Conceptualizing the Climate Change and Migration Nexus

The movement of people as a result of changes in the environment is Figure 1: Migration as adaptation not a new phenomenon. The nexus of migration, environment and climate change is a complex one (L. Frank, A. Christine, 2009). According to Bourdieu (1986), cultural capital can exist in three Most of the people who are migrating due to the degrading forms: in the embodied state- in the form of long-lasting dispositions environment are somewhere ‘compelled’ to do so. According to of the mind and body; in the objectified state, in the form of cultural IOM (2007), goods and in the institutionalized state, a form of objectification which must be set apart. Likewise, considering the migrated people’s 103 Peoples’ Preface Migration as Adaptation Strategy: 104 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 97-112, October 2017 A Consequence of Climate Change Accelerating Intense Settlement in Urban Areas cultural capital, the deviation is not that vague. After migration, they are different. IPCC (2007) defined Adaptive capacity as “the ability first deal with their displacement and in the meantime, they have to of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability cope with a new environment where their traditional way of living and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of and their practiced norms are unconsidered. Besides, they face opportunities, or to cope with the consequences”. It is then necessary psychological and ethical shocks to adjust to the new surroundings to demonstrate on the mechanisms through which climate change which in turn make a sense of alienation (M. Karl, 1844) from the could result in migration, match them with the complexity society and have to bear a psychological agony. These, however, are underlying the occurrence of migration, and look for evidence that potentially related to the migrant people’s embodied, objectified and supports the initial study. institutionalized state that materially hampers their cultural capital. Most of the migrated people of my study area ‘Chanpara’ have come Hence, since the migrated people have been forced to leave their from the disaster-prone areas like Khulna, Bhola, Faridpur, Barisal, traditional habitat temporarily or permanently because of marked Chandpur, Laksmipur, Shariatpur, and Comilla precisely. Major environmental disruption that jeopardizes their existence and causes of their migration are- river bank erosion, salinity, flood, sea seriously affected the quality of their life (K. Abul and F. Iqbal, level rise, high arsenic, water logging, epidemic, and various forms 2015) they are compelled to migrate. And this compulsion takes of pollutions. Because of these environmental deviations, it has them towards ‘environmental push’ due to loss of land, degrading become very difficult for them to survive there. Except for some Land productivity, uninhabitable living condition, food and water migrants who came for better livelihood, rest and majority migrants security, water Logging and various pollution which subsequently came here for survival. One of the migrants, Selina Akter, who came led them to ‘economic pull’- employment opportunities, education, from Laksmipur said, security, governance, shelter, better livelihood, to the urban areas. “Because we used to live near to the sea, erosion was the Through this process of environmental push and economic pull, the main problem. It washed away our houses, our land, migrated people of ‘Chanpara’ area are now facing the sense of everything. And there was no option to go to higher ground alienation though in a latent form. Thus, migrated people first deal because eventually that gets washed away too.” with their displacement coping with a new environment where their traditional way of living and their practiced norms are ignored. Many of our participants informed us that, the farming lands are These, however, are potentially related to the migrant people’s below the sea level. So, sea level rise, whether for extreme raining or embodied, objectified and institutionalized state that materially for the cyclone, all the areas get flooded by the sea water- saline hampers their cultural capital. As a result, a combination of factors, water. As a result, they not only lost their investment for cropping including disasters, environmental changes, shortages and economic but also lost their land too, which almost becomes impossible for pressure, could increase the vulnerability of local people (Piguet, farming even the water went down. Mosaddek Ali, who migrated 2008). from Bhola and now is working as rickshaw puller, said,

Migration as Potential Adaptation Strategy “If we could, we must have stayed there and built new houses. But we had no option without moving to a higher There are many ways for which migration is considered as a place. And we live in this area because it is very near to promising adaptation strategy. However, once adaptation enters into Dhaka city. And Dhaka means Taka. So, we can earn money the picture and migration has to be assessed in itself, the challenges here and will able to feed my family.” 105 Peoples’ Preface Migration as Adaptation Strategy: 106 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 97-112, October 2017 A Consequence of Climate Change Accelerating Intense Settlement in Urban Areas

Though some of the affected people are still living in the particular of working opportunity and very little source of earning has created affected areas and surviving in extreme conditions, many of them food insecurity. All these situations eventually pushed them to prefer to move to other places. Those who are surviving in extreme migrate for survival hoping for omitting the problems they are facing condition are surviving to save their rest of land and other recourses. that time. Though many try to survive in that extreme condition to But the people who do not have anything, they shifted. Among them, save their rest of the properties, but who have nothing to save, find Farid Miah, a hawker who migrated from Barisal said, migration as the best adapting strategy.

“We lived in poverty, extreme poverty and many people who Climate Change and Migration: Effective Measure or Failure to are really poor have already left that area. We had nothing Adapt? for survival. We used to eat one time in a day. And my children was about to die. So what else I could do?” Migration can represent a ‘transformational’ adaptation to environmental change, and in many cases will be an extremely It is not the only fact that they cannot survive because they had effective way to build long-term resilience (The Government Office nothing to do, rather it is much more related to the overall for Science, London, 2011). As adaptation becomes part of environment. The people of affected areas become cachectic by international and national development agenda, climate negotiations various diseases, especially- diarrhea, asthma, scabies, hepatitis and have also acknowledged migration associated with climate change other skin diseases. This is because they get neither hygienic food or and called for a better understanding of the issue (UNFCCC, 2011). water nor the environment. Moni Begum, who has migrated from But still, it is worth study to see the complex inflexion between Khulna and work as a maid for 3 years said, climate change and migration considering the migration as adaptation. “Water is everywhere. But no water is drinkable. We couldn’t able to cook or drink water. All the water contains As my main concern for this study was to bring out migrated saline. We need to survive, right? So, we found no option people’s own perception, I tried to talk with them regarding the where to go, what to do. Then my brother, who lives in issue. Many of them find the migration as blessings. But still they are Dhaka, brought us here. Now we are better than before.” not satisfied with their present condition. One of the migrants from Comilla, Nurul Huda, who is now working here as day laborer said, The impact of river bank erosion, cyclone, sea level rise, salinity and floods on population migration is among the easiest to identify, as “It is better here in the sense, we can feed ourselves. But the they manifest themselves in a brutal and direct manner. First, land rent is high that I cannot save money. Allah willing we loss, salinity intrusion in agricultural land, unavailable working would like to go back to our village.” opportunities has made the livelihood harder than it was before. Second, disaster like flood and cyclone has created uncertainty and Another migrant named Rehana Khanam, who came from Chandpur insecurity for living in the affected area, for instance- migrants from and working as cleaner at Chanpara Community Clinic, told, Bhola were the main victim of this situation. Third, salinity in the water, pollution in the air and unhygienic living condition eventually “Rent in the slum is expensive. One room is 2200 taka. Two causes environmental degradation for that particular area that in turn rooms are 4000 taka. So, we have to live altogether- more has created health hazards for the existing people. And finally, lack than 5 people in a room due to financial crisis. The money 107 Peoples’ Preface Migration as Adaptation Strategy: 108 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 97-112, October 2017 A Consequence of Climate Change Accelerating Intense Settlement in Urban Areas

we earn daily is not sufficient only for our food. You just provided. These are the reasons we came here regardless our leave the rest of the things! It is too hard to survive here own will.” too.” A similar perspective is found in other migrants, Md. Sumon’s voice, Accommodation problem in tern causes some major infectious who has been migrated from Barisal and now working as a small diseases. According to a paramedic Rokhsana of ‘Chanpara businessman here. According to him, Community Clinic’4, the numbers of patients come in the clinic daily is around more than five hundred. Beside this number, she added, “It is of course hard for us to switch into an occupation that there are lots of patients who do not come to the clinic. One of the we are not experienced of. I have been working as a farmer patients of that clinic, Mokhter Ahmed, who have been migrated since long time. My father, uncles all are farmers too. But from Laksmipur, told, here, I am working in a shop.”

“I have no one to take care of me. I used to fishing in a much This sense of feeling has also been found at the family level and well polluted pond. From then I am suffering from various skin described in the ‘Salma’s’ statement. She said, diseases. I am taking medicines, but this disease does not cure.” “People here are very different from the people of our village. The way we dealt with our daily life, is not as same. Another patient Sofura khatun states, Here, people are busy with their own problems. They have very little to do for others which we have had in our village.” “When I came here, my health was good. But after coming here, I and my family got various diseases like -Asthma, The first four statements describe the hardship of living in the scabies. In our village we used to eat fresh foods and we had urban area and the health problems they are facing, whereas the fresh air. But here we live very congested and the air is last three are differently explaining their perspectives. They put polluted. I can understand all this though I am not educated more emphasis on a comparative lifestyle with their present like you. I can distinguish the differences between good air one with the previous. On the one hand, people are migrating and bad air.” here due to the fact that, they do not have any alternative Given the migration as an adaptation strategy, here, the scenario is options to survive in their own place. On the other hand, they something different. Most of the migrants’ voice is similar to Pranay have dormant feelings regarding their own belongingness, their Das’s one who stated that, lifestyle and the culture they are accepting now. A question, however, knocks here- can we really consider this migration as “The village is definitely better than the city. We came here an optimal strategy for adaptation? for work. If I work, we eat, otherwise we can’t. There is no work in the village. Housing, relief and help were not

4 Government clinic of Chanpara 109 Peoples’ Preface Migration as Adaptation Strategy: 110 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 97-112, October 2017 A Consequence of Climate Change Accelerating Intense Settlement in Urban Areas

Migration as Potential Strategy: Quest for Subsistent and rights. Though they want to go back to their village, circumstance Sense of Belongingness does not allow them to do so. They left nothing there. They came here with lots of hope. Sometimes they are getting some ray of hope Among the total inter-migration of Bangladesh, approximately to live, sometimes not. People with need can stay hungry, but they 350,000 people that the World Bank estimates migrate to Dhaka cannot lose their dignity and hope to survive. For the search of a each year.5 By 2050, it is estimated that one in every seven people in dignifying life, they came here. But the scenarios have not changed. Bangladesh is likely to be displaced by climate change, and they are also likely to move to urban centers already burdened with meeting Seemingly, this kind of migration is making the urban areas worsen the needs of a dense population.6 Since the most of the urban areas of constantly. At the same time, individuals become estranged to Bangladesh are already struggling to accommodate new arrivals, and themselves in the quest to stay alive, where they lose their true the situation will become more challenging as the population existence in the struggle for subsistence. In turn, these diverse types continues to grow and the effects of climate change become more of migration create a range of outcomes, both positive and negative; acute. which have implications on whether migration is interpreted as an effective adaptation or a failure to adapt. In most of the urban areas, the quest for living space is a constant challenge. Acceleration of this kind of migration is becoming more Conclusion and Future Considerations and more acute day by day. Most of the climate migrants of ‘Chanpara’ area choose this area because of its propinquity from Climate change, on its own, does not directly displace people or Dhaka. Many of them daily come to Dhaka for their job. However, cause them to move but it produces environmental effects and climate change is happening much faster and we have to deal with it exacerbates current vulnerabilities that make it difficult for people to in a much shorter time frame. If migration is considered as the major survive where they are. Given the current evidence for climate way of adaptation, then the urban areas will soon become change, it is inevitable that in the future more people will be on the overpopulated. Hence, what to do with this situation? move as result of natural disasters as well as slow erosion of their living habitat. However, in a country as densely populated as Most of the migrants came at ‘Chanpara’ unwillingly and they were Bangladesh, available space remains an issue, and the real question compelled to come here for survival. After migration, they are facing remains: Where people can go? problems with their basic needs, especially with the food, accommodation and health. Besides, scarcity of job put an extra According to Tacoli (2009), migration is a process that helps pressure on them. The number of jobless people in ‘Chanpara’ is not households cope with risks and shocks, enhancing their capabilities, less. Consequently this migrated people are vulnerable here too. and reducing social, economic and ecosystem-related vulnerabilities. They are deprived from their basic needs and have less chance to This view of Tacoli indicates migration as a development issue. claim. They have to stay with what they have regardless of their own Conversely, according to Martin (2010), migration is not a silver bullet when it comes to adaptation. It as a temporary coping strategy cannot be termed ‘adaptation’ for it may not improve the resilience 5 http://www.irinnews.org/feature/2015/11/13/bangladesh%E2%80%99s- of households to deal with future climate shocks and stresses (K. climate-change-migrants accessed 20 August 2016. Katha, 2011). 6 Robert Watkins, United Nations resident coordinator said in a statement in September 2015. 111 Peoples’ Preface Migration as Adaptation Strategy: 112 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 97-112, October 2017 A Consequence of Climate Change Accelerating Intense Settlement in Urban Areas

Considering my study, most of the migrated people do not want to K, Abul. and F, Iqbal. (2015). Climate Change Induced Migration in leave their place of belongingness, but they somewhere are Bangladesh. Retrieved from https://www.iucn.org/content/climate-change- compelled to do so. By doing these they are losing their possession- induced-migration-bangladesh their cultural capital. Simultaneously, their forsaken society and K. Katha. (2011). Climate Change and Migration: A Case Study from Rural culture, and embracing an environment that is almost unknown to Bangladesh. Gender & Development. Vol-19. No-1. them are making sense of alienation though in a dormant manner. L, Päivi. L, Haakon. R, Ketil. (2015). Climate change, natural hazards, and There is no doubt that, these untold and concealed feelings and risk perception: the role of proximity and personal experience. Local deprivation of their cultural capital cannot be omit or eliminated very Environment: the International Journal of Justice and Sustainability. vol. 20 easily, but taking the migration as a potential strategy for granted (4). will future swelled predicament rather than embark upon it. L, Frank. A, Christine. (2009). Migration, Environment and Climate Change: ASSESSING THE EVIDENCE, Geneva: International Organization References for Migration. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.) Handbook Martin, S. (2010) Climate Change, Migration and Adaptation, Washington, of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (New York, DC: The German Marshall Fund of the United States. Greenwood), 241-258. M, Karl. (1844). Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts. Unpublished. Foresight: Migration and Global Environmental Change. (2011). Final Project Report: Executive Summary .London: The Government Office for Piguet, E. (2008). Climate change and forced migration. Research Paper no Science. 153, New Issues in Refugee Research Series. Geneva, UNHCR: 15. Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. (2013). Disaster Seventeenth Conference of the Parties (COP 17) of the United Nations Report. Dhaka: Department of Disaster Management. Ministry of Disaster Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFC CC) and CMP 7 held in Management and Relief. Durban, in December 2011, South Africa. Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. (2013). Bangladesh Tacoli, C. (2009) ‘Crisis or Adaptation? Migration and Climate Change in Demographic and Health Survey 2011. Dhaka: National Institute of a Context of High Population Research and Training (NIPORT). Mobility’, International Institute for Environment and Development Harmeling, S. (2012). Global Climate Risk Index 2012: Who Suffers the http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/users/schensul/public/CCPD/pape Most from extreme weather events? Germanwatch. rs/Tacoli%20 Paper.pdf (last accessed 05 July 2017) Huq, S. A, Rahman. M, Konate. Y, Sokona. H, Reid. (2003). ‘Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change in Least Developed Countries’ IIED: London. International Organization for Migration (IOM). (1992). Migration and the Environment. Geneva: IOM and the Refugee Policy Group (RPG) IOM. (2007). Discussion Note: Migration and the Environment (MC/ INF/288 –94th Session), Geneva: International Organization for Migration (IOM). 113 Peoples’ Preface Contextualizing the Challenges for Effective and Equitable Governance of 114 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 113-126, October 2017 Water Resources in Urban Neighborhoods

CONTEXTUALIZING THE CHALLENGES have been analyzed understanding the context where people can FOR EFFECTIVE AND EQUITABLE make their notions and raising voices suggesting specific measures to solve equitable water governance problems. GOVERNANCE OF WATER RESOURCES IN URBAN NEIGHBORHOODS Key Words: Water Governance, Equity, People Participation, Amith Dutta 1 Effectiveness, Efficiency

Abstract Introduction

Water Crisis has made a crucial concern worldwide. Dhaka as a Water, the precious gift of nature, is the source of prosperity, life and mega city clearly faces the challenges to meet people’s demand. wealth for the people. It is the most crucial for sustaining life; and is Getting water is the right of every citizen. Equitable water required for all human activities. The available water sources distribution is needed but facing more challenges due to socio- throughout the world are getting depleted; and this problem is further cultural factors. Equitable water governance means a systematic aggravated by climatic change and the rate at which populations are way in which each and every citizen gets the access in water increasing especially in developing countries (Dighade, Kadu & resources based on their rights and demands. Effective and equitable Pande, 2014). In developing countries, urban population is predicted water governance needs to get the people (i.e: Beneficiary groups) to grow from 1.9 billion in 2000 to 3.9 billion in 2030, averaging participation with the water policy, therefore, it would be easy to 2.3% per year (Brockerhoff, 2000). Worldwide 1.2 billion people are identify people needs and arising challenges in water distribution without access to safe water (Klawitter and Qazzaz, 2005). Realizing system. Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) has the critical importance of supplying potable water, national and been playing role as responsible authority in water distribution for regional governments, local and international NGOs invest millions Dhaka city dwellers since 1963 and fall into troubles maintaining of capital every year in developing countries to tackle the problem equity in urban water governance. In this paper, it has been tried to through implementation of water supply projects (Prokopy, 2005). understand the urban water governance system pushing questions on its effectiveness, efficiency and relevance in urban neighborhood Dhaka is one the most populated megacities in the world. Water from the response of beneficiary groups. Besides, it demonstrates the crisis is a global problem affecting Bangladesh as well as Dhaka city. class relation and water governance role using the group-grid It is experiencing a sharp declination in groundwater with more than theory by Marry Douglas and Max Weber’s theory of bureaucracy to 20 meters lower down during the last seven years at a rate of 2.81 understand the socio-cultural challenges in water governance (i.e: meter per year (m/y). (Azim, Baten & Mohammad, 2011). Besides, water distribution) system for Dhaka city dwellers. Furthermore, the increased rate of urbanization, illegal occupation, and encroachment role of Dhaka WASA and people’s participation with water reduce the amount and volume of surface water bodies around the governance has been assessed analyzing institutional environment, city that deteriorate the present situation. The Dhaka Water Supply culture and capacity from people’s notions and choices. Thus, and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) were established in 1963 to institutional role, and the arising challenges in water governance provide services to the city dwellers. Presently, there are about 546 water-supply pumps working to ensure water supply for the city dwellers. Empirical evidence shows that one-third of the city 1 Research Associate, Center for Environmental and Geographic Information dwellers receive only 40 l/p/d, and they have to manage their daily Services (CEGIS) 115 Peoples’ Preface Contextualizing the Challenges for Effective and Equitable Governance of 116 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 113-126, October 2017 Water Resources in Urban Neighborhoods activities with this little amount of water. On an average, 42.8 (Gary and Marphy, 1995). In this way, it is more essential to assess percent of the city dwellers receive basic requirement of 50 l/p/d some factors of an institution that also helps to determine its (DWASA, 2013) and the rest (57.8 percent) are suffering from water efficiency, effectiveness, relevance and economic viability. scarcity. This is the framework (figure 1.1) for institutional assessment, which In this paper, the term governance refers to the ways in which has been taken as study approach in this paper to analyze the societies are organized to make decisions and take actions to performance of Dhaka water supply and sewerage authority. accomplish goals. Therefore, water governance is referred here as the People’s perspective and voice has been brought from micro level. processes and institutions that exist for making decisions that affect The position on equity and social justice has been analyzed that help water distribution and overall water resource management us to draw a conclusion on the performance of Dhaka water supply (Kreutzwiser and de Loë, 2010). and sewerage authority.

Access to water is a cornerstone for development and a strong engine Environment Adminstrative for reducing inequalities. The economic growth, environmental Political health, and social well-being are dependent on access to water and it Cultural is directly relevant to such basic aspects of human well being like Economic health, sanitation, nutrition and housing. Thus, water resource stakeholders management, governance processes determine decision making about water storage, types of water use, regulation of extraction from Organizational aquifers, regulation of discharges and allocation between competing. Performance Dhaka WASA is facing critical problems ensuring equitable water Effectiveness governance regarding socio-cultural environment at the institutions Organizational Efficience Organizational capacity Motivations Strategic leadership and beyond. Relevance History Structure Human resources Mission This paper tried to explore the challenges contextualizing the Financial management Culture Infrastructure problem from the people’s notions and understandings. Besides, it is project management tried to analyze people’s participation with water institution (i.e: process management

Dhaka WASA) in terms of their decision making and water distribution system for city dwellers. In this way, this paper is played Figure 1.1: Framework for institutional assessment more significant role in identifying institutional problems of Dhaka WASA to serve a huge number of population, on the other hand, The governance refers to the government’s ability to make and identified some measures to solve those problems from the people enforce rules and to deliver services that government is democratic point of view. or not. On the other hand, Governance is about the performance of agents in carrying out the wishes of principals, and not about the Analytical Ground: Institution and Governance goals that principals set. The government is an organization which Institutional performance is triggered by how an organization uses its can do its functions better or worse; governance is thus about capacities, maintains its motivation, and relates to its environment 117 Peoples’ Preface Contextualizing the Challenges for Effective and Equitable Governance of 118 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 113-126, October 2017 Water Resources in Urban Neighborhoods execution, or what has traditionally fallen within the domain of grounded in principles of distributive justice. (Braveman & Gruskin public administration (Woodrow Wilson, 1987) 2003). In Dhaka city, class relations maintained in accordance with social and economic condition. The most classic effort to define governance in terms of procedures was Max Weber's famous characterization of modern bureaucracy in State and its different organizations here can be responsible for Economy and Society. It is a book by political economist and equity in their activities. Partiality and biasness for particular group sociologist Max Weber, In this book Max Weber outlined the can make trouble in case of social justice. Social equity has been characteristics of bureaucracy in which bureaucratic institutions are challenged in recent years through increasing income inequality. The functioning. widening gap between the rich and the poor contributes to economic segregation among regions and neighbourhoods and also in public . A well-defined formal hierarchy and chain of command service delivery. (Haynes, Nichol & Brown; 2009). . Management by rules and regulations; . Division of labor and work specialization; All institutions of Bangladesh are influenced by governmental body. . Managers should maintain an impersonal relationship with The domination and guidelines they provided to take special care for employees; particular group is very common in this context. . Competence, not personality, is the basis for job appointment The Grid group theoretical model developed by Marry Douglas and . Formal written records Mitchell runner analysed the class relation in this paper. The group dimension describes how strongly people are bonded together. At The informal organization of supervisors and employees inhibited one end, there are distinct and separated individuals, perhaps with the potential success of a company, because, power was misplaced. common reason to be together though with less of a sense of unity Bureaucratic administration means fundamentally domination and connection (Douglas; 1986). On the other hand, people have a through knowledge (Economy and society; 1992). To review, Max connected sense of identity, relating more deeply and personally to Weber disliked the idea of managing an organization informally. one another. They spend more time together, and have stable Though Dhaka WASA is an autonomous organization but relationships. When people group together, then laws are more easily bureaucratic governing system play important role for its defined and policed. For society, to survive when bonds are weaker functioning. Whole governing structure follows the bureaucratic and central control is less possible, individuals must necessarily, characteristics those are related to the Weber’s statement following display self-restraint. In management, low group does not manage his well known book- ‘Economy and Society’. In this paper, it is resources, whilst high group does. tried to analyze how bureaucratic governance of Dhaka WASA helps to create obstacle in delivering service and ensuring people Besides, the grid dimension describes how different people are in the participation with this institution. group and how they take on different roles. At the extreme top right, strong on grid, strong on group, will be a society in which all roles Class Relations and Equity are ascribed, all behavior governed by positional rules, all the constituent groups contained within a comprehensive larger group. It Class relation is present in society based on social and economic is a hierarchy, perhaps despotic, perhaps consensual; the diagram strata. Equity means social justice or fairness; it is an ethical concept, 119 Peoples’ Preface Contextualizing the Challenges for Effective and Equitable Governance of 120 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 113-126, October 2017 Water Resources in Urban Neighborhoods does not show the political variables. Its cultural bias supports sources in the form of books, journals and articles. As an apprentice tradition and order. of anthropology, the author has followed some of the social research and ethnographic methods (i.e: key informant interview, Informal In this way, it made advantageous to share and organize together. In interview, observation etc) to identify equitable water challenges for management; low group does not manage needs, while high grid Dhaka city dwellers where permanent residence, local women, does. This model is a two-by-two table, though it must be businessman, and other stakeholders stated their concern and emphasized that the lines are arbitrary. The two dimensions are suggested respective measures. spectra, not binary divisions. Urban Water Supply: People’s Voice

Over 69% of the population in urban slums and fringe areas use water from private wells and over 23% use water from public wells (Mitra 1992). As access to public tube wells remain limited, slum residents obtain water from a variety of sources. Around 50% of an estimated one million slum dwellers in Dhaka use street hydrants, 14% have access to community tube wells installed locally, and the remaining 36% obtain water from neighbors or nearby lakes or rivers (Baqui 1993; CUS 1988).

The beneficiary group from a service oriented organization has the notions about the performance, service efficiency and effectiveness. This paper picked some question on the performance of Dhaka Figure 1.2: The Model of Grid - Group Cultural Theory WASA in equitable water distribution whereas most of the people centralized their voice regarding their dissatisfaction about the Using this theory, it is tried to analyze the role of high group to biasness of this organization. Following figure shows the people manage water distribution, and how this distribution impacted on comments about their satisfaction and dissatisfaction. other lower groups. Finally, the social bonds and the nature of equity managing water resources have been analyzed in this paper. Most of the people have expressed their dissatisfaction (59%) to get water properly, here, business man, house owners, rickshaw pullers, Study Area and Data Collection Methods students, women and vendors explicitly expressed their negative opinion in case of water supply system which is governed by Dhaka This study was conducted at 26 no ward of Lalbagh Thana under the WASA. Besides, some people have expressed consent but not fully Dhaka District in Bangladesh where 168,151 people (BBS, 2012) satisfied and their satisfaction is quite partial (13%) that can be live and face the crisis of water unequal water governance. Primary regarded as minimal from their notions. In addition, some people data has been collected through intensive fieldwork using social data expressed their satisfaction (20%) which is not more and can be collection tools and techniques. Besides, secondary data was measure as the minimal level. From this notion, it is understandable collected through library work and other relevant secondary literary that most of the people are not satisfied based on water supply; 121 Peoples’ Preface Contextualizing the Challenges for Effective and Equitable Governance of 122 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 113-126, October 2017 Water Resources in Urban Neighborhoods therefore, the equitable governance is questioned and not in equity in water distribution is affected due to the existing moderate level based people’s opinion. institutional framework and governance system which come to the front as a product of external environment (i.e : Cultural practice and political environment) of Bangladesh. 100 80 80 65 60 55 60 45 49 Water Distribution: The Challenge Merged with Equity 40 25 25 25 25 25 Fully Satisfied 20 16 20 10 5 55 10 55 10 55 10 Getting water is the right for all citizens. People become furious Not Satisfied 0 without getting sufficient water. If it is not distributed properly, the Partially Satisfied question raises on water justice. However, the need varies based on diverse issue but demand specific (actual needs) should be provided, Not interested if the institution has enough capacity. People of the study area stated that water distributed based on social and economic capital. Those who have more money and serve the water distribution channel, and then it becomes easy to get water whatever you needed. Source: field data, 2016 Figure 1.3: People’s notion in water supply system of Dhaka WASA According to the women at Lalbagh, “It is time for them who

have enough money to make happy water distribution Institutional Culture and Environment: a Product of External Authority. Whatever you think, you can get them easily. It is Environment just like if you have money and understand their demands;

really time is yours to get available water”. The institutional culture is shaped by external culture and socio- political environment. Institutional governance is determined by both Though it is matter of tension but it is happening most of the time. internal and external forces that play significant role to shape Like, when you need to get a meter then it should properly check institutional policy and overall the managerial model. does he another or not? But most of the cases, it is not happening,

water distributed properly for them who can satisfy water According to the people, it is the system, get priority with the distribution body using proper channel. It is going to be a practice existing model of governance practiced in Bangladesh. In the case of during getting a water meter or installing a water pump for water distribution, it is not beyond the socio-cultural practice but household activities. governed with the systematic way of perceived hierarchy and bureaucratic model of governance. Water Distribution as Politics: Interplay of Power Relation

In this respect, the scenario is clear and pointed from the people The decision making processes within the state take place primarily perspective is that the water distribution of the water front is fully under circumstances of individual political equality, freedom and governed and led by the existing policy and bureaucratic hierarchy in intense majority preference that will ultimately become public which the pattern of existing practice made impact on the water policy, expressed in both legislative decisions and administrative distribution system by the water front (DWASA). In this way, the implementation (Alford and Friedland; 1984)The Power of Elite 123 Peoples’ Preface Contextualizing the Challenges for Effective and Equitable Governance of 124 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 113-126, October 2017 Water Resources in Urban Neighborhoods relies on a small group of privileged individuals who have come to relations strengthen the rationality for those maintain close dominate the legislative and economic sectors of society, and connection involving with that ties properly. Represent a fusion of the corporate community, the upper class, and members of policy-formation networks. The dominating group Corruption in water supply: Water as Product for Business possesses the ability “to set the terms under which other groups and classes must operate,” including political decision making (Domhoff, The middle-men in the study area play a vital role over the water 2000). distribution process. They in collaboration with corrupted DWASA official control the whole process and take more than ten times In Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, the state authorities have higher price than the prevailing water price during the water crisis. already failed to satisfy even the very basic urban needs of the (Nurul, H.S. & Mohammad T.I.2014). inhabitants. The informal arrangements and negotiations present in the process of water supply and its regulation. The influential actors, Lack of public participation in the decision making process, absence their different interests and the contestations of these interests of necessary principles for effective water governance, including influence public decisions about distribution of water supply are transparency, equality, accountability, legitimacy and legality, were increasing day by day. Different strategies and local arrangements of among the major challenges for Dhaka WASA. In this regard, it is population groups consider claiming their access to this public utility crucial to ensure sustainable and equitable use and distribution of but the informal arrangements and negotiations in the distribution of water, and to secure effective delivery of water supply when water supply are not independent and can play good role in the corruption comes and get involved with water business. The context of power relations and the politics that regulate the whole imminent issue of water resource scarcity, it is of utmost urgency to water supply system of Dhaka city. improve the governance and integrity of the water sector. Water supply has become a business, and corruption occurred that leads to Though getting water is people rights but it depends on how much make an unequal water distribution system. The respondent opined connection people have to maintain connection with water that corruption, lack of accountability and mismanagement are the governance body. It is observed that the politics and institutional three major impediments for bad water governance in the study area. culture of governance body (i.e: Dhaka WASA) help to shape the water distribution system. It becomes more realistic to get water Conclusion connection using this political tie. The politics at Dhaka WASA helps to handle such situation and pressurizes to determine water From the overall discussion it can be highlighted that Dhaka WASA distribution prioritizing close connection for the sake of their as a water front cannot play significant role in the maintenance of interest. efficiency, effectiveness and relevance in water distribution system A rickshaw Puller at lalbagh stated that we cannot for Dhaka city dwellers. People who receive water services determine any situation if WASA does not supply water understand the distribution policy and find out some challenges from properly. This service is really for them who have good their experience. Dhaka WASA is increasing number of water connection with local and internal politics of Dhaka WASA. refinery station, surface water collection from city side Rivers, operating regular mobile court against bill defaulters and illegal In the case of water distribution, politics play a pioneering role and connections but it is not happening to maintain equity in the water lead water governance system as a whole. The interplay of power distribution for all city dwellers at the same way. Though, it has 125 Peoples’ Preface Contextualizing the Challenges for Effective and Equitable Governance of 126 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 113-126, October 2017 Water Resources in Urban Neighborhoods achieved number of success in water production and supply through Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (2013), Newsletter, Public good administrative structure and efficient management system but information Department, DWASA Karwan Bazar, Dhaka. without knowing the people perceptions the proper management Domhoff, G. William. Who Rules America: Power and Politics in the Year would not work complying with its effectiveness and efficiency. The 2000. 3rd ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Company, 2000 external environment and culture influence relationship between Douglas Mary, 1986. How Institutions Think, Syracuse University Press. people and water distribution authority in which the distribution cannot make its sense clearly for equitable governance. Trade Klawitter, S. & Qazzaz, H. (2005): Water as a Human Right: The Unions play an important role in DWASA management and they can Understanding of Water in the Arab Countries of the Middle East, be powerful allies in the implementation of reforms. Consultation International Journal of Water Resources Development, 21:2,253-271 with their representatives is a key factor especially on issues Luthaus Charles, Anderson Gary, and Eline Murphy(1995), A framework concerning the new recruitment policy and remuneration for Strengthening Organizational Capacity for IDRC’s Research partners, mechanisms. IDRC Mitra and Associates 1992 The 1991 National Survey on Status of Rural People who are working for water distribution cannot do their jobs Water Supply and Sanitation for DPHE/UNICEF. Final Report, August successfully rather they are trying to do for the sake of their own interest. From people point, corruption and relationship between Nichol, W.H & Brown,S (2011). Social Class and Socioeconomic Status: Relevance and Inclusion in MPA-MPP Programs. Journal water front and the high class always active to play significant role for providing benefit for those high class who maintain and Nurul, H.S. & Mohammad T.I., (2014), State of Water Governance in understand their interest. The proper understanding of people mind Dhaka Metropolitan City of Bangladesh: Evidence from Three Selected cannot come into the front in which the distribution system can be Slums, International Journal of Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary more potential in retaining people perception and choices. Studies, Vol 1,No.2,19-38. Prokopy, S. (2005): The Relationship between Participation and Project Outcomes Projects in India: Evidence from Rural Water Supply, World Development 33, No. 11, pp. 1801–1819 References R. R. Dighade, M. S. Kadu and A.M.Pande ( 2014). Challenges in Water Loss Management of Water Distribution Systems in Developing Countries, Alford, Robert R., and Roger Fried land. Powers of Theory: Capitalism, the International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and state, and democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1985. Technology, Vol. 3, Issue 6. Baqui, A. H. 1993 “An Overview of Dhaka Slums,” Urban Health Uddin Azim, A.F.M Baten and Abdul Mohammed (2011), Water supply of Extension Project, ICDDR,B, Dhaka dhaka city: mukry future the of access and inequality, Unnayan Annesha, BBS, 2011, Statistical Year Book of Bangladesh, Govt. of People’s Indira Road Farmgate Dhaka. Republic of Bangladesh. Weber Max (1992), Economy and Society , Germany Braveman, P & Gruskin, S (2003). Defining equity in health .J Epidemiol Woodrow Wilson (1887), the Study of Administration," Political Science Community Health;57:254–258 Quarterly 2(2), 197-22 Brockerhoff, M. P. (2000) An Urbanizing World, Population Bulletin, A Publication of Population Reference Bureau, 55(3), pp. 1-45. 127 Peoples’ Preface Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: 128 Vol, 01, Issue 01, pp. 127-143, October 2017 A Case Study of Sylhet District

IDENTIFICATION AND SPATIAL ANALYSIS landscape units - floodplains, freshwater marshes, lakes and swamp OF WETLAND USING REMOTE SENSING forests.

AND GIS: A CASE STUDY OF SYLHET Characteristics being located in the lower edge of the topography, DISTRICT wetlands are subject to periodic inundation/flooding, shallow to deep, during wet monsoon. To understand the hydro- Abid Kamal 1 geomorphologic characteristics of the wetlands, a typical haor may be considered as an ideal example. Apart from the major river Abstract courses and streams, the major wetlands of fluvial origin occupy the floodplains. Some important wetlands of the country are chalanbeel, The study presents the spatial distribution and Upazila wise area Atrai basin, lower Punarbhaba floodplain, Gopalganj-Khulna Beels, coverage of wetlands in Sylhet district. Wetlands were identified Arial Beel, and many others. using Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI). The water pixels response very sharply to NDWI. DN values of identified water pixels Importance the wetlands have a wide range of ecological, socio- have been identified. The range of identified DN value was marked cultural, economic and commercial importance and values in as wetland and was extracted from other values. Extracted pixels Bangladesh. These are important habitats for a large variety of flora were converted to vector form to map and for spatial analysis. Total and fauna of local, national and regional significance. In the and Upazila wise area of wetlands has been calculated. Upazila wise freshwater wetlands the floral composition. Wetlands are critically spatial distribution of wetland was shown. Shape index analysis of important in Bangladesh for human settlements, biodiversity, wetland was also delineated. It has been found that maximum fisheries, agricultural diversity, navigation & communication, and wetlands were regular in shape. ecotourism.

Keywords: NDWI, Pixel, Resolution, DN value, Raster, Vector, Statement of the Problem GIS, Remote Sensing To conserve and manage wetland resources, it is important to have Background of the Research inventory of wetlands and their catchments. The ability to store and analyze the data is essential. Digital maps are very powerful tools to Bangladesh possesses enormous area of wetlands including rivers achieve this. Maps relate the feature to any given geographical and streams, freshwater lakes and marshes, haors, baors, beels, water location has a strong visual impact. Maps are thus essential for storage reservoirs, fish ponds, flooded cultivated fields and estuarine monitoring and quantifying changes over a time scale, and assist in systems with extensive mangrove swamps. Wetlands of coastal and decision-making process. Recent years have seen advances in marine origin are less important in Bangladesh. The haors, baors, mapping technique to prepare maps with much more information. Of beels and jheels are of fluvial origin and are commonly identified as particular importance is the remote sensing and geographic freshwater wetlands. These freshwater wetlands occupy four information system (GIS) technique. Remote sensing is now recognized as an essential tool for viewing, analyzing, characterizing, and making decisions about land, water and 1 Jr. Consultant of GIS Division, Center for Environmental and Geographic atmospheric components. From a general perspective, remote Information Services (CEGIS) 129 Peoples’ Preface Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: 130 Vol, 01, Issue 01, pp. 127-143, October 2017 A Case Study of Sylhet District sensing is the science of acquiring and analyzing information about Surma, Kushiyara, Khowai, Kalni, Manu, etc. There are many hills, objects or phenomena from a distance (Jensen, 1986; Lillesand and hillocks, haors, baors, beels and jheels in this division. Keifer, 1987). Today, we define satellite remote sensing as the use of satellite borne sensors to observe, measure, and record the Sylhet (Town) consists of 27 wards and 210 mahallas (Statistical electromagnetic radiation (EMR) reflected or emitted by the earth Year Book of Bangladesh 2001). The area of the town is 10.49 sq and its environment for subsequent analysis and extraction of km. The town has a population of 285308; male 54.68%, female information. EMR sensors include visible light, near-, mid- and far- 45.32%; density of population is 27198 per sq km. Literacy rate infrared (thermal), microwave, and long wave radio energy. The among the town people is 66.9%. capability of multiple sources of information is unique to remote sensing. Of specific advantage is the spectral, temporal, and spatial resolution. Spectral resolution refers to the width or range of each spectral band being recorded. Since each target affects different wavelengths of incident energy differently, they are absorbed, reflected or transmitted in different proportions. Currently, there are many remote sensing satellites to monitor natural resource of the earth that have sensors operating in the green, red, near infrared and short wave Infra red regions of the electromagnetic spectrum giving a definite spectral signature of various targets due to difference in radiation absorption and reflectance of targets. These sensors are of common use for land cover studies, including wetlands.

Objectives of the study

The research work has been designed to explore the following areas- 1. Identifying wetlands from Land sat TM image by using NDWI model. 2. Extraction of desired raster data and convert them into vector form to map and calculate the area. 3. To show Upazila wise spatial distribution of wetland. 4. To analysis shape index of wetland. Map 2.1: Upazila map of Sylhet district (Banglapedia, 2008)

Physiographic Location of Study Area

A large, gentle digressional feature is bounded by the Old Sylhet Division located to the north-east of Bangladesh and with an Brahmaputra floodplain in the west, the Meghalaya Plateau's area of 12595.95 sq km, is bounded by Meghalaya State of India on foothills in the north, Sylhet High Plain in the east and Old Meghna the north, Tripura State on the south, Assam State of India on the Estuarine floodplain on the south. Its greatest length, both E-W and east and Dhaka and Chittagong divisions on the west. Main rivers- N-S, is just over 113 km. numerous lakes (Beels), large Swamps and 131 Peoples’ Preface Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: 132 Vol, 01, Issue 01, pp. 127-143, October 2017 A Case Study of Sylhet District

Haors cover this saucer-shaped area of about 7,250 sq km. The Climate sinking of this large area into its present saucer-shape seems to be intimately connected with the uplift of Madhupur Tract. Local The climate of Sylhet is tropical monsoon with predominantly hot tradition has it that the land sank 9 to 12m in the last 200 years. This and humid summer and a relatively cold winter. The city is within area is still undergoing persistent subsidence. In addition to the hills the monsoon climate zone, with annual average highest temperatures located along the southern spur of the Shillong Massif, a number of of 230C (Aug-Oct) and average lowest temperature of 70C (Jan). hillocks, locally known as Tila, form minor but morphologically Nearly 80% of the annual average rainfall of 3,334 mm occurs distinct, ranges around Sylhet in northeastern Bangladesh. These between May and September. (Source: Banglapedia, 2008) elevations, as for instance Kailas Tila, Dupi Tila and the tilas at Beanibazar, east of Sylhet, are generally built up of Plio-Pleistocene Satellite Sensors and Image Selection clastic sediments and reach maximum elevations of about 60m above MSL. It is regularly flooded during the monsoon. The satellite image used in this study was typically collected from Bangladesh Space and Remote Sensing Organization (SPARSO). Surma-Kushiyara floodplain comprises the floodplain of rivers The image was taken on 10 August 2010 of Landsat TM 7 band draining from the eastern border towards the Sylhet Basin (Haor image. Spatial resolution (pixel size) of band 1-5 and 7 was 30 meter Basin). Some small hill and piedmont areas near Sylhet are included and band number 6 was 120 meter. Radiometric resolution (number within the boundaries. Elsewhere, the relief generally is smooth, of bit) for all bands was unsigned 8 –bit. The image was projected in comprising broad ridges and basins, but it is locally irregular Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection. Landsat TM alongside river channels. The soils are mainly heavy silts on the image has been used for the study because the required wavelength to ridges and clays in the basins. This area is subject to flash floods in delineate wetland remained in Landsat TM image properties. The the pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, so the extent wavelength range of 0.45-0.52µm and 0.77-0.90µm are required to and depth of flooding can vary greatly within a few days. Normal delineate wetlands. flooding is mainly shallow on the ridges and deep in the basins. Calculation of NDWI The main channel of the Meghna upstream from its junction with the Dhaleshwari and Ganges as far as Bhairab Bazar is known as the The Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) was first proposed middle Meghna. The floodplain of this river occupies a low-lying by McFeeters in 1996 to detect surface waters in wetland landscape of broad islands and many broad meandering channels environments and to allow for the measurement of surface water which formed part of the Brahmaputra before it abandoned this extent. Although the index was created for use with Landsat channel when it changed course into the Jamuna two centuries ago. Multispectral Scanner (MSS) image data, it has been successfully The Meghna sediments are mainly silty and clays and sandy used with other sensor systems in applications where the Brahmaputra sediments occur at the surface on some ridges in the measurement of the extent of open water is needed. north. Seasonal flooding from the Meghna is mainly deep. Basin sites are submerged early and drain late. (Source: Banglapedia, 2008) The NDWI is calculated using Equation: Green − NIR

Green + NIR (McFeeters, S.K., 2013, Using the Normalized 133 Peoples’ Preface Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: 134 Vol, 01, Issue 01, pp. 127-143, October 2017 A Case Study of Sylhet District

Difference Water Index (NDWI) within a Geographic Information The normalized difference water index (NDWI) has been System to Detect Swimming Pools for Mosquito Abatement: A successfully used to delineate surface water features. This index uses Practical Approach, 5, 3544-3561; doi:10.3390/rs5073544.) radiances or reflectances from a green channel around O. 55 µm and So for Landsat TM the equation is: a near-IR channel around 0.86 µm. The green channel is located in the strong chlorophyll absorption region, while the near-IR channel Band 2 − Band 4 is located in the high reflectance plateau of vegetation canopies. The

Band 2 + Band 4 two channels sense very different depths through water bodies. NDWI make a clear distinction between land and water. NDWI gives McFeeters assertedthat values of NDWI greater than zero are a single layer panchromatic image where wetlands are clearly assumed to represent water surfaces, while values less than, or equal, visible. Figure 3.2 shows a clear distinction between water and land to zero are assumed to be non-water surfaces. coverage of study area:

In this study, Model maker tool of ERDAS Imagine 2011 software has been used to make model for NDWI.

Fig3.2: Single layer NDWI image of study area

Wetland Identification by NDWI

Fig 3.1: NDWI Model NDWI produces a single grayscale image, where water is bright. Some other features may also appear bright in the NDWI result, such as certain buildings and clouds. NDWI has proven to be effective in 135 Peoples’ Preface Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: 136 Vol, 01, Issue 01, pp. 127-143, October 2017 A Case Study of Sylhet District quickly highlighting water that is both non-obscured and obscured. Examine the NDWI results first, as they are typically more accurate and easier to interpret than the Principal Components Analysis (PCA) results.

Isolation of Water Pixel

Electromagnetic energy may be detected either photographically or electronically. The photographic process uses chemical reactions on the surface of the light-sensitive film to detect and record energy variations. The imported NDWI image consists of thousands of pixels. Every pixel has a specific number value ranging from 1-255 and representing the brightness of each area with a numeric value or digital number. They combine to form a black and white image, Fig 3.3: Isolation of water pixel showing various shades of gray from black to white. Detailed Raster Classification by Ranges of Pixel Value examination of the NDWI image revealed that there were many mixed pixels comprised of a mixture of water, mud and possibly By using inquiries tool of ERDAS Imagine 2011 it has been mixtures of soil and vegetation, or even man-made features like the confirmed that pixel value of all wetland features has been laid settlement. To extract wetland from other features specific DN value, between 175 to 250. Only these 26-pixel values could not be the specific ranges need to know which response highly for water. converted into vector file of wetland. As a result, all 256 values have Those wetlands are prominent and visualize in by eye has been been needed to classify. The single layer NDWI image has been identified. The pixel value of those water bodies has been delineated classified in ArcGIS 10.2 according to the pixel value. The whole by image inquiries. From query, it has been clear that range of pixel image has been classified into three classes. 175-250 for wetlands, value of the wetland is 175 to 250. 251-255 comprises of the outside 251-255 for outside area and 1-174 for other features excluding white area. So, the pixel value of 175-250 has been supposed to be as wetland. In attribute ID of wetland was “2”, Non-wetland and the wetland. outside area were accordingly “1” and “3”. The pixel value of a

grayscale image increases from black to white color. Wetlands looked white ranging from 175-250. In Image reclassify option of spatial analyst tool of ArcGIS 10.2, three classes have been generated and recolor them to identify. The image has been reclassifying to convert them into vector format as they could use for area calculation and shape index analysis.

137 Peoples’ Preface Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: 138 Vol, 01, Issue 01, pp. 127-143, October 2017 A Case Study of Sylhet District

ℎ () = √ 2 255 Where, L is the Perimeter and A refers to Area.

In case of regular shape such as circle, Si attains minimum value such as negative. In case of complex shape, Si is ≥1.

Value Pixel Polygon of wetland had been converted to vector from raster pixels. As a result polygon of a water body divided into many small 0 polygons. For shape index analysis, area and perimeter of a whole wetland was needed. Because of this reason small clustered polygons have been merged and converted into one polygon. Fig 3.4: Change of pixel value in grayscale image Wetland Identification

Upazila Wise Area Calculation Wetlands have been identified by using Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI). After converted raster image into vector data, Upazila wise area of wetland has also been calculated. Sylhet district a detailed map of wetland has been found. has 11upazila. Upazila map has been collected from Local Government Engineering Department (LGED). After completion of geo-referencing, the map has been digitized. Upazila boundary has spatially been joined with the wetland. As a result, the area of each Upazila has been found. The total area of each Upazila has been calculated.

Map Preparation

The base map such as road and railway network has been collected from LGED. After that, the baseline database has been merged with the wetland to prepare an integrated map.

Shape Index Analysis of Wetland

Shape Index refers to the shape of wetlands, whether it is regular (such as: circular) or complex shape. The formula has been used for shape index analysis: Map 4.1: Identified Wetlands of Sylhet district

139 Peoples’ Preface Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: 140 Vol, 01, Issue 01, pp. 127-143, October 2017 A Case Study of Sylhet District

Calculation of Area of Wetland

The baseline database such as road and railway network has been digitized and merges into the main database to show them into the final map. Area of wetland has been calculated from polygon shape file. Area of each individual polygon shape of water has been found. Sum of each area has been calculated. The total area of wetland found in Sylhet district was 55.87 Sq. Km.

Upazila Wise Spatial Distribution

There are 11 Upazila in Sylhet district. Upazila wise spatial distribution of wetland has been delineated. Area of wetland of each Upazila has been found. The percentage of wetland of every Upazila has been calculated in context with total wetland area within Sylhet district. Map 4.2: Upazila wise spatial distribution of wetlands

Table 4.1: Upazila wise wetland distribution Shape Index Analysis of Wetland Wetland Area Upazila Wetland Area (Sq.km) ( %) Shape index expresses the differences in the shape of a patch varied Balaganj 16.02 28.67 from a circle with the same area. The bigger the Si- value, the more Beani Bazar 3.65 6.53 complex the edge of a wetland type, and the more abnormal the Bishwanath 1.80 3.22 patch’s shape is. Companiganj 6.25 11.18 Fenchuganj 1.59 2.85 It has been found from the study that maximum value of Si Golabganj 4.35 7.78 comprised between 0 to 3.8. There was no negative value of Si. As a Gowainghat 5.32 9.51 result it could be said that maximum wetland’s shape are regular.

Jaintiapur 1.67 2.98 Kanaighat 4.24 7.58 Kotwali 4.46 7.97 Zakiganj 3.33 5.97

Balaganj upazila comprises highest wetland area and Fenchuganj upazila comprises lowest wetland area. Upazila wise spatial distribution of wetland has been shown in map: 141 Peoples’ Preface Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: 142 Vol, 01, Issue 01, pp. 127-143, October 2017 A Case Study of Sylhet District

Shape index (Si) Analysis manifestation of wetlands in remote sensing data and synoptic view of the area. 16.00 14.00 12.00 References i 10.00 Anon. 2005, NNRMS Standards. A National Standards for EO images, 8.00 thematic & cartographic maps, GIS databases and spatial outputs. 6.00 ISRO:NNRMS: TR:112:2005. A Committee Report: National Natural value of S of value Resources Management System, Bangalore. 4.00 2.00 Baker C., Lawrence R., Montagne C., and Patten D. 2006. Mapping 0.00 Wetlands and Riparian Areas Using Landsat ETM+ Imagery and Decision- Regular Shape Complex Shape tree-based Models. Wetlands Journal, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp.465-474.

Fig 4.1: Shape index analysis of wetland Baker C., Lawrence R., Montagne C., and Patten D. 2007. Change Detection of Wetland Ecosystems Using Landsat Imagery and Change Key Observations Vector Analysis. Wetlands Journal, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp.610-619.

 Water pixels response very sharply to NDWI. Coppin P., Jonckheere I., Nackaerts K., Muys B., and Lambin E. 2004.  It is possible to map the spatial distribution of wetland Digital Change Detection Methods in Ecosystem Monitoring. International within an area by using NDWI and GIS techniques. Journal of Remote Sensing 25:1565–96.  Total area of wetland of Sylhet district is 55.87 Sq. Km.  Spatial distribution of wetland of 11 upazilas in Sylhet Encyclopaedic Directory of Environment (1988). (Ed. By G.R. Chatwal, district has been delineated. D.K. Pandey, and K.K. Nanda). Vol. I-IV, Anmol Publications, New Delhi.  Balaganj upazila comprises highest wetland area (28.67%) HARDY, C.C. and BURGAN, R.E., 1999, Evaluation of NDVI for and Fenchuganj upazila comprises lowest wetland area monitoring live moisture in three vegetation types of the western US. (2.85%). Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 65, 603-610.  Wetlands are regular in shape. HUNG, M.C. and WU, Y.H., 2005, Mapping and visualizing the Great Salt Conclusion Lake landscape dynamics using multi-temporal satellite images, 1972– 1996.International Journal of Remote Sensing, 26, pp. 1815–1834. The results are organized into four sections: wetland identification by NDWI model, total wetland area calculation, Upazila wise Jensen J.R., Ramsat E.W., Mackey H.E., Christensen E.J., Sharitz R.P. wetland area distribution and shape index analysis. The Maps and 1987. Inland wetland change detection using aircraft MSS data. Statistics were shown for Upazila and district level. The areas of Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 53: 521-529. wetland have been estimated in Square Kilometer. False Color National Wetland Atlas, Ministry of Environment and ForestsGovernment Composite (FCC) of the satellite image used (any one season) has of India, Space Applications centre Indian Space Research Organisation, been shown along with the derived wetland map to give a feeling of Ahmedabad –380 015. 143 Peoples’ Preface Identification and Spatial Analysis of Wetland Using Remote Sensing and GIS: 144 Vol, 01, Issue 01, pp. 127-143, October 2017 A Case Study of Sylhet District

Poiani K.A. 1996. A GIS-based Index for Relating Landscape Characteristics to Potential Nitrogen Leaching to Wetlands. Landscape Ecology, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 237-255.

Scott, D. A. and Jones, T. A. 1995. Classification and Inventory of Wetlands: A Global Overview. Vegetation 118: 3-16.

TOYRA, J., PIETRONIRO, A. and MARTZ, L.W., 2001, Multisensor hydrologic assessment of a freshwater wetland.Remote Sensing of Environment, 75, pp. 162–173.

Townshend, J.R., and Justice, C.O. 1986. Analysis of dynamics of African vegetation using the Normalised difference Vegetation Index. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 7, pp. 1435-1445.

Tucker, C.J. and Sellers, P.J. 1986. Satellite remote sensing of primary productivity. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 7, pp. 1395-1416.

WANG, Y., COLBY, J.D. and MULCAHY, K.A., 2002, An efficient method for mapping flood extent in a coastal floodplain using Landsat TM and DEM data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 23, pp. 3681– 3696.

145 Peoples’ Preface Solid Waste Management 146 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 145-160, October 2017 System of Satkhira Pourashava, Satkhira

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF distance of dustbin and lack of knowledge. The respondents disposed SATKHIRA POURASHAVA, SATKHIRA their waste in various times, 71%, 27% and 2% disposed in the morning, noon and night respectively. Waste collection was

1 irregular and there was no fixed time to collect wastes. The rate Narayan Chandra Somoddar of satisfaction on waste management process was low and that was 2 Dipon Thunder 13% and there was no suitable waste management practices in the 3 Mrinal Kanti Madhu study area. Digbijoy Dey 4 Key Word: Waste Management, WASH, Abstract Introduction A study on solid waste management system was carried out on Satkhira Pourashava area of Satkhira district during different Recent decades have experienced migration of a large population periods from Dec-2016 to January 2017. The investigation was from the rural to urban areas due to rapid industrialization round the conducted by an interview schedule among 9 wards of Satkhira globe. Since Bangladesh is a developing country, its industries are Pourashava area and the recorded family was 100. The total waste growing over time. Due to this rapid industrialization, urban areas production in this Pourashava area was 189.75 kg/day. 52% family are facing great pressure of huge populations who have migrated for small and 43% medium and 5% family were large. Medium family better civic amenities, job opportunities and improved quality of life. was highly responsible to dispose kitchen waste and large family While the country’s total population has been increasing at about 1.6 was responsible for paper, plastic, glass, and other waste percent per annum; its urban population has been growing at about materials. Large family showed highly responsibility to dispose 3.52 percent per annum as per World Bank report. The urban more waste compared to small and medium family. Among the nine population in Bangladesh was reported 35.2 percent of total (9) wards ward N o - 1 and ward no - 3 disposed more waste population in 2014 and the population density (people per sq. km) than other wards and the amount was 33 kg/day. Ward No-4 were 1222.1 (ADB 1998). The UN (2004) projection for urban produced less wastes compared to others and the amount was 9.625 population of Bangladesh for 2030 was 86.5 million. Urban centers kg/day. Respondents up to primary education level were produced in Bangladesh matches with 7 size classes (Islam & Hossain, 1976) 77.40 kg waste per day and above secondary education level the classification given by the Bangladesh Census Commission is a produced 48.75 kg/day. So, the generation above the secondary combination of population size and administrative or governance education level was more conscious compared to secondary and structure. The Commission has classified the urban centers into four primary level of education. From the study, it is found that 26% categories; such as the Megacity, Statistical Metropolitan Areas respondents disposed their wastes in dustbin and 46% respondents (SMAs), Pourashava, Urban Areas (World Bank, 2001). in open place and 28% disposed in pit. Highest percentage wastes were disposed in open place and pit due to lack of dustbin, At present there are 326 Pourashava and 11 city corporations were parts of the four largest cities –Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, and 1Wash Specialist of BRAC Rajshahi in the country. The population in total Pourashavas is about 2Wash Specialist of BRAC 15.2 million. In this context, Pourashava occupies an important 3 Wash Specialist of BRAC position in the overall system of administration and governance in 4Wash Specialist of BRAC 147 Peoples’ Preface Solid Waste Management 148 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 145-160, October 2017 System of Satkhira Pourashava, Satkhira

Bangladesh as key local government bodies with the status of data for this research were mainly collected from the study area. The statutory bodies constituted under law and function as autonomous data were analyzed to address the central issues of waste self-governing units for urban areas of the country; and as agencies management with relation to the sources of waste, generation of rendering important public services to the people of urban areas wastes, opinions of the respondents, from different sources as well (BBS 2008). Along with population explosion, municipal expansion, as different point of views. In order to fulfill the objectives, economic development and improvement of people’s living interview schedule was used for data collection and data analysis standards, the amount of municipal solid waste has been increasing (Change et al 2005). Researchers went to nine wards of municipal rapidly and its composition has become more multidimensional and area and took interviews from ten persons per ward separately. complex (Rahman et al 2003). Therefore, this study wants to Description of methods and procedures used for this study are examine the state of solid waste management in a semi urban presented below: municipal as in such as Satkhira Pourashava under Khulna division. The objective of this study was to evaluate the present solid waste Data Collection management system of Satkhira Pourashava. It also intended to identify the constraints and the potential options to enhance the Data for the study were collected through personal interview during present SWM system. Dec-15 to January 15 in 2017. The researcher explained the purpose of the study and requested necessary help and co- Methodology operation to collect some basic information about waste management. The study is the combination of two methods, i.e. empirical analysis for primary data collection to find out the existing practice of the The respondents provided information from their memory. In order pourashava and also the citizens’ expectations as well as their to minimize the response error, questions asked in Bangla. After practice, and content analysis as well from different secondary completion of each interview, it was checked to be sure that sources to understand the relevant practice and analysis (WHO information had been properly recorded. 2000). Variables Under Study Firstly we had selected the study area named Satkhira Pourashava to perform the research work. Then, prepared the questionnaires to In this study, the respondents were identified by name and collect data from various sources to evaluate the present status of fathers/husband’s name with house number. The independent SWM. After that we have analyzed the collected data and obtained variables for household waste generation were average age, the results. education, occupations and monthly income. The family was identified as number of male and female in households. The Materials and Methods amount of wastes and types of waste were the dependent variable in this study. The procedure followed to measure these variables The Satkhira Pourashava area was selected as a study area. The was described below. methodology for this study includes observation and field level data collection through inventory, questionnaire survey and interviews in informal and non formal ways (Ahmed et al). The relevant secondary 149 Peoples’ Preface Solid Waste Management 150 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 145-160, October 2017 System of Satkhira Pourashava, Satkhira

Storage vehicle that may be used for transporting to the waste to the disposal site. On site storage for waste can be either individual or communal, using a portable and manually loadable container or a mechanically Transfer and Transport of Waste loadable container or a concrete box fixed on a ground. Activities associated with the transfer of waste from the smaller Collection collection vehicle or dustbin to a large transport vehicle and subsequent the waste, a long distance, to the final disposal site. Activities associated with the gathering of waste from temporary storage container and handling of the waste after to the location Final Disposal where the collection vehicle is employed. Activities associated with ultimate disposal of waste including those There are several methods used for collection of waste. The most collected, processed and transport directly to a landfill. The common are: processed substances are those obtained residual substances from 1. Communal collection various waste processing plants are of no further use. 2. Block collection The options available for final disposal of waste are: 3. House to house collection (I) open dumping (ii) Sanitary land filling (iii) Incineration and (IV) Composting Communal Collection Open Dumping The urban people carry their wastes to solid waste bins (dustbin) or similar facilities situated at specific locations and deposit waste there Disposing of solid wastes in open places is the most common by the people of that locality. method used in developing countries. Much of uncollected solid wastes are disposed on a similar manner. Block Collection Sanitary Land Filling The collection vehicle travels over a selected route at a specific time of the day, usually two or three days a week. The servants bring Sanitary land filling is a method of disposing of wastes on land their wastes and hand them over to truck laborer, who collects the without creating nuisance or hazard to public health or safety. vehicle and returns containers to the urban people. Sanitary landfill has a danger of ground water contamination and surface water pollution. If the landfill site is improperly chosen House to House Collection or it is too deep. But this danger can be avoided by proper site selection and maintenance. But sanitary landfill requires large areas The housekeeper store wastes in a bin, basket or bag, pour waste of land (Jimenez et al 1989). into collection vehicle and return containers to the premises. The collection vehicles may be hand/push cart, rickshaw van or a small 151 Peoples’ Preface Solid Waste Management 152 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 145-160, October 2017 System of Satkhira Pourashava, Satkhira

Incineration response to the questions in the interview schedule was transferred to a master sheet to facilitate tabulation for statistical Ahmed and Rahman (2000) reported that incineration is a process analysis. The collected data for this study were analyzed by basic of reducing the combustible portion of the waste to and inert statistics such as number and percentage distribution, range, mean, residue by high temperature burning (EPA 1990). The products of and standard deviation which were used in describing the variables combustion are ash, gases and heat energy. Incineration is used to of the study. Correlation between dependent and independent sterilize refuse. Usually about 80-90% volume reduction is variables were carried out to find the relationship. attainable. Results and Discussion Composting The findings of the study have been presented in following sections: Composting is a biological decomposition of the organic the selected characteristics of the respondents, amount of waste constituents of waste under controlled conditions. Compost system generation from household, disposal places of waste, waste could be classified on three general bases, namely oxygen usage, collection time by municipal authority, management system problem temperature and technological approach (Morillon et al 2002). faced by respondents and suggestion for better management system. When temperature forms, it is again classified as the mesophilic and thermopile. Similarly if technology is the basis it may be further Characteristics of the Respondents classified as „open or „ window, while mechanical based from may be termed as „enclosed composting. In the study 6 characteristics of the respondents were analyzed:

Re-use 1) Family size of the respondents 2) Level of education 3) Sex ratio of the respondents 4) Occupation of the respondents 5) Age ratio of Reclamation of materials is its end-use from and its subsequent use the respondents 6) Monthly income of the respondents. in the same form. For example, milk or soft drinks bottles that makes several trips from bottle or consumer and back again, where Amount of Waste Dispose Daily by The Respondents they are cleaned and refilled. Study result revealed that74% were responsible to dispose waste Re-cycling below1.5kg,16% were responsible between the ranges of 1.5 to 2 kg, 1% were on the range 2 to 2.5 kg and 9% were above 2. 5kg (Table It is a reprocessing of waste to recover as original raw materials, 1). for example, the steel contents from tin cans and the use of glass Table: 1 Waste Disposal in The Study Area cylinder for bottle manufacture. Category Frequency/ Percent Number Analysis of Data Below (<1.5kg) 74 74

After completion of the field survey, the information obtained from (<1.50-2.00 kg) 16 16 all of the respondents were coded, compiled and tabulated. The 153 Peoples’ Preface Solid Waste Management 154 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 145-160, October 2017 System of Satkhira Pourashava, Satkhira

(<2-2.5kg) 1 1 Places of Disposing Household Waste

Above(>2.5kg) 9 9 Study result revealed that 25% wastes were disposed in dustbin, 1% Total 100 100 in road side, 46% in open place, 28% in pit by the respondents (table10).Disposal of wastes at open place, roadside and pit were

reported in Figures.1. Daily Disposal Wastes Among the Wards of the Study Area

Table 3 Disposal Sites of Household Waste Among the wards N o - 04 disposed low amount of waste and the Category Frequency Percent amount was 9.625 kg/day. Ward No-1 & 3 disposed most wastes and the amount was 33 kg/day (Table 2). /11 HH. Dustbin 25 25 Road/Drain side 1 1 Table 2. Total Wastes Disposed by the Wards Open place 46 46 Ward Max. collection Min. Average Total Pit 28 28 No kg/day/HH collection collection amount kg/day/HH kg/day/HH (kg/day)/11 Total 100 100 HH 01 5.00 1.00 3.00 33.00 Condition of Dustbin

02 3.00 1.00 2.00 22.00 Study showed that 4% dustbin was good, 14% were fair, 18% were bad, 64% were absent of dustbin. Due to absent of dustbin waste was 03 5.00 1.00 3.00 33.00 disposed in open places (Table 4). 04 1.00 0.75 0.875 9.625 Table: 04 Condition of Dustbin 05 3.00 1.00 2.00 22.00 Category Frequency Percentage

06 1.00 1.00 1.00 11.00 Good 4 4 Fair 14 14 07 4.00 1.50 2.75 30.25 Bad 18 18 08 2.00 0.50 1.125 12.375 Dustbin absent 64 64 09 2.00 1.00 1.50 16.50 Total 100 100 Total 189.75 Reasons to Through The Waste in Open Place

Study result revealed that 26% were responsible for dustbin was far away, 0% for lack of knowledge, 64% for absent of dustbin,

155 Peoples’ Preface Solid Waste Management 156 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 145-160, October 2017 System of Satkhira Pourashava, Satkhira

10% for bad dustbin. Throwing waste in open place was highly Table 8 Facing Problem to Dispose Wastes responsible for absent of dustbin Category Frequency Percent Yes 96 96 Table 5 Reasons to Through The Waste in Open Place No 4 4 Category Frequency Percentage Total 100 100 Dustbin faraway 26 26 Lack of knowledge 0 0 Types of Problems Facing for Disposal of Wastes

Dustbin absent 64 64 From the study, it is showed that 12% said that disposal of Bad Dustbin 10 10 wastes had created blockage of footpath, 21% said that mosquito, Total 100 100 bee and other insect increased rapidly,42% said that bad odors was produced and disturbance by dog, fox etc. was said by 25%.

Time of Disposal of Household Waste Table 9 Different Problems Arise to Dispose Wastes Category Frequency From the table it is found that 71% were responsible for Percent disposal of waste in morning 27% were at noon, 2% at night. Block of footpath 12 12 Mosquito, bee and other 21 21 Table 6 Disposal Time of Waste in the Study Area insect Category Frequency Percentage Dog, fox etc. 25 25 Morning 71 71 Bad odors 42 42 Total 100 100 Noon 27 27

Evening 0 0 Suggestion for Better waste Management by the Respondents Night 2 2 Total 100 100 In the study area, 55% respondents suggested that en o u g h dustbin should be available in suitable place with better waste management, 11% suggested t o construct the dustbin within their Problems Facing for Disposal of Waste reach, 13% suggested to clean the dustbin daily, 5% respondents suggested to dispose the waste within short time, 5% suggested to 96% respondent said that disposal of wastes create problem and 4% maintain the dustbins properly, 1% suggested to use antiseptic were not agree with this question regularly, 10% suggested to cover the dustbins.

157 Peoples’ Preface Solid Waste Management 158 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 145-160, October 2017 System of Satkhira Pourashava, Satkhira

Table 10 Waste Management Suggestions Given by the Respondents secondary level and 22% were educated above secondary level. 3% Category Frequency were involved in the occupation of agriculture, 17% were in Percent business, 6% were in service holder, 59% were housewife,8% were Dustbin should be available 55 55 student,5% were retired person and 1% was labour. Income of the Dustbin should be within the 11 11 respondents of study area ranges from 15000 tk to 25000 tk. 20%, reach above 25,000 Tk 8% and below 15,000 Tk 72%. The respondents Daily cleaning wastes 13 13 dispose waste daily below the range of 1.5 kg. 74% and 9% were Waste should be disposed from 5 5 responsible to dispose waste above 2.5 kg. dustbin within short time Proper maintenance of dustbin 5 5 From the study, it was found that kitchen, paper, plastic, glass, and Regular antiseptic use in dustbin 1 1 other wastes were disposed by the respondents of the study area. Dustbin should be covered 10 10 The amount of kitchen waste was disposed highly and the amount Total 100 100 was 67 kg that was disposed by all respondents of the study area per day. The amount of other wastes (Pieces of wood, garbage, Summary of Study rubbish etc.) was disposed in low amount and the amount was 43.37 kg/day and food waste 34.88 kg /day by the all respondents. The study was carried out in the municipal area of Satkhira Total waste produced by the respondents was 145.25 kg/day. Pourashava during December 15 to January 2017. Increasing waste generation is growing environmental problem. Proper wastes From the study, it was observed that the disposal of waste in open management is of utmost importance for both converting wastes into place was 46%, disposal of waste to the dustbin was 25%, 28% was usable material and protecting public health and social environment. disposed in the pit and 1% in the road side. Waste management policy should be based on present waste generation and disposal, pattern, infrastructure facilities, The study result revealed that 64% of the respondents throw the geographical location and socio –economic condition of that wastage at open place due to absent of dustbin, 26% for bad area. To get an overall idea about existing waste management and dustbin and 26% were responsible for dustbin was far away. infrastructure facilities, 1 0 0 respondents o f t h e s t u d y a r e a Throwing waste in open place was highly responsible for absent w e r e s e l e c t e d a n d intensively monitored. The total of 100 of dustbin. respondents were interviewed with a pre - designed interview schedule containing questions regarding their age, level of Disposal of wastes in open place is higher due to absent of dustbin education, family size, occupation, income, waste disposal and the percent was 64%. Maximum wastes were disposed at condition, human health and environmental hazard. morning by the respondents of the study area and this percent was 71%. Study results revealed that 52% were small family, 43% were medium family and 5% were large family.37% of the respondents Disposal of wastes created problem on the locality and disturbance were male and 63% were female,35% were below the age of 30, of dog, fox was given priority by the respondents of the study 58% were in the range of 30-40 and 27% were above 40 years. 5% area and the respondent percentage were 25%. Percent of bad odor were illiterate, 26% were educated up to primary, 47% were in 159 Peoples’ Preface Solid Waste Management 160 Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 145-160, October 2017 System of Satkhira Pourashava, Satkhira was 42, mosquito, bee, and other insect were 21, and blockage of Jimenez, E.I. and Garcia, V.P. 1989. Evaluation of City Refuse Compost footpath were 25%. Maturity : A review. Bio. Wastes. 27: 115-142. Morillon, A., Vidalie, J.F., Harnzah, U.S., Suripno, S. and E-Iadinoto, E.K. The rate of satisfaction on existing waste management was 13% and 2002. Drilling and Waste Management SPE 73931, Presented at the SPE non satisfaction was 87%. There was no appropriate waste Intl. Conf. on Health, Safety and the Environ. Oil and Gas Exploration and management system in the study area. The respondents suggested Production, March 20-22. that dustbin should be available 55%, dustbin should be within the J. Envrion. Sci., 9:297. Reiter, J. 1992. Solid waste pollution in Sylhet City. reach 11%, waste should be dispose within short time 5%, proper Bangladesh Recycling bottle neck. Dairy foods, 93(7): 53-54. maintenance of dustbin 5%, regular use of antiseptic 1%, and dustbin should be covered 10%, and daily cleaning of wastes were Robinson, J.J. and Stentiford , E.I. 1993. Composting as part of the waste recycling system . Waste: Handling, Processing and Recycling, pp.63-71. 13%. World Bank, 2001. The Philippines Environment Monitor 2001. The World Bank. World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Wastes from Health-Care References Activities.

Ahmed, M.A and Rahman, M.M. 2000, Water supply and sanitation. Rural and low income urban communities ITN Bangladesh. BUST, Dhaka- 1000. Bangladesh. Asian Development Bank (ADB). 1998. Dhaka City Management reform pilot project. Draft final report. Prepared by Bangladesh Center for advanced Studies (BCAS) and BRAC. Dhaka, Bangladesh. BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics), 2008. Statistical Pocket Book of Bangladesh, Planning Division, Ministry of Planning. Government of the Peoples' Repub. Bangladesh Published in 2009. Change, C.Y., Lung, C.H. and Fang, W.C. 2005. A sequential extraction method measures the toxic metal content in fly ash from a municipal solid waste incinerator. J. Chinese Chemical Society. 2005; 52(5): 921-926. [Cited from CAB Abst.]. Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), 1990. Recommended Buffer Distance for Industrial Residual Air Emissions. Publication No. AQ 2186. Melbourne, Australia. Islam, M.Z., Karim, M.R., Mondal, M.A., Hasan, M.K. and Hossain, M.Z. 2007 strategies to better waste management in mymensingh municipal Area. Bangladesh J. Environ. Sci,. 13(2): 408-411. Peoples’ Preface ISSN 2520-7679, Vol. 01, Issue 01, pp. 109-137, October 2017

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