CEU eTD Collection Cultural politics and musical practicesofRoma Cultural politicsandmusical Ethnicity, Performance and World Music. and Ethnicity, Performance Department of Sociology & Social Anthropology the requirements of the degree Master ofArts Master degree the of requirements the performers inHungary Central European University Professor Michael Stewart Professor Michael in partial fulfillment of fulfillment partial in Professor Ayse Caglar Gerg Budapest, Hungary Submitted to Supervisors: Ę by Pulay 2007 CEU eTD Collection ‘recognition’, ‘modernization’, or‘labeling’ Romathe of in region.our ‘dispersal’, the on discourses explicit more to contributions as interpreted ofmusic.forms My isbasic assumption thatmusical can practices and shouldbe ‘hybridized’ or ‘mixed’ creating market-force towards as arecent andalso otherness’; world music is widely as understood an all-encompassing notion of ‘musical musical networksto the of production performance, and reception. The category of musiccontextualize the by played as Roma a form culture with expressive of respect means of itfield. Inpractical worldmusic the development to terms, recent Hungary by placing such performances at intersectionsthe ofidentity andpolitics the aim of this understandpaper is to the ‘micro-politics’ of Roma music makingin of shaping the relationships of Romathe with their broadersocial surroundings. The musicalaltering performances andin products also butthemselves, through waysthe Europe. in The beeffects Central merelyand Eastern of assessed can’t these through During last the twodecades Romamusical styles has gone numerousthrough changes Abstract ii CEU eTD Collection List of references:...... 55 ...... 53 Conclusion 3.3 ‘The Cuba’: Gypsies 48 and Latinos ...... in a private ceremony 3.2 The ‘death of folklore’: 44 the birth of world music?...... 3.1 Struggles 34 around appropriation ...... Chapter 3: Music, power and Roma performances...... 34 2.3 ‘Being there’ on-stage 31 and back-stage...... 2.2 The field of Roma performers: 26 networks and autonomy...... 2.1 Methods 20 and the profile ...... of research Chapter 2: Entering the Roma musical ...... 20 scene 1.3 The development 16 of the world ...... music field 1.2 Understanding 10 Roma performance...... 1.1 The cultural 8 politics ...... of dispersal Chapter 1: Ethnicity, performance 8 and music-making...... 1 Introduction...... Table of Contents iii CEU eTD Collection On 25 the Introduction first and only official radio station of the Hungarian Roma minority events when my Roma acquaintances sing a whole set of songs which are otherwise are which songs of set a whole sing acquaintances my Roma when events rare nowadays those among also they’re but intimate more and better only not usually heras afortune teller, flat. suggestedgoing Iknew to such that are after-parties evening somewhere else. A Roma woman from company,our whootherwise works drinkingwere – men the least at – guests the of most English items, Roma’ ‘traditionally whiskey.several Later I joinedmenu contained Whilethe celebration’. ‘elite anurban of a place wedding than a smaller group of party the – canteen the of a public– school resembled usual the site of a rural of people to continueThe location itself bandplayed. place with the that the and unsatisfied were passive, the people for most thewell-being theorganizers guests, the Although wereattentive of of thesedifferentall professions. being representatives’ ‘Roma configuration of people –unless we take into consideration commonthe notion of multinationalof This couldcompanies. crowd be seen as amixed anddiverse Roma class inormanagers asstockbrokers since they’re business Hungary working – some of those few young men who are considered to be the ‘vanguard’ of a presumed C’; and of speakers ‘Radio the star bands; less Roma acknowledged morefrom or musicians and dancers discrimination; against initiatives with NGOs from activists including young Roma journalists working asexperts of minority issues in themedia; were Mosta developing elite; of representatives area of guests Roma Budapest. of the th of of November 2006I was invited toa party organized by ‘RadioC’ (the 1 1 ) in a suburban CEU eTD Collection sing a to andstarted initiator upon the role of the menatthetable flat took of the In the one (Stewart, 1989:79.) performancethe of men song Rom themselvesfully becomingexperience Rom.” in mean that of song, the nature the as well as singing, collective Rom of and content The context fractiousness. their daily to in contrast anidealworld communal create life story of the performer. As Michael Stewart notes, “In the act of singing, Rom men the and personality the to connected strongly forms, narrative on based are songs slow world; however the crucial issues of It crucialissues however the debate all were clear for the world; of participants. the in achanging maintenance its and identity’ ‘Roma on discussions explicit no were “there’s such no and task” “whatwe are doingis the 2006-way of singing”. There properly!” The startedothers to debate his statementimmediately by saying that moment and said:different these viewstwo was explicatedby upatone of a musiciansthe stood who “After being able tosingdestroying songs the as it not of shame the of because turmoil the and ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ both being of so many songs act loose is between the border thin quite thatthe itwas obvious amusing was rather let’s try to andpracticesconceptions ofbeing andfully“becoming Rom”. situation Although the sing at leastcultural one bass-lines oral added aspontaneous imitation hip-hop thisAfro-American hybridof to display.accompanied theThe singer as jazzy The vocal improvisations. joined hisothers ironic and performance performancea swing-choir while one of the main voices ofwas ‘Radio C’ a meaningful example of the changing ( from totally stageperformances.excluded the Theseare ‘songs the for listening’ 1 By following both the academic discourses and definitionsthe in thefield I use both the ‘Roma’ and “hallgató” ‘hallgató’ ) inor wordsthe‘truespeech’other ( in a rather special way. In his version the traditional songs became songs traditional the version his In way. special inarather should be 2 done traditionally. The conflict between conflict The traditionally. done “chachi vorba” ) of Such Roma.) of the CEU eTD Collection their broader social surroundings. Beyond the musicological categorization of styles themselves, butalso through ways the relationshipsshaping the of of with Roma the be assessedmerely alteringthrough musical performances in and products numerousthrough changes in Central andEurope. Eastern The effects of these can’t raised up in this research. During the last decades two Roma musical styles has gone beThe above casecould taken described as ameaningful mainissues of the example identification. ethnic of modes altering the for mediums significant still are performances changing such that suppose to have is then we correct moments identity-construction of asaccentuated performances such of as well. andhis interpretation the contemporaries If ‘modern’,hisancestors the will be recognized as somebody iswho abletohold both on to ‘traditional’the and patterns. If such an isaction powerful and persuasiveenough for audience,the performer the traditional and local reproducing of instead translations cultural for potential mix of something ‘old’ inand something ‘new’,by or words other showing the being andfully“becoming Rom” was supposed to be constructed by successful the of Theexperience of merepatterns. traditional elsethan by the activation something 1989.).In lifemyStewart, asimilar 1999.; (Kovalcsik, case social wasfilledpractice traditional andnotionspatterns of togetherness beyond timethe andspace of everyday of activating moments sacred culturally as practices these in Hungary describes Most of ethnographiesthe onthesinging and especially ‘truespeech’ the of Romathe this controversial cultural explanations can co-exist at the same time (Turner, 1988.). felt after such ‘dangerous games’. Accordingcondition to Victor of the beingTurner,about also but traditions, ‘fullyethnic in and a innovation performance of relation the Rom’, about only not was the like self-ironic display of its features, and the shame the “Gypsy’the category throughout this paper.However, in most cases ‘Roma’ appears as externalan 3 CEU eTD Collection Garth Carthwright, the author of the book writes – music.” at win ever only Roma the then victors by the is written history “If Roma? of integration or recognition tothe related contestations for wider the scene does are musical musical Whatused in kinds of What the contexts? altering these patterns identification? for strategies are the performers’ What following: the this paper are musicalnetworks of production, reception and consumption. The main questions of by formedvarious in the acontext andtheir performances musicians place Roma of the on is thisconcentrated paper media, in the minority representations of problems are limited discourses and tothe features that the based upon inherentonly their category, I while introduce ‘Gypsy’ asan internal one. sphere in which people are continuously with andworking within already existing general;in as“a reality sphere over struggle init,which people and their place a inpopular culture about suggestions Lawrence Grossberg’s to conceived according musically” 1996:231.).Inthese (Silverman, terms themusic of Romathe be could powerful and politically powerless Roma that are are based“the on paradox, practices these notes, Silverman As Carol relations. non-Roma and in Roma exchange cultural its own ‘micro-politics’ aesthetics:performative arts itisor form a which has socially-embedded expressive through the agencygenres. among One them is thatRoma music cannotbemerely understood in of terms of performers and view in both ideasinto come that someof these are Gypsies,there recurrent the the various forms of literature on of romanticizing the popular Romany tendencies often Studies deprecate 2005.: 12).Although scholars from disciplines the umbrella-categoryunder the of of Balkan by Roma performers promoted the musicworld (Carthwright, market Gypsy Musicians ; a popular travelogue in the circles of English-speaking enthusiasts English-speaking of circles inthe travelogue ; apopular 4 Princes Amongst Men:Journeys with CEU eTD Collection situations musicsituations is withattached meanings andmessages that cannotbe conveyed by peoplecharacterized both by marginalized ethnicity and social In such position. which practices are able tocreatespacefor self-formulation forand representation – cultural 1999: 564.).Makingmusic (Werbner, is cultural capital.” of one those “with nocapital rely heavily on the only capital they can gain access to or even invent who those to referring here, be relevant might entrepreneurs immigrant early about Werbner’s statement musicalRoma performativity. of culture and embeddedness maintainingare relational this way reasoning when of the discussing social indicators of scarcity and deprivation. Many popularthe of and social texts scientific sociological thenegative exclusively with almost otherwise isa contextthat depicted can musicidentification culture that provide andin prove for popular sources positive the facilities of CD- supply of andrunning water many equipments andother of a ‘proper’ householdnot –but DVD-players with enteringafter homes in Romapoor neighborhoodsin Hungary thelacking the proper wide set of records. several my amongtimes reactions acquaintances astonished non-Roma witnessed Such examples inactors socialthe informprocesses that lives”their (Beissinger, 2001:25.)Ihave is one of those terrains that and location.social of status musical stereotypes Inspite abovecited performance the allow looking at “Roms to respect without reside communities Gypsy any placewhere almost lifeof everyday not only as victimsthe in ‘there’ apparently is music other, the On but Roma. the concerning alsonotions as very figurethe ‘Gypsymusician’ is the of the mostamong stereotypical powerful On onehand,the idea the thatmusic is ‘inherited’ through ‘blood’the of Gypsies;the actual citations. However, it also implies 1997: 2.). make lives” to (Grossberg, relationsimprove their of of power, sense and that the uses of this power could be highly diverse in their 5 CEU eTD Collection Roma musical performances as the sites of identification categorization and as ofidentification sites the musical Romaperformances any other medium. An analysis with such assumptions could be fruitful regarding 2 defined of genres andatpopular culture; least not theirpositions own in local the ethnically other with analogies world; in the groups Romany other with connections of are negotiatingvery the research subjects same issues:their themselves the scenes where among those are reception and musical performance that noted be goalsit Nevertheless of one should recurrent the of Romany 2003.). (Okely, Studies minorities,compared other marginal to dispersed theworldthroughout is groups or – Identifying ‘uniqueness’ the and similarities the of cultures named as‘Gypsies’ – politics. terrain of by are ‘groupness’ transmitted andpersons outside practices of formallythe defined which actually the meaningsvaluated and withmessages associated ideathe of local such communities initiationstowards help tomaintain of a structure relations in of indifference or suspicion The nation-building. of forms centralized with associated general sense indepicted (Gilroy, Paul 1993), Gilroy’s accounts 1991; Romathe arealsolacking a of politicalexplicit discourses on the ‘development’,cohesion ‘integration’ or ‘labeling’. Like black people ormore to contributions as symbolic beinterpreted can Musical practices eliminated. structure – at recognition of Romathe therole ofmusicmusical and beperformance cannot least in terms and of representation ‘micro-politics’ the very of Regarding issues. the contexts same of the and uses everyday the to devoted patternsbeen has attention smaller much comparison In policies Jenne, Szalai, 2000.; 2003.). (see: in culture and state organizational politics in including Central and Eastern roleEurope the ofidentity, recognition or of Romany the frameworks about yearsa wide been discussion has there recent In the For the relationship betweenidentification and categorization, see: Jenkins, 2004. 6 2 . CEU eTD Collection current development of the of development current The world. in the cultures other to Roma the tie that connections the and relations minority-majority both of conceptions for framing alternate efforts the reflected the dynamic relation between tradition and innovation this way: “Nowadays the thirty the “Nowadays way: this innovation and tradition between relation dynamic the from Hungary – whoidentified himself as a performer of ‘worldmusic’ – explained musicians with new challenges. Inone myof interviews ayoung Roma performer musicallocally rooted forms aroundtheglobe, see:Feld, faced 2000.) Roma music played by Gypsies in Hungary. The integration of styles like styles of integration The in Hungary. Gypsies by played music During 1990’s the new musical instruments and sounds has been incorporated into the culture’. ‘Roma of canonization the for frameworks institutional of development in the also and – inHungary category Roma the for definitions subsequent in creating significant were before. Their public interests attempts attention were the that of outside self-representation helped toputsuchmusical andstyles into traditions the forefront musical and actors performance The recognition. Roma of period’sthe Gypsy cultural of newthe publicspherein a Hungary. This produced change intherelation of public the frames amidst re-formulated ideathe Romawas After self-organization of 1989, their own (Williams, 1996.). into alien something turn to helps that adaptation of forms in the lies construction equal with processof factor the creative assimilation:of the andidentity performance necessary is not from world outside the of patterns over Roma.the taking The towards and from both claims modernizational of context broader in the also meaningful are such their into is forms?how own expressive integrated questions answersto itThe of objects isongoing Whatdebates. cultural borrowed from such diverse and sources the are ‘modernity’ and ‘tradition’ of notions the which in music ethnic of continuities world music field (based on a unifying for category all 7 ‘Latin’ or ‘Rap’ CEU eTD Collection According to Paul Gilroy’s account in According toPaul account Gilroy’s ofdispersal politics cultural 1.1 The Chapter 1:Ethnicity, performanceandmusic-making in musical Hungary.contemporary products understand such symbolic forms of claim-making byRoma performers and their as various in words other contentof or sameethnic formsthe the category; for assuggestions regarded of performing In of case recognition. bethe musical Roma can practices the scenethese also the of ‘micro-politics’ representation andfor theexpression of claims for various modes Roma category.instances are all referring to waysinthe musicwhich isbecoming ascenefor the The aimyears oftime thisthat music paper be areconsideredmaybeyears the ‘authentic old to records in Gypsymusic’, thirty will be takenis asto authentic which I play today.” In sum, such approach recallsapproach thestrategies of subversion by many subjects whostigmatized movements enforced of black (Gilroy, aresomehow transposed” 111.)This 1993: the to given meanings negative the in which a condition affirm and evoke “which of black Atlantic the cultural patterns reworked and constantly syncretic the namely dispersal; of by processes the originated forms that cultural on those concentrates exactly ones whichthe fragment black the peoples, in terms ofincorporation Gilroy insiderist’ nationalof unit(Gilroy, 1993.).Sincedevelopment these are patterns aimssolved bya political bringinto people to that these culture ‘culturally one be cannot Diaspora black the of differences internal the and nationality of idea the The Black The Black Atlantic 8 , the contradiction between , contradiction the CEU eTD Collection possibilities of exchange are after all limited to the extent which is defined by the very field of cultural production (see: Bourdieu, 1994.;andbelow). In framework,the this dispersal, hence and continuous syncretism; Gilroy’s supposing ahighly autonomous non-essential of original the of of Atlantic. black Despite conception the his about concerns some features (Hall, remark This couldto attention problematic 474.) drawthe 1993: and decentralizedblack isn’t really good enough forme: I want toknow what your cultural politics are.” “being concerning of ‘black’the category: as Stuart Hallnotes thecontent However, condition of cultures that exist in the form of invented currently currently modelsinvented to overcome former elsewhere (predominantly by model reified the but nation-state); the of canbe others of strategizingvarious of some patterns organization: between them already exist or scarcity deprivation rather as but a condition which upa opens wide spacefor of this argumentis thesubversive readingofmarginality not merely a as state of and homogenizing necessarily –construction of cultural An factor canons. elementary marginalizedof organization dispersed or following without peoples centralized the – of refers‘politics’ tothepotential culture tobea inexpressive of resource the in is In notion terms ways. the culture politically these interpreted defined expressive culture (typically by musical production and performance); and the meanings of formsexpressive through of mediated messages are understood politically the context the terrain of aesthetic ideas asmerely replace of to new the culture of ways requires system understanding judgment, detached from as both a cultural and apolitical Atlantic of black structure As Gilroy argues, the the sphere of the ‘political’.Goffman, which 1990[1963]), often placetakes by toolsthe of culture.expressive In this (see: a ‘privilegized standpoint’ into of stigma their meanings negative transform the 9 3 . CEU eTD Collection “Roma, Gypsy type groups (…) have longbeen global, in although their way. unique The groups named as havethat framed them (see:Schein,as its others” 1999: 364.). Gypsy or Roma could“reposition themselves, sometimes through deploying the very codes of modernthe be taken as an exampleassociated with notion general the – find‘modernization’ of tend to symbolic waysto among be can that phenomena – these.standards living of improvement and welfare marketization, Members structures. of such social are that categories deprivedfrom of advantages peoples living invarious forms dispersion positionedor at margins the of social for role have aspecific and performativity of performance The practices cultural performance Roma 1.2 Understanding by the performers and their audiences in the world music scene. ofreferencesseemstobe encountered of are one that main the circulation challenges into describedinvolvement networks ‘blackthe bythe Atlantic’. Today, this the without but to) referred being still (while transformations significant through Romathe rapin Budapest: Somogyi, Here 2001). meaning the of ‘black’ could go and/or ethnic communities (for example the Turkish RapinBerlin: 1998;or Caglar, like hip-hop by –wereadopted cultures marginalized rapor of performers other such for examples forms of inexchange cases where patterns the of black expressive question horizontal of relations of Diasporas, see:Clifford,1997.). There’re several which takeplace culturally between butsettings the horizontally (for defined different exchange of forms those of sight loose may perspective This ‘black’. of category transnational ties among Roma residingof in different development the nation-states. to withreference language of Romany ’pluralism’ and/or ’normalization’ 3 This approach to culture and social marginality resembles some of the discussions about the 10 CEU eTD Collection their performances and relations to and relationsaudiencestheir areoften their to through depicted performances various oppositional relation musicis by asaform cultureunderstood ina expressive of scholars directly with the sphere of in many However, the terrain reside. cases of whereRomacountries populations everyday life. those of inall differentiation ethnic for Thesite important is an role performance Musical of Roma musicians, performancesthe of particular2002: Gitanopersons.”179.). (Blasco, Gypsyness is not imposed from Asabove Gay y Blascoor from notes the in centre,her case studybut onratherappears tobe of acounter-part modesother ofidentification in some of literature. the Spain, “unlikeis dependent citizenship on or nationality,something else.” (Schein, 1999: 268.) Regarding the Roma, the notion of performance –sometimes did made –that speechacts acts thandescribing or rather something As were these performances, (…) them. categoriesthattyped social to the relation action. in are putinto are“negotiating participants location their In such contexts, which social divisions,identification ethnic or the definitions of self the and the other tothepower in reference isconjured that course up in of encounters ritualized the beyond However, issues the of ‘staging’ performance practices, has afurther notion the of isperformance withreplaceable almost the one of ethnicity’. ‘staged terms these In Roma with the category. associated asbearersof qualities audiences in various another–introduce themselves to professional performers way one or 1988: 265.).Opposed to this strategy, people of the most study this – of them (Silverman, stigma.” social a is it because entirely, ethnicity Gypsy their submerge “it Asis here. notes, dual Silverman for often necessary relevance Gypsies to Gypsies and their representatives.” (Okely,152.) The term 2003: performance has a territory involvesand whichconsequently encountersdaily and ubiquitous with non- (…) Gypsies provide a special example of culture as created in shared not isolated 11 CEU eTD Collection of empirical material many of such interpretations are rather based on experiences the rather basedon are interpretations many such of material of empirical view.isof pointunderstanding performers’ in Maybeit the not accidental that terms of in terms limited be rather to –seem ‘normalcy’ even or life’ ‘everyday models – these Nevertheless based audiences. their and performers Gypsy between interactions on a thestrong Roma, the ‘strangers oppositionby the idea of projecting unwanted parts of the self onto significantwithin’ others – namely to – that is conclusion, author’s According suchaparadoxical beunderstood tothe could relation made between explicit in the like a is Gypsy’ curse (Van in 1999). a recurrentthemede Port, culture popular Serbian the of the spaceintimatein Serbia, while ‘Gypsy’of is a common term performanceof abuse among Serbs, the wish to be ‘just(Beissinger, 2001: 25.) As Mattijs Van de Port argues on the basis of a fieldwork done Roms” other with than perform they whom for populace dominant the with andcommon status ethnicity. L Romani musicians occupy realms of both highly skilled professionalism and low- Oă status aspectofambiguity the another of –thesocalledRomaconcerning performers second-rated participants (Thede,1999.).MargaretH. Beissingerleast describes otherwise existing the outside dominance’ ‘Gypsy of sphere a be can rules Roma by played music of terrain and structures,The them. with ‘play’ and components where their into systems commonsense and non-Romafactual can be only imitatorsof cultural or at action (Turner, its opposite,tosome aninverted, mainstream society generates extentsacreddomain 1988.). Hence the phenomenonis and during and dialectical performance reflexive: processes cultural performance of liminality dissolves all their utari liminal character –in Romania: “Inhabiting aniche by defined both vocation and ethnicity, ă utari utari view themselves as aseparate cultural group hasthat more in . According to Turner, the relationship between everyday social everyday between relationship the Turner, to According . 12 CEU eTD Collection of others (namely: the (namely: others of taskis Romaan the situation performer’s instead toexpressmeanings where unequal the notion the “articulating of ofRomaIn eternal terms ‘Other’. asthe these representation the about understandings our encouraging rather are explanations these hence view; of point external an seems tobemore fruitful in of asitthe ‘Gypsy’ understanding from is the constructed liminality its (and oppositional withnature spacesother and times of life)social In other words,theinterpretation of musicRomany and performativity on basisthe of of in ‘entertainer’ who’re the not position butthe those who’re ‘entertained’ of those encounters were perceived or interpreted by the performers themselves. performers by the interpreted or perceived were encounters these which ways in the represent rarely accounts but these audiences, Serbian oftheir members of the performative events and encounters in which Romany musicians are interacting with the 4 as Miao makingusually involved an culture of object reflection by (…) modernity performing a wide formal from rangeof very tothe practices versions informal onstage but expectations, dominant contrary the to “Miao, Louisa Schein, view of discourses Chinesestate’s the onmodernization According (Schein, 1999.). to often both depicted as traditional and as ‘emblematic from antipodes’ pointthe of is that category asocial in China; minority Miao the of case the to be similar might It above. described patterns the with discontinuous are that recognition of modes negotiation or even the refusal of such unequal relationships and hence claiming for in Roma contemporary performers Hungary are usingthe of fortools performance the in which ways the to is related paper in this myargument of element major One very same relationship. former seems to be relatively the implies that and audience the performer Hencebetweenthe relation the own. deprived from agency in the sense of formulating the Forexample in Van de Port’s work onRoma musicians in Serbia one could find plentiful descriptions , actorsrefusedthese their to consignment roleimpoverished,the of rural, Gadjos other or non-Gypsies); to mediate feelings that are not his people’s >>soul<<” (Van de Port, 1999: 291) (VandePort,1999: reflects >>soul<<” people’s 13 performed modernity in 4 . CEU eTD Collection occasions. Forits and spheres outside space social relations tothe and of regards transformation example, the with of performance effectiveness the istowards question directed Here the to them. above referredis often attributed potential concerningthat of subversive the exaggeration the doubts paradigmatic also there’re performance ofcultural features reinforcing or homologous tothe related works of Gilroybecomefor more understanding relevantour Besides 36-37.). (ibid: critiques the – not at process of the aspects dynamic the hence meanings, it ondifferent could take context must look at howbased idea onthe “instead lookingas pre-existing‘structures’ we of that things, at they have beenin ethnomusicology (Guilbault, 1997:36.). The recentreconsideration of modelthe is formed”: – social hasstructures” been studies offor one frequently mostusedframeworks the by placing a ‘structure’ homology – namely music assumption the of relationships between and“homologous inthe most problematic points.a As Jocelynedifferent Guilbault notes, the model of structural relating cultural products and performances tosocial – structures seems tobe one of waysof musicthe –namely society onpopularthis connection and literature culture, the from items many of light in the However, ‘normalcy’. or life everyday with with to reference socialthe in space ‘outside’– notother words in a direct opposition and the claims for ‘recognition’ ‘modernity’or may be found by interpreting them music of puzzle in ethnicity, intersections The solution tothe the of performances the 368.) modernity in worked tandem displacingthe with of traditionality (ibid:onto others.” label place imposed takes in that curseof the “The performance:the of performing the also but refusal the only not is it point, another at lessmodernity more exclusive, negotiable.” 372.)Moreover, as (ibid: notes author the tradition bearers and attempted to makemembershipin prestigiousthe category of 14 transfer of the externally CEU eTD Collection Gilroy, 1991.) –isGilroy, 1991.) a about (see: of because investigations his major empirical of least historical the context Caribbean, or the US (see: Feld,2000; Guilbault, 1997.). and songs went along in careers the context performers, that of world oftrajectories forms music are ‘archetypical’ still the reworking it, and note related authors Asmany to themusic. black black of representation cultures the to of Africa, connected the strongly is industry) of cultural aform as and category point of view of the literature onworld music is that the development of world music (both asa 5 politicsmusical and with performance regards tothis evolving context music field. The remaining partof this review concentrates on issuesthe ofidentity of by world development the the aremediated challenges abovedescribed recent the As 369.) inmany for parts Romaother of most world, the performers inHungary of andpoints “nuances (…)where theoretical options (Schein, become blurred”. 1999: intensification’,or an investigation couldethnographic provide more concerning the with dilemma the ‘subversion isof engaging andperformativity cultural performance ‘authenticity’ In (Huggan,2001.). sum,much theoreticalthe of while on literature of industry’,operation an centered on advanced ‘alterity the of organized production beinto can ‘Others’ the recognition embedded (culturally orthe of culture coded) maintenance by the context affiliations of tools ethnically the expressive defined global networks musicalof production, promotion and reception. In changingthis between performers, institutions agents, andaudiences with respect tothe widening of relations the understanding amore detailed matters here,israther What culture. expressive of sphere in the ‘political’ of possibility the rejecting about nor production; cultural of field in the agency of refusal total the about neither is criticism The whom nothingisselling than greater profit” other a meansto (Gilroy, 1991:154.). for “those overcome recurrently are cross-fertilization the of agents sothe industry’; production. In alwayshis ‘cultural are perspective foregoingpolitics’ ‘cultural the forms industrialized of or cultural from even independent) centralized the (or different One of the reasons why the reconsiderationof Gilroy’s work seems to be a relevant project from the counter-culture 15 that has various that methodstoremain 5 . CEU eTD Collection the mainstream popular music of the West. One major outcome of the ongoing the of outcome major One West. the of music popular mainstream the featurecommon of placed products the under this label isto related or stylisticinherent Feld, (Brennan, unity 2001., Guilbault,Theonly 2000.; 1997.). worldmusic notexist In practical does terms and andan growth, openness world” tothe 1997:35.) (Guilbault, health asign of local –aspositive, by large populations the Caribbean a of portion least it –at now is butconsidered of colonialism, asaresult connotations pejorative has “creolisation acquiredit anewstatus: used to be downupon looked and ascribed her own researchabout her own itfrom’, accordingcomingis and where consumed.AsJocelynenotes Guilbault to contributions both from who’rethose livingin the areas where worldmusic ‘is debates and the tensions around ‘sonic diversity, mixing’ separation and have genericization,(Feld, hybridization 2000: 146.).Theand revitalization” parallel stylistic on emphasis with an mixing, and of separation processes global characterize that tensions other parallel precisely homogeneity and heterogeneity sonic of “Tensions identification, meaning the around see:Jenkins,2004.). categorization and who are categorizing issues the it andare providing reflects relations power those of research between the that of contestations objects the the is music and among of term world The imperialism’. those who‘cultural or ‘deterritorialization’ an like‘globalization’, also notions for example are categorizedworldmusic that be should age:it asasymbolic approached terrain our couldbe of with ismusic in ‘in clearly World There’s air’. literature an the nowadays agreement it (for the question field music world of the development 1.3 The of zouk , a popular musical genre of , apopularmusical genre of FrenchIndies: the West 16 as a musical genre with any kind of what theyare not : CEU eTD Collection can be also found in the social scientific discourses on world music. As James music. world on discourses scientific social in the found be also can expectations Such be elaborated. could tolerance andideas recognition about where isit asaterrain so taken cultures, expressive ‘displaced’) or ‘hybrid’, diverse (often musicWorld asacategory isoften upaspace opens that of understanding pictured for else.” (Brennan, 2001:45.). written, improvised,written, ritual)rural, or buta the rearrangement of various recordings from ethnomusicological collections – without the without – collections ethnomusicological from recordings ofvarious rearrangement the only we can make of must worldbe,the the parts from music other iswhathearing idea the ofAmerica, it: namely, notcitizenship. As “InTimothy Brennen suggests: the and of countries North Europe a specific asenseof cosmopolitan or differences cultural of experience acquire the to traveling dynamics of an age when there’s no more need for any kind of spatial motion or music world is inmetropolitan centers thecultural for an consumers example are made available with the objects of commodification. From the point of view of the for control upon marketwhich elitesintellectual, are various (economic, political,struggling etc.) Western art music; see:Feld, 2000:146.),becomingto apowerful label a niche-of celebrate and promote studythe musicalof diversity” (opposed to theelitistnotions its pathwayfrom being first aterm by “circulated in academics early the 1960s to consumption. The relevance of discussing world musicas a field is also provided by of segment same of the asparts eachother with fungible and became gathered – whicheach musical diverse beforeproducts –are other to were rarely compared Bourdieu; see: Bourdieu, of institutionalization (asthenotion musicfield world of the wasusedby field the 1994.) is the creation of a new system of reference where music making’ took place exactly among these actors, when 6 One of the most emblematic conflicts regarding the problems of ownership, performance and ‘world and performance ownership, of problems the regarding conflicts emblematic most ofthe One 6 . The strengthandsuccess depend products the of on identitiesthe which 17 place of music of music – the music of everywhere form Deep Forest of music (symphonic, choral, made a worldwide success by success aworldwide made CEU eTD Collection the one quoted isfrom the quoted one related Ferguson to the like interpretations such of link’ ‘missing the However, anthropologist. an example acquireby actof the consumption needwithout the for being aprofessional for – to Other’ arebecoming goods the channels ideas like‘understanding where important It’s (Ferguson, 2003:13.). beyond that musicworld doubts is one of mostthe build relationships in whichtheyareatleast ifnot apartner, a dominantplayer” developintellectual transnational negotiate activity modernization,and to capital (...), and forces usethe of globalization canbegin in to of new ‘other’, role theircultures, Ferguson notes in his essay on the transnational politics of Cuban music: “peripheral ‘permissions’ of the original performers (see: Feld, 2000.). For the problem of music and ‘ownership’ and see below. of music my case, in problem the For 2000.). Feld, (see: performers original ofthe ‘permissions’ based ontheredefinitionand itof style,accompaniedtaste also by various forms of incorporation, hybridization diversificationor is nota borderless flow: since itis Musical place. taking forces are ‘global’ or with ‘external’ and their confrontation developments musical local where scene only the not is music world Nevertheless, difference’ (Feld, 2000; Guilbault, 1997.). ‘banalizes it while ethnicity’ ‘danceable promotes that multiculturalism’ friendly Gibson, 2004).In this regardworldmusic be cannot more than a form of ‘consumer & centers (Cornell byWestern areorganized albums the of circulation and edition hegemonic power, not at least because field, the seemingly of ofemancipatory projects ‘peripheral cultures’ arereinforcing the the definition of the changing trendsnewer or the wave of cultural seemsthisof pointview, widespreadof products the consumption tobeexotic a imperialism. products under worldthe music label and their social and cultural backgrounds. From available the between Afterconnection direct a there’s that assumption the to words other their involvement into the world music 18 mediated nature of world music; or in or music; world of nature CEU eTD Collection selection, negotiation negotiation selection, and refusal 7 3.). of marginsthe and excorporating piecesofitself into margins the (Grossberg, 1997: by itself pieces constantly and incorporating of rearticulating codes, effects, practices, in anthropology cultural “aor theorientation distributionstudies: structured towards beThese might of closerto suggestions commitments (Williams,research the 1996.). formsin the ofits transformation liesexactly of performance factor creative and261-2.) tothem”In response acreative 1988: this (Silverman, the context, adaptation newto environments – both a strategy manipulationof newof situations culture, they do not point toloss of ethnicidentity; changeisrather, astrategy of inRom occurred have innovations many “Although models. reviewed formerly Some featuresa is process of but not 153.). syncretism”acculturation of (Gilroy,cultural 1991: of the music blacks of “Theassimilation notes, AsGilroy themselves. performers of the strategies played to couldberelated forthe investigation questions of Afterone all, relevant the by the Roma research. further empirical requiring also seem to(Connel & Gibson, 2004:357.). Such puzzles of theoretical approaches are still fall oppositional” then rather outrelational thus are global the and local the trends: fromglobal the toproducemusicattempts with localidentity a specific are necessary shaped by while sought, rarely and impossible, is – technological or stylistic ideological, lyrical, AsConnel differentiation. influencesinternational “escaping – and Gibson argue, authenticity’, a closer look can show up further – and less simplistic – modes of support theideaseem of homogenization’ betweento ‘global ‘local and a division For a review of the debates around ’cultural imperialism’ and/or the ’displacement of culture’ see: ofculture’ ’displacement the and/or imperialism’ ’cultural around debates the of a review For 7 . Although alteringthe modes of musical production 19 CEU eTD Collection specific ways and locations are ‘invisible’which often many to Although outsiders. network interconnected of relationships. areboth These maintained in and represented be involved into Romanythe musical of scene Budapestmeans toenter into a highly tothefield to introduced that after being it rightwas obvious toobserve,‘settlement’ such methodological Although patterns. had nosingleI or ‘neighborhood’ rather argue for the similarities‘localized’ manners of research in anthropology or andRomany Studies; howevercommon I would challengesSuch that connectedconditions thisformerly aspects map of unknown Budapest. study to of course researchtheseties andthe referencesIcame toknowaspecial in many and of the thefieldwork ones made by the appearance beyond anyfurther connections places often without and toscattered scenes, related ofmay the people are I interpret that of actions sources the live.On theother, I where istheone research seem I’m writing toabout. differentiategeographical location (Marcus, 1996).On However, the one hand, city the where Idid the in the of one than framework by boundaries territorial conceptual the researcher’s orthe of participants thenetworks each otherby to connected which arerather it from fieldwork: likethe the concept of doing anthropology ‘at home’ or in ‘multiplemore settings’ of Budapest – might associate it with recent ‘non-classical’ or ‘fragmented’ models musical performativity usesof and the worldthe of musiccategory in urban the context of Roma development –understanding the interestthis research of The practical of research profile the and 2.1 Methods Chapter 2:Entering theRoma musical scene Inda and Rosaldo, 2002. Rosaldo, and Inda 20 CEU eTD Collection Roma, the ‘Romungro’ (referring Roma, ‘Romungro’ processof toasupposed far-gone the assimilation to descendants of ‘musician-dynasties’ from the sub-category of Hungarian-speaking arethe people of these Most music’. ‘entertaining or house‘ ‘bar‘, ‘coffee the into scenes musical First, of thecirclesengagement. of musicians who’re involvedthose and/or ‘world music’ understand transformations recent and politics themaking identity – ‘Romaof folklore’ separated me from at beingleast two – or probably differentproduction more – other together in study this is ideathe thatsuccess andfailure a produces given field of cultural parallel kinds with another presented in performers Roma caseof the the chapter, in theupcoming itAs Idiscuss distinctionof musicians. thatis always definedcompetitively.” (Werbner,1999:555.) is between the labelscultural ‘field’of must includeThe both successes and failures: successmajor is a relative termhomology and interests betweenstudy on ethnic entrepreneurship andthenotion ‘success’: “one of with problem the taste Ialso (Bourdieu, follow 1994:162-163.) inher theof suggestions Werbner Pnina ofand classthis maintained by“its specific force,relations itsof anddominants its dominated” (…)research is that universe endowedwith specific of principles evaluation of practices andby works” definition, – to social separate having itsof ownlaws universe functioning (…) an autonomous in order by elaborated inPierre Bourdieu his studies oncultural production; namely as “a to exist, a main reasons why I use the notion of the of notion the use I why reasons main personal amongrelations Gypsy musicians and their audiences. This is one of the of operation very the to connected are experiences relevant my of many – dynamics’ ‘network- on aresearch of out carrying the not was my goal hence – category music’ ‘world the of uses local the and politics identity performances, musical Roma in throughout thismy timeinterests major has been to related currentthe transformations field 21 throughoutin paper this a way was that CEU eTD Collection see: Rice, 2002. Bulgaria. Hungarianthe isof equivalent what known in as be to seems genre this in music markers ‘ethnic’ of maintenance the and arrangements electronic predominantly of terms In before. antecedents no had that genre moremusical turned popularsoundingstheirscene to –hence developed profile a postsocialist changing in the but musicians’ ‘folklore as carrer their started who and hip-hop. included scenethatisAnother isin rap thenowadays not vivid pop, this paper Roma better ormoreto thegeneralscarcity demanding works. of categories ofRoma –theinvolvedmusicians Romungro rather ascribed their presence namely growingthe potential for co-operation between historicallythe sub-divided terms of the musicians’ country.the While Vlach Gypsy band-members often depicted this developmentin role Vlach Gypsies of Romany-speaking with the labelis predominantly a associated that as ‘vanguards’educated Romungromusiciansappeared in also ensembles playing‘Roma folklore’ – of upcoming social transformations – song’ ( of folklore-inspired were officially professionals of the genre ‘Hungarian recognized the Hungarian majority). During the decades of socialism and before many of them 10 9 Békési, 2003. 8 Budapest club-scene orplaying jazz or classical ona music professional level in from making ‘bar-music’ families the modernized these are representatives fewmany the able current whoare genre, the tomaintain of traditional the beyond towards andhenceinterests serioustheir However, achievements deprivation. To the Tothe question of Roma rapand hip-hop inHungary,see: Somogyi,2001. For amore detailed description andethnographic study of the Romungro musicians of Hungary,see: To the problem of problem the To “magyar nóta” 10 However, the share of performers in the home-market both in terms of interms both home-market in the performers of share the However, 9 The idea of‘Roma wasmainly initiated by pop’inHungary performers manele ) but nowadays most of them are struggling with lackthe of in Romania, see: Beissinger, 2003.; to the problem of 22 manele Romania or in as chalga in Bulgaria, in 8 . Lately . chalga CEU eTD Collection fact that group the of intervieweethe is promoted as‘traditional inGypsy’ many of the on based also bands of interdependence’ ‘mutual the about ideas these Ironically, achievement.” traditional the to relation in music our of development the perceive like them; for it’s us good they that exist hereby since audience will the be able to alsobut ‘less refined’ in a comparison with his formation.own As he explained: “We also toursabroad quite frequently) whichhe conceived asnot only ‘more traditional’, of stages international music)world wastalking me to another band about is (which a Roma is band(which currently themost among successful onesfrom inHungary the of leader the in which asituation by be exemplified can – field the of dynamics the to The waysin arenegotiating ‘tradition’performers which and‘modernity’ –according their elaboration. the Afro-American) perceived as ‘parallel’ but also ‘more developed’ or ‘refined’ in marginalized and/orethnically defined cultures (in casethe it of rappers is obviously defined culture butonthe it with they other do continuous references toother which handperformers on one the useof sources the a marginalized and/orethnically formsintroduced of ‘world music-making’. Namely,itis based on a dual strategy by Roma rapand of hip-hop bears Hungary important parallelism an with belowthe the as Moreover, represent striving source oftheirthe often to ‘ghetto-experience’. rappers Roma city that of the district 8. the to more concretely Budapest, of context celebrations influenced successfully musicaland of the repertoires andother weddings settlements rural and urban both entered Hungary of pop’ ‘Roma recent the While countries. in aforementioned high hardly of one as the as the their colleagues Roma and non-Roma audiences; or intheir power defining fashions andlife-styles are 11 To the transformation of musical repertoires inRoma weddings see: Kovalcsik, 11 , ‘Roma rapand hip-hop’ istied the specific to rather subcultural 23 CEU eTD Collection repertoires of the bands or the differences between musical choices and taste as andthey musical taste between choices of bandsor differences the the repertoires events can be public private appearances, or providinginsights tothechanging observation during the occasions when Roma musicianswereperforming. Such part A significant of research isbasedthis experiences on the gained by participant music inin the of and obviously performers. can be relations detected these contributions. Strategic distinctions related to local the and global musicof production justnot expressedalso but shapedby discursive andperformative encounters, their are conditions such isthat assumption methodological main my hence differentiation, could bein understood constantly the integration states changing of and liminality.of in fieldRoma sum, state only performers In of the the Roma performers while it a provides also gobeyondpossible pathway to whichdepicts framework the inelement understandingthe of identity the of politics performers and performances; be aconstitutive could claims of such interpretation competing the following chapter, escape from the harsh legitimatecriticism representation or even derogationclaiming for the same of terms ethnic identification; authenticitythe and the of the veryby thecategory others. sinceall is of them On are comparable hand,everyone of the other of others. the ‘Roma’. As I argue In this in sensethe isnoplaying ‘respect’ his so everyone deservesthe that asonly about considered own – one could doing ‘his hence own thing’, willingtodevelop stylistic characteristics and ideas is everybody since field in the other the to is comparable musician no hand one the On youngsters aimed “togo too furtherin withone step” theirmusic. traditional folklore of tunes Roma –the sameperformer tome said these that younger Roma performers –incorporating funk- and jazz-influenced grooves with the of band anew on commenting while Later, point. this at him exactly for strategic became creation the –hence of difference publicappearances their Western-European 24 CEU eTD Collection representations. My My representations. strategy was consequently ignore any to kind of specific terms or both musical self-and ethnic affectconcerns their that performers); and their current perceptions of theircontext own (like toward bandsother attitudes foreign and in both of the terms interviewee, of the musical preferences current tothe related was interviews topic of the The third of periods. these and experiences conceptions artistic contexts, the and ensembles; in different participation career; of periods the followed interviews the Then interviews. inthese incorporated always were life –twoformsbetween personal of story and character ‘public’ appearance that to the interviewee construct an to image ofhimself byfinding his balance own discussion specificto the of problems research whilethis lefta relatively it open space always: “How didyou became a musician?”. This question was suitable narrow to the performer of an form ethnically of My initialdefined culture.expressive question was the being towards them directed that stories life in turns and choices personal first roundand thenwith membersother were importantfor understandingthe of members.other semi-structured interviews career-oriented The with leadersthe in the are highly instructured sensethe of hierarchical relations betweenbandleaders and interviews structured Most with performers. of bandsthe into involved this research semi- career-oriented of is collection a paper inthis of evidence source Another performing. of ways ‘non-Gypsy’ and ‘Gypsy’ even or ‘innovative’, and ‘traditional’ ‘improper’, and ‘proper’ the notions about their reveal to evendevaluations critiques or Musicians arefrequently commenting on each other’s performances and such what’. what’s and who who’s ‘knowing by actors of ties internal the strengthening important scenes for such arealso Moreover performances ‘onstage’ and‘backstage’. both are performed the gatherings of Roma musicians: they are taken as rituals of 25 CEU eTD Collection on the maintenance and reproduction of the musicians’ ties with each other and their and other each with ties musicians’ the of reproduction and maintenance the on cultureand music.expressive Inthismy chapter provideisaim to awider perspective more about something tell is to aim if the limiting be might within’ from ‘stranger the as Gypsy the strategies so1999.), without muchtelling about agency the of performers.the Theimage of the merely performer in rolethe of otherpeople’s “articulating soul” (Van de Port, of performersitleave couldthe Nevertheless, life. of from realms other everyday differentiated is performance musical of space and time the in which ways the understanding or theperformer’s social social status. embeddedness This approach seems to be useful from theof perspective Roma of and their performances are based on the idea of arebased on the and their performances As itwasmentionedmanyin formerRoma musicians of literature on the chapter, the autonomy and networks performers: ofRoma field 2.2 The by facilitated ofmusical tools the expression. interpretation in the essential are that andorchestrations of styles features altering to the of social refer I recurrently argument my in products, musical of analysis ethnomusicological and cultural theirchanges own work. into Although forms expressive as different such adapting and thetheyinterpreting they’re in which limits ways ofare this paperexpressed, leave no space leastperformers at it’smixed of hybrid important identify or musical to products, the for a more symbolized detailed as themselves researchconsider in this mostbands of Since the categories). or usespecific or such identifications neglect who areperformers example, there interviewee. the by discussion our into introduced were I these until did genres musical to labels the same with terms that refer to ethnicity and ethnic origin (for 26 liminality or the ambiguity of CEU eTD Collection comparison, Jocó comparison, (approx. 1200-1600 EUR) for awhole bandwith fivearound members.In a 50 approx. thousand(approx. forint200 EUR) to3-400hundredforint thousand from than widely more ranging is not scale this experiences my own to according by and placesclubs other arehighly from depending diverse eventandthe context, their musical choices. While the amount of salaries that those playing ‘on stage’ get eye of the other, more autonomous ‘on-stage’ performers who have more autonomy in constraint of playing in various only restaurants barsperforming city of or the recurrent where the what the audience requestsconsider themselves as This‘musicians’). ratealso includes musiciansthose makes them lesssubsistence prestigious in theregularly elsewhereplaying)whodon’t performers have to work ensure their to daily is lower thanopinion amongone themselves forthsum of forexpenses daily living only by making music. Accordingand to wide-spreadthe alsoof my theown experiences wholeMost ofthe these scalecommunity Roma of activeperformers andperformance meaning; ‘on-stage’ and ‘back-stage’practices. (that I is,know(that are not in theis, A betweenhere relation key of is the element furtherperformer. aspects toelaborate position those of earning who the audiences,whole hence also their connections to the very notion or ‘being Roma’ as a 12 private deals.private The meaning of time-schedulingis alsomeaningful here since most of other and trading into involved are band the of members the playing, not When they play or two three times peraweek usually from 9 in eveningthe until dawn. where club the of owner the from head per EUR) 20-24 (approx. forint thousand six five or around from receives genre night the Roma call ‘bar-music’– performers that Ichanged all the forenames of my informants. 12 in groups oftheandband well-known the Budapest – one his 27 CEU eTD Collection further invitations there–which beseem unlikely rather to according totheir possibilities for concerts at home while they knew from Hungary in an average scale. As the say,others is Misi refusingstill the expecting to become a ‘star’ inonly high hotels andstandard restaurantfor and manifoldthe of thinkablethe money to have intour Romania once where –by managerial proper contribution – they were playing in this time. Misiis by often commented some otherssincehis hebrought grouptoa aredoingmembers what else to the respect without more– almost irregularly time or month’s a than more in only another after concert one have if they others by deplored be can band a of members The field. the of creation in the thus so and positioning The frequency and the type oflive performance are significantin mutual their amongfor them searching, accepting or refusing stage-appearances. for possibilities occasions for making live shows, it’s quite obvious that various tactics could be found While Roma given concert. the attended who closeracquaintances or musicians performers in drinks,on for ‘propertreatment’the and‘respect’ those other or words other itof timesbe a – other also thewholesum–couldsometimes but spent part because in general musicians.the Itis not only because themoney could alsoinclude travel expenses; tend homeby are taken that ones the with equal rarely are amounts mostof these However, to exaggeratefor himself than for the others is a powerful way of proving thismore have person’s and equality dishonesty. of rules the keeping not he’s that others with information the the general to‘unveil’ amongmusician’s discussions eachother: leaderof the a bandbysharing in the issue strategic scarcity isanother band-members the among money of division The cases ofwhen they’re invited to private events, most frequently weddings. –even in charges inhours concert their arecounting Roma performers ‘on-stage’ the 13 Carol Silverman interpreted a similar phenomenonwith reference to the postsocialist transformation 28 13 CEU eTD Collection frequency could one only “force” theaudience into good mood ( audience.the As theyoung band-leader Gyuszi me,was arguing to with this frequently) necessarily performer’s the ‘drains’ capacities and makes him boring for also disapproved by whothose thinkplaying that in a weekly scheduleeven (or more knowledge Roma about the musical in scene Robi’sRomania. is However, strategy in Bulgaria,in see: Silverman, 1996. developing various realizationsdeveloping of various ‘aura’the is which withassociated performance the foropen strategizing terrain forms between different of hencepublic appearancesand relatively a have still performers Roma that incomes completing or gaining of ways autonomous field of cultural production.is However, it exactly because of variousthe is far scenein an to theRomaperformers’ factbeing Hungary from the that have their daily subsistence only by making musiccould be taken as a harsh reference they would like to play. The aforementionedhow or where raritywhat, of about thosechoices in their performers and character who’re‘on-stage’ their able of to elaboration the major reference points opposed to those performers who has more freedom in the ( ‘bar-music’ of ‘entertainer-musicians’ the like becoming of it appearances,isimage shared commonly closely frequent’ to the threatening related equal with autonomy the fieldthe itself.of Whenoneis criticized because of ‘too the is all after – which preserving autonomy reachingor their about ongoing concerns The meaning of such criticismswith could be to understood regards performers’these areworking.brothers to play,he usually takes on small-term jobs in constructionthe wheresites his becauseof In months whenhehasfewerthis. the invitations occasions hasband fewer he’s if even shows, the for asked fee of amount a given under going not of strategy the Hungarian). Gyuszi Of course, himself is also criticized by sinceothers he developed 29 “vendéglátós” “er ) – one of Ę lteti” in CEU eTD Collection paymentwith regards to formertheir orlatter common engagements andmutual other performers personally least at– not becauseof the for negotiatingpossibilities the with willing bands, the presence make of agreementthe other to he’srather other an includes aneventthat or aconcert of organizing is in project the When a performer to be disturbing elements in maintenancethe ofpersonal ties among the musicians. agreement and given less band-membersinformed werescammed,some not about detailsmoney important of an than they deserved.Musicians recalled stories to me many times managerialabout abuse in whichnaïve Managers sometimes appearedmaintaining apractice in which most of such functions arecatered by bandleader. the and specialist a acquire to hesitating still are them of many making; music spend with fulfilling managerial and organizational istasks taken away mainly from managerial power. Although itis obvious for the performers that the time they have to about ‘professionalism’ explicitin their discourses is related to the introduction of issuemakes ideas the Another that state. ‘unprofessional’ in a certain performers forkeep works subsistence –isoneoffeatures these of that the other undertaking The lackrelative of autonomy in the fieldmusic-making ofRoma – with necessitythe of reconstruction he campus, butthe decided not for to call me out in suchasituation. concert that he saw me walking the day before when he was one of the workers in the this space me,possible about soIunderstood itthatis not bettertoask too much him about us were surprised by presencethe of other,the he was asking as many asquestions Roma asa of performer While both loungein servicethe uniform.cleaner of usual the from Once class afternoon comingfound out a late young inthe university I a talented their activities. of and times scenes engagements, thesedifferent between balance of the ‘Roma’ category. Of course performers have to reserve a highly sensitive . In another case one of the best Roma double-bass players told me a another caseafter . In Roma told players best of one the double-bass 30 in CEU eTD Collection this way: this playing. András, abandleader, singer and player guitar wastalking aboutthe latter many actually when the are one’s there since but practical of others ‘symbolic’ only not cases in most is relation This all. at stage the him on puts that legitimacy his representativeof the a whole ethnic category – whichis among main the sources of attempts to create an image of a ‘Roma’ as someone who’s not only ‘himself’ for are but audience the devoted character public also performer’s of the The realizations than individualbeing an by characterized totalizingthe notion of artistic autonomy. is and Being a‘Roma audiences. more non-Roma performer’ with colleagues; the both in the cases of a musician’s or‘backstage’ partof This ‘non-stage’ hasRoma its specific performances meanings relation with otherwords, Roma a Gypsy or moremusician other In sphere. this to closelylimited is not it but has engagement; musical their of to course the bewith a ‘Gypsy’ his outside the realmin madeexplicit or is ‘applied’ expressed, asRoma performers of The identification of the stage as well. back-stage and on-stage there’ 2.3 ‘Being cases. tasks is tofind the proper balance between ‘formal’the and ‘informal’ ways in such ‘professional’ outlook among Roma performers in Hungary – one of recurrentthe Western andfor to gaining requisitesEurope regularof other concert-invitations a involvedalready amanager–stepthatisperformers who recognized as anecessity those For solidarity. mutual their of renunciation a as hence and withdrawal asa itcould labor the understood to this person; beeasily of –directs tenderer services. If performerthe already has amanager and–according totheirdivision own 31 CEU eTD Collection position elaborated in advance. elaborated position in behaved an or incorrectunexpected way, hence endangered performer’s the incidents about tell they which stories the through grasped be can relation this about ideas understandinginteractions between of musicians and their Theperformers’ audiences. inis in thatisintroduced of course central performance the the The publiccharacter Gypsies. the themselves and take care of theirbehavior. Thisway you can influence wholethe image of coequalrealize thatnot every Gypsy is negative and there’re really valuable persons among them, with I’ll then become situations these in good I’m If opinion. your a and positivebehavior your you, in anybodyinterested becoming people other person make to possible it’s music By you. from emanate inshould what the eyes else.of othermusic people than – youbutButas a still,stillGypsy toasneed musiciana man. from band that anymore you’rebut Gypsy man,a Gypsy thisishow they’re looking at you, yourbe ‘Let’sman. self-confidencelike Thanshould be like thatyou aswell But after leaving the stage. properly. they Afterseework you left your the stage make to you’re nothave the you stage; onthe the precise be should that, musician A person to take himself yourselfGypsy ‘–as thisa valuable menis what person, theystill thissay. isIf youhave made goodto be aware of front’, see: Goffman, 1959. Goffman, see: front’, 14 Roma man entered the placeman entered the Roma after afew with his female partner, he drinks to began duo formed by and Elemér a friend wasplayingin a small café of Anon-Budapest. saying: “It’s not a show ofsong request!” what he wanted( to hear.person from audiencethe wanted to givemoney for the musicians this way to playJani, the the guitar playerlapped of the upband there refused by a itGadjo aloudthe guestoneby of of thethe place.Gypsy is imagesrole this of powerful most the inof one Hungary Among performers Roma Oncemusician in a club-concert with musician subordinate the explicitly relation unequal non-Roma the requests. that to a piecea non-Roma of moneyperformer –and also of fieldthe could – that bethreatened by re-establishing the on his forehead which was Similar tothe way as Goffman describes possible the offences against or destruction of the ’personal ; namely about situations in which at least some members from the audience the from members some least at which in situations about namely ; 14 As it was mentioned before, itis the autonomy of the “Ez nemkívánságm 32 Ħ sor!” ). In another case a CEU eTD Collection networking andinformationhaving music recent and musicians.about These –that theseandhence tobegone Robi forgotten. similarly meexplained to –and alsotohis wife hanging be fromsuch Gypsies on the ‘fall there wouldmean of circlesgatherings to out’ these outs arebeing person”. Forhim a“true areinseparable since and to not ‘work’ ‘entertainment’ basicallybutfor him not behavinglike that would be equalwith “confuting himself”; with not the ‘work’“bio-rhythms”, aredue Ashe of separation.to theirstate conflicts different said,these for with his partner duetoevening-outs, which brought their relationshiptothe almost him, namelyfemale partnersthe sitesor theirfamilies. revelries of Gyuszi are taken on and participate torecurrently various appearancesof performers on collective the was lamentingseriously evento me Theimportance others. the ofmaintaining tiesat the musicians, with ‘beingother there’ aboutthe expense his towards attitudes their and recent behavior own of their both debates orienting threats or possibilities conflicts and conflicts withperformers whom I know; I frequently heard them talking about it or referring to it as Roma the in of circles the ‘disinheritance’ suchacomplete never experienced I’ve While community. in the ‘outcast’ an or forgotten being of risks the to hence of very of the legitimacy as‘bearers’ of questioning category Roma; the theirand maintenance the of ties,these itcould easily lead tonegativejudgments by to others; in are relevant that gestures of exchange the refuses If someone other performers. with tothemaintenance with arerelated performances Roma of other andties principally As it was mentioned arethese. tunes before, therequests and then refused them by all saying kindly they that ‘don’t know’which other aspect started songs, to ask for afterone another. The listened patiently musicians tothe of ‘non-stage’comment or ‘back-stage’ their way Roma of playing from the position of a self-styled expert and then 33 CEU eTD Collection (Daróczi,internet 2006; source) high arts we presented our own started revolution’we ‘cultural as part of the counter-culture. In the offield interests, traditional customsof our and demonstratively: representation political the for possibility no wehad …since Gypsy culture exists, so Gypsy people exist as leading figureswell. of initiationsthese about –noted period: that folklore andorganize concerts AsÁgnes cultural events. or other – one Daróczi of the collect to started intellectuals Roma where areas in industrial hostels worker’s wereexactly 97-111.) crowded the 1997: those (Stewart, Gypsies of out workers’ late seventies.role in the organization of Romathe civil and cultural movementin Hungary from the InThe idea of –mainly culture’ ‘representing in – expressivearts terms had acrucial the context ofappropriation around 3.1 Struggles the socialist state’sChapter 3: Music, powerand Romaperformances project for makingcontexts – with music and musical performance in the ‘propercenter of them. whichpatterns are maintained by Roma performers inconstantly changing urban cultural 1997.).Nevertheless, areparts of these those (see:Stewart, settlements defined ties was also included in former ethnographies conducted in Roma and in ethnically maleof reproduction predominantly production gatherings the The role of wascontravened. rule this many caseswhere I’ve seen – however, told me that this condition could last until one adjusts a proper harmonious recurrently Musicians family principles’. life ‘male the limit to attempt constantly they’re which a ratherin role disturbing into women performers conditionsput the often around 34 CEU eTD Collection the mainthe assetof expression in for recognition.their struggles became ‘culture’ hence claim-making, or self-organization political for prospects no performance: with the assimilationistTo sum up ideasthese about socialthe of embeddedness Romamusic andmusical policies of the Communistsource) state everybody meetsthe whatwas closed, hidden and enigmatic so far. (Balogh, 2001;internetRoma hadRoma communities and suddenly message.become a Itbecomes world music because me itcould worldbe music only (…) because the tune and the text are got out from the closed Would it be world music because of that? We perform, relive and rearrange this music,In but old these forsongs and texts there’re the suffering and the life-storiesof thousands of people. ‘world music’ – in a round-table discussion: Jen musician and politician the movement, cultural Roma the of figure leading Another of research, he said: “Yes, the fine arts of Roma in Hungary is not as developedother: once yet as I wastheir talking music, with but ayoung I Roma painter and after I answered his question about my field 1996. 17 Frigyesi, see: offolklore, ’revitalization’ the for attempt 16 ‘recognition’, see Szalai, 2003. 15 pattern involvingpattern of highcultureinto processof the building.nation the follows that a canon of development the for be prerequisites to suitable both forms of expression, interrelated hence obviously were‘organic’ and These reference. Roma culture-building traditional customs and culture movement’ ( Hungarian the ‘revival forms of Romathis culture and alsoby following the pre-existing of patterns counter- of reference where they’ll both create and express the common experience of of ‘being and common the experience express create both they’ll where of reference scale context of their and origins them empower to gainmeaning in framea broader second follows, quotation performer’s the is task to take out songs the from small-the To illustrate the ways in which these terrains are taken as interrelated and mutually referring to each to referring mutually and interrelated as taken are terrains these which ways in the illustrate To To the question of the Hungarian ’revival’ or ’dance-house’of ( discourses the and of self-governments role the developments, of postsocialist question the To Ę Zsigódescribedmessage the of Gypsyfolk –with songs reference to ideathe of 35 and high arts became the central points of points central the became arts high táncházmozgalom “táncház” ) movement as a specific as movement ) 15 extant the Because of ) 16 ; in the project of 17 And as the as And CEU eTD Collection introduced inintroduced textareclaimingthis for titles like ‘authenticity’; intheiractual defined in of or‘rearrangement’.terms ‘mediation’ While all performers the activities, of performer’s the resources astheobvious ‘traditionalism’ or of ‘tradition’ inmajor aspects haswhich these concepts beenchallenged isrelated to thevery idea direct – director tohinder developmentsmusical of –the Roma practices. institutionalized forms of ‘preserving culture’ were notfixedstable or enoughto and negotiatedinstitutionalization; alsobut thefoundingfigures of thatare discourses still to referred by or canonization of sense Romain the ‘culture-builders’ only not were in Hungary movement performersstarted to play on stage after theirinspiration. today. In these terms the initiators of the Roma Nevertheless, in by figures or their musical organized ensembles them the started career these music-making suchRoma astheones above.Some about of conceptions elaborated these definitionsHungarian Roma folklore orHungary.itis However, worth mentioning many that of actors in currentthe the theand/or world music of ‘Romathe cultural movement’ during the late socialist postsocialist and in period field are closely The limits of related textthis donot allow afull interpretation concerning the major premises to those who Gypsy’ came to undertake themselves courageously. (Dani,internet 2006; source) impetus for the whole culture. People I thinkwho it was really a smashingweren’t success among the Roma,but actually it provided a big daring to say till then that ‘I’m Roma, I’m music hadamong in Roma their the impact that hugeHungary: first officially record of published folklore’‘Roma music in 1987 –described the Roma’. As GusztávVarga,leader of Kalyiensemble Jagthe – bandthe whichhadthe several places: about changing the repertoires of Romawedding-music in Hungary (Kovalcsik, 2003.); 18 of problem the constructing To a ‘Gypsyyou”. culture’,national for see: Szuhay, 1995. material research provide also we’ll years a few in that promise Katalin Kovalcsik provides ethnomusicological and ethnographic insights into these processes in processes these into insights ethnographic and ethnomusicological provides Kovalcsik Katalin 36 18 One of the of One CEU eTD Collection schedule doesn’t includes ‘practical ‘practical schedule doesn’tincludes education’. the these regarding but afternoons, inthe or breaks in the together music making and as it turned out there’re many Roma youngsters in the school playing However, on instrumentsourselves.” we than culture our about more know Magyars many nowadays ensembleGypsy commented is that who says of the teachers.such The other continued: “Maybe you’re not a Gypsy at all,a what kindthing?” of a on theAfter music atall.” “We askyou cannot any thefurther question this.after Failed.” –said one situationexams the leader answeredof the traditional straightawayby saying aboy in their grades, lower frontsat down the and of medium teachers or ranked with first question that this were students After several ensemble. Gypsy leaderof musician a ’traditional’ the and way: “It’s “I don’t like awell-educated by carried was exam The any music. in classical reallyfundamentals kind some of Gypsy a shamemusical notes, the history and regional features of Gypsy folklore in Hungary, andthatinquestions andmusic’where ‘dance studentshadtorespond the to aboutreading subjects the in in Once normal the education. of program an I participated oral exam fields compared to inthesespecific achievements kindhaven’tsalient showedany of attendances,mostAccording to the experiences during classroom of children the music into general the literature, dancecurricula. isintegrated and Roma language, among the Roma students even indifference or such ‘fixed’refusal towards ‘canonized’ or forms of culture of a secondary schoolBeyond in Budapest whereways (seebelow). the teachingthe of examples beseems limitingto for them striving rather and they’re inovercome to itvarious of musical transformation, I met crucial examples of practices the literally understood act of ‘bearing the tradition’ ( act tradition’ ‘bearing the of literally the understood practices orabout the ways inwhich the songs from officially published ’Gypsy folklore’ records were re- 37 “hagyomány Ę rz Ę ” ) CEU eTD Collection without a word. a without him and he’llsame if hemake plays Russian ora thesolo other playsharmony, likein Django, my when itsong comes howto his when I sit down turn, here at home or whateverwith kind of non-GypsyI’ll musicians,to ‘which is this I lookput willat it singtogether,can engagein his in it song. whatwithoutdifferent butstill go And together. of course when it ispossible make to music together, you is Itany this’, couldspeechthing; there of kind or beand Reinhardt even Django this in know you soa band, single accordanceswing met a on. we wasand recently, Norway in word,No, Russian weit’s starta very different, making newgood and strange playingmusic They’re but whateverit is Gypsy you abroad. still feel that it belongsfeeling. toyou.musicians Wewere and communities Gypsy meet to pleasure a Notandmusic;really It’s likeit’s the there was also a Bulgarian foreign with experiences’ andRoma performers: encounters ‘backstage band; all of them international the stages of how heworld musicquite frequently. described his That’s completely in Gypsy the way’ is obviously todoitas ‘non-Gypsies’. András’s bandis playing on opposed to the ‘Gypsy music’ of another location, the counterpart of ‘playing music agency form Whilea appropriation. music’ mightand creative given of be‘Gypsy it so is up awidejudgments, situative opens space for on dependent latter rather regions and sub-groups of origin – hence itmight be defined in an essetialist way. The way’. The meaning of formerthe could in beunderstood of terms countries,different localization’; namely playing ‘Gypsy music’ playingor anymusic ‘in the Gypsy division that there’s form amongmusical of a specific performers cultural and However, Roma is surelyRomain Hungary to culturesother in worldthe –both Roma and non-Roma. older thanconnect the that ties images of for framing altering efforts the reflected above ones the the recentand then Spanishthe Gypsy (Kovalcsik,music.” 2006.)The integration of styles like discourses Balkan the Russian, the of fashion the another: after one followed fashion of waves around ‘globalizationmusic made by Romathe in “InHungary. folklorethe movement of 1990s the three the into involved been have styles and soundings instruments, new 1990’s the Since and appropriated – and also transformed – by localRoma communities (Kovalcsik, 2006). 38 CEU eTD Collection derogatory label for a kind of music that has ‘bumpy’ or ‘broken’ rhythm in the rhythm ‘broken’ or ‘bumpy’ has that music of a kind for label derogatory when suchI encountered in comments which ‘Turkish’ wasnothing else buta me this: “It’s not good what you brought, it’s a Turkish crap!” It was not the first Misi the greetings after told when met Aweek later again,knew as rightwe bests. the time I whom Romanian Roma performers those manyof with of asetrecords compile make some copies tohim from my collection. Following his preferences I tried to me scene, to once asked in Misi Budapest many the performers among Roma the of between the two counties frequently. Since I’m known as a ‘collector’ of Roma music thanks tohis neighbor who’s froma guest-worker Romania, travelingback andforth – releases latest the receives always who style’ ‘Romanian fans the of greatest the when it comes to the issueThe widespread enthusiasm ‘Romanian the around style’ also seemstobeof exclusive adaptation. Misi, the reception and appropriation. guitar player is known frequently – although actual the meaning of these terms is asbasedforms onselective of one of statements like ‘We’re playing in the Romanian way’ or ‘in the Spanish way’ Spanish ‘in the or way’ Romanian in the playing ‘We’re like statements Gilroy’s conception about blackthe Atlantic; Gilroy, Onesee: 1993.). could hear to of (similarly bytheirplaces origin whileidentified are recognizedas‘Roma’ that large extentmediated bymusical exchange andby ongoingthe discourses stylesabout there’s anything that isa ‘Diasporic similar to consciousness’ in istheir it case, toa Roma stars and styles from abroad also among to those references who’remore even – and stayingbelow) (see in them the with country.‘in accordance’ or If own’, ‘their foreign – Roma records from musicalor records Roma that genres perceive tobe onedescribed the like stimulating situations here.find could one However, numerous Of most of course Romathe performers in Hungary findrarely themselves insuch 19 Icannot give a close translation here since the frequent way of phrasing these terms – which are 39 19 quite CEU eTD Collection Taraf de Haidouks or the Fanfare Ciocarlia. 20 the meaning of ’jazzy’ to the one of ’jazz’ in English. be extended to this case be to extended Davidmusicologist Malvinni “politicalthe concerning of reception music”Gypsy can music. of non-Romapredominantly consumers world are amongnowadays and that ones internationally the acknowledged circulated emblematicfigures of what they understood under ‘Romanian’the term are hardly the the in Hungary Roma these for is that here mentioning is worth What music. label. Of a course term like ‘Romanian style’ could havenumerous definitions in with those that are promoting the music of the same countries under the ‘world music’ –andcircles acquire hence –are records taste shapingtheir farfrom identical being their and musicians these which through networks the that sense the in representative interpretation of Roma musicians in Hungary. However, Misi’s case might be „romános” popularity above Romanian of Roma musicin heall Hungary, thefact emphasized and stream current the about me to talking was Robi performer, another When character. ‘modern’ in self-confident exactly lies it’s performance Roma Romanian of beyondin becausecurrentunderstanding power the rather or but their their reach; not only because Taraf de Haidouks or others would be completely unknown for them music market by of supply playedand – average of record the inRomania the Roma in internal tothe Hungary circulation Roma of rathersuited these choices performers withinminute aforty bus rideof city.”the (Malvinni, Similarly, 2003:249.). the a village Clejani, from come band the of members the though even known, hardly is music<<, >>world strangely, in is Gypsy rather acts of what called, one hottest the by far the most popular and sought after in Bucharest. By contrast, Taraf de Haidouks, The most emblematic figures, representing Romania in the world music scene are bands like the like bands are scene music world the in Romania representing figures, emblematic most The , or „spanyolos” in Hungarian –is the related to ’Romanian’ or ’Spanish’ categories like 21 : “The Gypsy singerAdrian are Copilul Minune’s cassettes 40 20 statementsThe theof CEU eTD Collection than them. us it’s not a matterHungarian Gypsy musicians, ‘cause they’re the toThose bests. cannot getinto our music, butforget into theirBut nomusic, matter tohow playgood isas a Balkanthey Gypsydo or band,to do they their won’t thing be able evento reach better the level of the Romanian Roma bandthatboth of us liked. Thatwashis answer: shared my enthusiasm him with recent a newlypublishedconcerning of album a tothis I Referring inGypsymusic”. Balkans from “thethe spiritcomes club-concert, Budapestscene. Ashe saidonce before going back to stagein the their usual Tuesday bands. He’s also one of the greatest enthusiasts of thereferring toKarcsi, both dulcimer-playerRoma the talented of and folklore Hungarian so called ‘Balkan music’ in the of Some further be aspects Roma musical exchangeand appropriation can revealed by him ‘brass music’ and ‘broken rhythm’ were notvalid of signifiers this category. understanding of ‘Romanian’: as for many Romaother whom I know in Hungary,for “Turkish music’ a given of territorial cultural or reaction Misi’s However, unit. concerning the crap” ‘the know to music’‘world onecould get thatthrough by characterized idea the expressedmy compilation, with notions’ ‘Western these representing was I Misi, with not virtually inunknown the (Malvinni, West.” After251-252.) 2003:all,merelyin ourexchange – a his refusalmusic remains regionallybeat trends-synthesizers, drum-boxes, hip hop beats, flamencorhythms andinnuendos to entrappedthis continues ironically: Adrian’s “although inmusicmore is infused with generic world- Romaniaidea, and perhaps – between himvery appealed borders two these to Malvinni much. AsDavid butthe Balkans, also and Thismarket. lessclassifiable ‘dual involvement’ – based on ideathe of blurring the his own Gypsythat musiciansin Romania areable tosatisfy both ‘folklore’the and the pop- popular performers from Romania among Roma whom I know in Hungary are rather Sandu Ciorba and Ciorba Sandu rather are Hungary in know I whom Roma among Romania from performers popular 21 Although I present the author’s statements as valid for my case,I should mention that the most 41 CEU eTD Collection this: ‘authentic Gypsy band’ was musicaltalking about appropriation and takeover like musiciansother –by singing itimmediately – as‘his own’. Jani, leader the of an then in a club where another Roma ensemble and from out lyrics the record figuredthe heprecisely, learnedLater tune the song. was playing, he introduced the song from group incorporated Berlin to groovethe that of ska musica Hungarian into folk with one of his bands.Robi, the singer became fascinated by the track of a klezmer bringing him music to exactly because hewasin period the ofmaking songs’ ‘new takeover by as others well. young Tibi, the percussionist askedme for help by to know Roma music from elsewhereis asa understood possibility for musical perspectives of other Roma performers who appear in this study. Nevertheless, getting ofmusicalThese mightbeexceptional ideas radical appropriation or tothe compared them. ‘replacing’ even point, that to comes it if and making,they’re hence being in able toinvolve it orappropriate his own performance represent his own will for a symbolic form of power: the power of knowing the music of could ‘Balkans’ musical the followsthe developments Karcsi that regularly understanding inunderstanding relations perceived a‘slope’. of terms as East-West of beyondborders, thisway’ imagerecalls ahierarchical pattern recognized hardly Almost approachable. contrary to abovethe described notions of ‘Gypsy the music;at but atterrain thesameof isfor ‘them’ or time enclosed least our terrain enter ‘their’ able Hungary) are to of performers Roma professional more (as the an unequal relationship in positioning international His‘Balkan ideaabout music’comparisons. was betweenbased on spatially definedKarcsi’s categories of statementRoma in which ‘we’ was crucial in terms of the Hungarian Roma performers’ self- above all Nicolae Guta than Adrian Copilul Minune. Copilul Adrian than Guta Nicolae all above 42 22 fact very The CEU eTD Collection signification – and hence as the creation and reproduction of capital of symbolic reproduction and – andhenceasthecreation signification attachment of given songs to given persons can be understood as an act of the or as properties’ ‘personal variations on emphasis the them. Hence of everyone Roma musicians I know the performances In their on-stage in music making Hungary. of Roma in thecontext are working with of a Romawide performers. Of course,set the very ofquestion of songs“whose song it is?” is notknown a novelty making the issuesby of the ‘ownership’almost of song and music explicitin the discourses of – are 1993.) in Atlantic’ (Gilroy, described Black tieslike‘The symbolic those The acts of musical appropriation and takeover – as elementary units in the creation of before. else something was it that recognize even won’t you then and while a for it on I work music, my own into whatever turn I can Central and Eastern-Europe,see: Melegh,2006. 22 these flows. As Garth Cartwright, the author of the author As travelogue flows.Cartwright, these popular Garth the of by theagents exactly are designated takeover and limitsappropriation of the terms these In performers. the for uncontrollable extent a large to are which – field music world the of development the including – mediation and exchange musical of forms could not be understood without takinginto consideration currentthe institutional “composition”. The turn from the ‘informal ownership’ to the idea of “composition” “piracy”, could it download and then since anyone it as his claiming own As he said, it with meanxieties shortly above the expressing after ideas quoted of musical takeover. might be beJani can ‘ownership’ “dangerous” revealedby alsoagain,referring to ofhis sharedsome who recognized informally of notions these towards challenges recent the However, to put his music to the internet because of For the discursive constructionof the ’East-West slope’ and gradually diminishing civilization in 43 23 ‘Princes . CEU eTD Collection Amongst Men’ ties (Stewart, 1989; Kovalcsik, 1999). especially on the role of singing – as making one’s own ’true speech’ – in the maintenance of social 23 phrased it: band’ Gypsy ‘authentic an of leader the Jani, how is That themselves. on reflect context cultural a of agents the which in ways the with concerned anthropologists itsdead” or “dying” nowadays in cannotHungary. be Such statements isolated by is music “Gypsy recurrently is folklore which that encounters one firstthe statements consider themselves as representativesAfter of ‘traditional’ entering and/or ‘world music’the – one ofcircles3.2 The ‘death of folklore’: the birth of world music? of Roma performers in of thischanging relationship. aspects Hungaryfurther some reveal to aims chapter next The there. represent to – supposed they which at least thoserelation who withchanging notionsthe of ‘ownership’ are also relevant in terms‘community’ of their self-images in issues ofmusical andexchange from takeover the point of view of performersthe the from whichWestern’ or ‘Roma’ andthey’re ‘non-Roma’ way of music-making. Nevertheless, beyond‘stepping the music is one among that the factors aredispelling the boundednotions of ‘Eastern and out’ incorporationto the stage of such played streets.”the on (Carthwright,and 2005:13.) Theperformers’ to reactions the institutional forms and created property, acommunal music remains in their Balkans yetback halls the – like the internet – into the mediation of These practices are also known from ethnographies on Roma music making in private settings, private in making music Roma on ethnographies from known also are practices These notes: “Gypsy musicians may tour the West’s most esteemed concert esteemed most West’s may the tour musicians “Gypsy notes: 44 CEU eTD Collection nowadays in Hungarianthe scene. Opposed to ‘all-encompassing’the definitions of in manywhich of Romathe performers and adopted apply term the of ‘worldmusic’ This idea of seemstobechallenged very a by performer. referential ways relation the represents relation betweena song and‘common community: the song originates from the community a referential of and assumption the was in Hungary movement’ cultural ‘Roma value’ the of that beginningAs it one of ideas chapter, of was mentionedatthe former leading the “becomes toenter. allowed a are not Gypsies where placesin public Hungary message” by bars,news andstoriesrecurrently shared aboutemerging discos personally or other the mediation the present to genuine counter-examples areableto –thesegatherings ‘spontaneous’ of the relationships –hencein band-members the of these completely termsis it not audiences of these arefrequentlyevents to due the careful invitations and personal the among Roma of appearance the though Even spaces. in public cohabitation observers understood to be ‘small-scale mutual experiments’ of tolerance and many that aphenomena is which audiences non-Roma and Roma both by attended are occasions of these map’ ofthecity. Most ‘subcultural current the on place themselves ‘Balkan’ or‘world‘authentic’, music’; hence several performers areable Roma to that are undertaking musical Recently of scene Budapest. has beenincreasing there numberan of clubs Roma lively rather the contradict appear to statements performer’s thethe sightfirst At inclusion of music playedand records this number publish can is terribly that low. in Hungary bands folklore Gypsy five byor four only know I us with Roma everything from violinthe through the keyboards to the dulcimer.underBut if you askme, together keyboard but only here at home, forour ownentertainment. Sometimes we combine here the played on synthesizer,he’ll is show labels you ten that or twenty. We’re also playing withsomething electronic for ask you if But choice. your that’s more, not but records three or two of the market and you say that youneed some good authentic Gypsy music, he’ll youshow one, I think that the Gypsy folklore music is dying out. If you go to a vendor who sells cassettes on 45 CEU eTD Collection “If we exaggerate poverty “If poverty misery we exaggerate and all just time,the permanently we’re pushing from detached Assomesuch aself-positioning. performers recurrently: emphasized articulate a positiveimage to seeking (see above)they’re of thousands people” of life-stories “suffering andthe of the Romathe representing inHungary. Instead striving torepresent opposite is the of what known in general as the‘everyday life’ of for a differentthe performer and formthe community; most of ofthe Roma performersrecognition.between organicrelationship ‘common a value’ ‘rearrangement’ and defined rather I know are claiming himself with respect tothe While‘community’. the former conceptions about As many of isalsoinwhich them positioning thewaysperformer It the concerns ‘rearrangement’. emphasized musicIn this of ‘personification’ approach the formerly exceedsthe of defined act to me, they’re are still not able to conceive. which is about you, about the youperson are. This issomething manythat of themusicians world. the in is audible that music other any to relate But can they which they a orchestration hear an or They rhythm familiar. it still find they and music your to listen simply feel just They otherwise. Gypsies that this is you.when other people are also able to enjoy your music,those who no have connectionThe to the point to inbuild up your music in a consciousmanner. theThe other thing is that youmake world music whole storymusic, make it like the in to be like me, like my life adjustments and own personality. my ismake World I music when is when is you start to music me world For makepersonalities. their with the music youngsters playing very traditional music that is not fitting to them at all; it is incompatible that song, itarrangement to it they than re-arranged guitar- it a already.But itisnotenough, nothingwasis donewith create they and not instruments any without played transformed,originally was if asong that your music consciouslyit and you’re dare to dip into the age-old songs.is Some musicians think not fashionedFor me the borderinto one’sbetween own folklore image. and Sometimes world music I issaw at themusic’: and ‘world point when you start to make me is of‘folklore’ between to categories howAndráswasexplaining the the division conceived by ‘excluded’forms to as expressive referring by ‘included’ the This ones. discussions, for these Roma performers in Hungary ‘world music’ is as much scientific social its in partly and marketing in its applied category music world the 46 CEU eTD Collection instead of insteadinto itbeing the of forefront. Inotherwords, is put the ‘living alternative’ of of ‘implicitknowledge’ as a ‘reference’or liesbehindthat musical manifestations form as a and notion of the the redefinition replacement is the It rather performances. with Roma qualities associated essentially defined orother refusal of ‘authenticity’ in manipulate ways.This constantly changing is farstrategy from thetotal being they use and can butpatterns asetof musician a Romafeature of a concomitant is that something not is ‘authenticity’ them For ‘authenticity’. of idea the over control offers apossibility upgrade for performers the to their gain and activities to andpower also making It frames ‘folklore’. of the with that wereincompatible instruments and widening of possibilities creating ‘hybrid’musical forms orthe incorporation of styles World music is not merely a form of empowerment herewhich is provided by the better? Madonna be would even after someone like Madonna,because yes, they’re the Gypsy Kings. And then why world as Gypsieshundred even andtimes precisely, very they’re playing are They inmusic. own their the in reckoned quality high very same a reached way.as equal The with big wantedall thing the others. is tothat TheyMytake they taskcan go standover isto thenot upstage from andto appearbe themable in istofront playrather of thethe wholemusicabout oftheir the Gypsyplayer Miki explained tome concerning his enthusiasm achievements,for band the Gypsy Kings: Kings exactly thatas they creation of for themarket-niches‘high theycanreachordefine.quality’ guitar Asthe as do.Gypsy What menI they ‘integrating culture’ is not canonizationthe of high any cultural products more but the their fortune. made youngsterslike the presentation talented who or of successful entrepreneurs After all, attitudes; morebut specificallyfor public the introduction of Roma – ‘success-stories’ it is notclaiming surprising for of Roma the in media-representations they Hungary were not recent towards the a morethat comments critical intheir usually for‘genuine’ that meaningful is also It downwards.” ourselves them the display reference-system or the ‘unveiling’ of of the majority’s racist 47 CEU eTD Collection On 20 the ceremony in aprivate Latinos and Gypsies Cuba’: 3.3 ‘The further aspects of mightreveal some them whileas well. itperformances could meanings ceremony the that of replaced and summarize these redefinedRoma chapter In the last performers. of this paperIreturnto fieldthe describe and aprivate the folklore that seems to be ‘buried’ in the discourses and practices of these Roma discourses on taste. and music, performance on discourses female more parallel my of was than the ‘male’ even about – partial knowledge one isthe with equal nearly this category context in Hungarian the –and performers Roma of practices musical and politics identity the to related was fieldwork my center of the event (or at least clubs notin here flats, and were in the male concerts, private various the performers not as much as otherwise). Sincecompletely wrong.the Moreover, main unlike mostconcern of the time that I had ofspent with Gypsies in people whom I’m writing about; a task which Ican solve successfully get or this case I was practicallylessons about thefaced reflexivity and dialogical with character of anthropological the a Beyond well-definedfieldwork, party. birthday in the of guests the among non-Roma few the of one as role that is given to meIn this caseitwas not theRoma meto entertain performersbut weresupposed who – by the party. tothe collection also askedme be to the ‘DJ’ evening; that myto bring andlaptop my musical he invitation of act honorific the after and afternoon the in me called Feri husband 5 in the office Self-Government’s Minority Gypsy the of rooms wife of a Roma folk ensemble’s bandleader. The party was held in one of the larger th of March 2007in of I wasBudapest invited tothe birthday of party Mari, 48 th district. Mari’s district. CEU eTD Collection scene, or ‘something in the Romanian way’ Romanian in the ‘something or scene, men whoasked me toplay songs from bandsthe of Hungarianthe Roma musical the were Those principles. male been have would label ‘Gypsy’ the of understandings preferences along genderlines. As if anything that I could play in association with the guests recurrently turned to me with their requests was an explicit division of musical – arewilling dance to to.She wasright:I experienced what while night during the the only ‘Gypsystuff’;the sincethese are the only that womenthe tunes – including Mari also told me that in terms of music I should have play salsa or other Cuban tracks, notshould present appropriate bethe birthday tothis party.addition In to this advice, she circles toaskhersuggestionsaboutwhat of the from Roma performers acquaintances female my I called of closer one in later afternoon, the On sameday, the repetitive salsa-tune. A few weeks earlier – after a program organized by the Gypsy bythe aprogram organized –after Afewweeksearlier salsa-tune. repetitive smash hitwith a rather hybrid character baseduponastronghip-hop beat anda the – acquaintances Roma my among Cuba’ ‘the heard I when time first the not was of the film wasimpossiblethat toexceed in of anumberterms popularity: from Soundtrack the many titles from the above named ‘Latino’ genres as it was possible, there was a song musicthe that ‘thewomenmy like’. during Although I tried tocollectpreparation as ended upwhen somebody – usually a watchful man – said that I should putback on which expressed their definite respect towards virtuosity. moments These usually Romanians, they’re justeating uptheinstruments!” ( around gathered speakersandmadethe likeat “Look these comments, enthusiastic exchange among the Roma whom I know in Hungary. During their songs men records of whose arethe a wideinformal highly objects stars, Sandu Ciorba, admired Gu like Nicolae performers Roma beats of Romanian up-tempo tothe referred Dirty Dancing 2. , which was usually referred to merely as ‘the Cuba’. It 49 (“valami románosat” “megeszik ahangszereket” ) which mainly ) which Ġ a or ), CEU eTD Collection ( stop the men singing in a celebration). Later I was talking with Mari, who had the had who Mari, with talking was I Later a celebration). in singing men the stop providingmethrough a‘task’ itwith probably that neverwouldthey take (i.e.on to obviously ajoke,as was it again theexpressionabout of preferencestheir distinct men singing” and put to on ‘the Cuba’ back. While theirwas presented request smoke cigarettes. However, speech’nearly leftall ‘true room women of the andthe and outside tochat went some of them kept on asking menother for (Kovalcsik, that In 1999:272.). my case, beginning atthe of men’s the me ironically to “stopsinging, they need theirbrother, father husband toask or a ritual from permission the the of position in the be to come if they and song husbands’ their of accomplishment is while the limitedparticipation to women’s 186-187.), the elsewhere In some womenwerenot cases allowed totakepartin allsinging 1997: at (Stewart, songsthese is strongly related to male gatherings, hence togender roles and divisions. traditional traditional Gypsy speakersthe tomake livemusic. After afewdance up-tempo melodies with the As the night went on, a few men started to piece together an electronic keyboard with men. many seemedthe be of to unfamiliar that to salsa-steps on based also (for example if there weren’t enough male partners) here the ‘female dance’ was balls ‘traditional’ rather offormer, elements wereusual female couples While such rollingin of terms dancing, although only women were dancingwith each other. ball the started that song only the was It times. twenty than more Cuba’ ‘the play to the scarcity of CD-s at home. However, as a ‘DJ’ in the birthdayeveningThat also ‘theCuba’was leading the hitbut time that it Ithoughtwas due to party of Mari, I had invited us to flatthe of him hisand family where wehad aratherspontaneous party. 9 in the Self-Government Minority ‘hallgató’ ) or the ‘true speech’. According to former researches, the performance of performance the former researches, to According speech’. ‘true ) or the ‘esztám’ beat they turned to slow songs; the songs ‘for listening’ th district of Budapest – another Roma performer 50 CEU eTD Collection that was elaborated by those Roma who started to attend predominantly non-Roma predominantly attend to started who Roma by those elaborated was that Roma in Hungary. It might appearance of ‘Gypsy –thedancerumba’ similar of birthday the party – happened among the to the former the how knows nobody me, told scene Budapest in the fashion dancers Gypsy male of ‘Gypsybest the of one As Imi, rocky’, Romania. from musicians Gypsy with competition the on a take dance expressing their concerning ambiguities aprospective in situation which they should also while ‘Latino’– the imitating or adopting of strategy female the from different crucially was we’ than Gypsy more ‘even being of idea male the comparison, In a evening. that werecompletely Maledifferent female and preferences practices. musical representations that they like, imitate and also compete with in their own its meaning for seemingly term this has merely a a referencecountry to of origin,butin usepractical the Roma – style’ ‘Romanian the whom about enthusiasm their expressed men The overcome. I know is ‘even themore well-known Gypsyunderstood who there women the were those Mari than of party ‘Gypsy-way’birthday the At division. we’; a setof party-makingof negotiation of Romathe category was taking according place tothe lines of gender as somethingties to refusenetwork- their of operation the about ororgained I experiences atthe and performers leastRoma relations to from Most ofmywith paper weretaken this throughout my encounters examples with them very well; maybe them Iknow even abittoo much”. theircontext. As she said of the audiences.men’s singing: “Of course I don’t hate these songs, I know beginning of a long-standing questtofind anddefine their in place a newurban also was the It for them. split troublesome was arather it many others andasfor 90s However,the during Hungary of area rural North-Eastern the from city capital the to migrated in thisbirthday. Herfamily likemany– from Roma currentmusicalthe of scene Budapest – private ceremony the 51 CEU eTD Collection practices. and ‘past’ the ‘present’tothemselvesthem andconnectby the together performative both hold to aiming are practices These lyrics. the or tunes main the changing without nova’ ‘bossa a Brazilian into folksong Roma old an from turn example for genres, my making are acquaintances Roma music for they themselves play often the with out, and positively elements canunderstood be kept evenor developed further. When bethrown can category Roma the of elements downgraded in which identification among Romain itHungary,has also something todo with a re-formulated pattern of a directequal expression to refusal:of like fashion recentthe ‘Spanish of style’ migration fromalso thestates orperiods already in personal life-storiesoverstepped (like the rural toassociations of‘being Roma’: not only labels comingfrom externalworld,the but urban settlements). negative locally extant from distance oneself to claims were These category. ‘Romanian’ and‘Latino’ images –wereattempts for the re-definition of ‘Roma’the However, of display –the performances both in caseof birthday party the the However, these performanceswhoare not dancinglikeatall. that are least atnot from non-Roma maintains the it while Gypsy a senseof difference dance, not provides a greatyoung Roma dancing couples the ‘Gypsy rumba’–alsoincluding men.This dance freedomcases Isaw Other there. other toeach this style andthought anddiscotheques clubs of vibrant motion compared to former ways of female 52 CEU eTD Collection field in ‘worldHungary music’– its contrary definitionsto as an all-encompassing musical of Roma the actors for the In context this taste. and culture popular choices, in areexpressed consumer in preferences transformation defined which ethnically a broader apartof they’re Roma, among the ties’ ‘transnational creating not are exchange of forms if these Even positionality. own performer’s the supporting are always selective, but patterns of incorporation these the local in Europe, locations where residein role here Roma among circulation of different references the associated both with ‘tradition’ and ‘modernity’. In words, musicother has astrategic in appropriated articulation of the influencesforeign thatare self-images altered musical with place Roma were taking scene to reference cultural changes popular were who supposed otherwise to be‘represented’ by them. Aspart ofadeveloping fixed and were centralized notions transgressed or refused by many those Romaof these However, culture’. ‘national’ or ‘high’ of patterns the following canon cultural a of institutionalization and creation in the element a strategic also but experience’ to make ‘traditionalOne of the major goals of the ‘Roma cultural movement’ in postsocialist Hungary was Roma and ‘backstage’. ‘on-stage’ both itis a partof ethnicity-performances categories; music’ to negotiateMusic as such be tools aform to andterrains providecultural could capital of not only a to wider publicdiscourses ‘ethnicity’, ‘modernization’,on or‘labeling’.refined ‘recognition’, expression respects with of claim-making assymbolicforms interpreted canbe musical practices of ‘Romainarena currentmusic’the of and ‘world musical In hybridization. frameworkthis The aim of paperwas this to understand culturalthe politics of Romamusic-making Conclusion 53 CEU eTD Collection paper. developedinway in identity-politics caseintroduced tothe a different compared this institutionalization,Central and Eastern Europe with strategies the thatare ones appliedby performers in Roma countriesother of the– more specificallymarket-inclusion of bethese comparison the furthershould research Themain taskfor context. Romania and Bulgariaempirical – andwhere thethe Romathe bya framework centuries-longhistory of oppression and suffering.examples The paper provided of representation the also but world external the of labels the only not from detached forof Roma different culturein accordance performancesand with is strategy this theirMoreover, for integration. provides prospects that ‘market’ the rather aims to create of positive for developing high ‘Roma currentactors culture’; the of Romathe is musical fieldit the definitionsRoma of a category framework the into ‘folklore’ integrate to former attempts the contrary to Hence, for the ‘Roma’ category within of ‘authenticity’ and alsotoparticipate in a newlydefined market-niche. this meanscategory – apossibility upgradetheirmusic by to uses control the over gaining 54 CEU eTD Collection http://www.rnl.sk/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=5308 Varga: Myths, legends should bebuilt’) In Dani,Varga Anna(2006):Gusztáv:Mítoszokat,kell legendákat (‘Gusztáv építeni. 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