Behaviorism and the Mind

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Behaviorism and the Mind Behaviorism and the Mind A (Limited) Call for a Return to Introspection DAVID A. LIEBERMAN University of Stirling, Scotland ABSTRACT: Though perhaps few psychologists would information of truly impressive accuracy and re- now describe themselves as strict behaviorists, a re- liability. Assuming for the moment that this is view of the literature suggests that methodological and so—and I shall return to the validity of this as- radical behaviorism continue to exert a powerful influ- sumption later—why have some psychologists been ence on current research, even in such nominally cog- so reluctant to use introspection as a scientific nitive areas as imagery and hypothesis learning. In technique? The answer, I believe, is that although many ways this influence has been healthy, leading to a productive emphasis on the importance of environ- experimental psychologists have largely abandoned mental variables in shaping behavior, but some of its the language of behaviorism, many have continued consequences have been rather less benign. After re- to be influenced by its philosophical and methodo- viewing the historical arguments against the use of logical assumptions. The mind, in this view, is introspection, this article concludes that most either are at best of uncertain epistemological status, and invalid or no longer possess their original force, so the introspection is, in any case, an inherently flawed benefits from a wider use of introspection now seem tool for its analysis (see, e.g., Kanfer, 1968). likely to outweigh the possible costs. This view is not quite so baseless or absurd as some critics have implied (e.g., Joynson, 1974), Over the last two decades there has been a dra- but neither does it represent a fully balanced as- matic increase in cognitively based analyses of be- sessment. The dangers of introspection (and of havior, with terms such as memory, attention, and the mind), I argue below, are not nearly so great expectation becoming part of the common parlance as has sometimes been suggested. Before trying of our profession. If psychologists have largely i to develop this point in any detail, however, it may accepted the language of mentalism, however, there be useful to review briefly the history of introspec- has in many cases been a continuing reluctance to tion in order to provide some perspective on the accept the reality of the processes to which these issues involved. terms refer, and thus a reluctance to study these processes through the use of introspection. In some cases this caution is undoubtedly healthy. The Emergence oj Introspection The mere fact that people say they experienced The early experimental psychologists—Wundt, some thought or emotion, after all, by no means Titchener, Kulpe, for example—took as their goal proves that they did so. Suppose, for example, that an understanding of the human mind, and to this the defendant in a murder trial was a young and end they relied on the technique of introspection, attractive woman. Even if all the jurors involved the observation by a subject of his or her thoughts insisted that they had not been influenced in any and feelings. As used in the early psychological way by her appearance, we might still question laboratories, however, introspection bore little re- whether it had played some rale, and experimental semblance to the more casual processes of self- evidence from related situations suggests that awareness familiar from everyday life. Introspec- our skepticism might well be justified (see, e.g., Nisbett& Wilson, 1977). If introspective reports are sometimes wrong or Requests for reprints should be sent to David A. Lieber- misleading, however, there is equally compelling man, Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, evidence that in some instances they may provide Stirling, Scotland FK9 4LA. Vol. 34, No. 4, 319-333 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • APRIL 1979 • 319 Copyright 1979 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0003-066X/79/3404-0319$00.7 5 tion was regarded as a skill, requiring just as much As this inability to agree became increasingly com- training and practice for its development as, say, mon, introspection began to appear increasingly learning to be a professional wine taster. In sterile and unsuitable as a vehicle for scientific Wundt's laboratory, for example, subjects were re- progress. quired to practice at least 10,000 separate intro- Reacting to the growing sense of stagnation and spections before they were considered ready to futility, Watson and other early behaviorists vig- participate in a genuine experiment, and once orously criticized introspectionists for their pre- properly trained a subject might require as much occupation with mental functioning and called in- as 20 minutes to report fully on his or her ex- stead for a new emphasis on overt behavior. The periences during a l.S-sec experiment (Boring, goal of psychology, they argued, should be the 19S3). In some areas—notably psychophysics— practical one of understanding (and thus poten- this painstaking effort paid off handsomely, and we tially changing) human behavior, and the proper still owe much of our current knowledge to this method for achieving this goal should be the ob- early experimentation. Within only a few decades, jective observation of behavior. It is perhaps not however, the systematic use of introspection as a always appreciated, however, that two logically scientific method was to disappear almost com- separable arguments are implicit in this position: pletely. One might well agree that the proper goal of psy- One reason for its demise was the impact of chology should ultimately be the prediction and Freud's revolutionary theories of the unconscious. control of behavior yet still argue that one method The foundation of introspective analysis was the for achieving this goal could be the systematic belief that all of the mind's functioning was acces- study of mental processes. Indeed, this forms the sible to conscious observation, for unless every thesis of this article: Behaviorism succeeded bril- aspect of human thought and emotion could be liantly insofar as it argued for a new emphasis on observed, introspection could provide at best only behavior, both as goal and as method, but in re- an incomplete and fragmented picture of mental acting to the limitations of introspection it went functioning. If consciousness represented only too far in rejecting it totally. Introspection is the visible tip of the iceberg, with vast areas of limited in what it can achieve, but an acknowledg- the mind permanently curtained off behind pow- ment of its limitations does not thereby require erful defensive barriers, then introspection was its total proscription. This rigid rejection may clearly doomed. The same conclusion was sug- initially have been the only way in which a new gested, moreover, by the introspectionists' own generation of psychologists could be shielded from findings. In trying to analyze the thought pro- the siren call of mentalism, but in their efforts to cesses involved in solving a problem, for example, avoid the difficulties posed by introspection, the subjects reported experiencing a sequence of early behaviorists may also have ignored the ad- thoughts, each one moving closer to the goal of vantages to be gained. As psychology has grown solution, but they could discover no conscious more mature, however—thanks in no small part process that guided these thoughts and determined to the work of behaviorists such as Watson and which one occurred at which time, Ach (1905) Skinner—we may have now reached a point where coined the term determining tendency to describe we are sophisticated enough to reap the fruits of the unconscious process, hidden from introspection, introspection without becoming entangled in its that guides thinking along its proper course. thorns. Inaccessibility of mental processes was bad To develop this case, I first consider some of enough, but the problem was compounded by the the arguments that have been raised against the inability of introspectionists to agree even when use of introspection as a scientific technique, and the object of study was ostensibly accessible. In I argue that, ultimately, the only reasonable cri- the controversy over imageless thought, for ex- terion is an empirical one: whether or not intro- ample, workers in Kulpe's laboratory reported that spective data help us to understand behavior. abstract thoughts could occur without being ac- I then turn to an examination of such data and companied by any form of mental imagery. Titch- argue that at least in some areas introspection has ener, on the other hand, insisted that when he already contributed significantly to our under- introspected he could see "vague, evanescent pat- standing of behavior and thus to our ability to terns of sensations and images" (Boring, 19S3). modify it. Finally, having argued for the ad- 320 • APRIL 1979 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST vantages of introspection as an empirical method, for producing images, say, without also producing I consider some of the implications of its use for neural activity, and there is thus no way of de- the status of the mind itself within psychology. termining whether the images by themselves could influence behavior. Even if the mind were only an epiphenomenon, moreover, this would not be an Does the Mind Exist? argument against studying it. Consider, for ex- ample, the status of fever. Fever is in some There are several possible strategies within the sense an epiphenomenon produced by disease: general framework of behaviorism for dealing with When the body is invaded by bacteria, blood is the problem of mental events. Perhaps the sim- diverted from the periphery of the body to the plest, most commonly associated with John B. center so that the white corpuscles carried by the Watson, is simply to deny their existence. Wat- blood can be concentrated in the body's core, where son himself, however, vacillated in his position they can then attack the invading bacteria.
Recommended publications
  • CHAPTER Personality TEN Psychology
    10/14/08 CHAPTER Personality TEN Psychology Psychology 370 Sheila K. Grant, Ph.D. SKINNER AND STAATS: Professor California State University, Northridge The Challenge of Behaviorism Chapter Overview Chapter Overview RADICAL BEHAVIORISM: SKINNER Part IV: The Learning Perspective PSYCHOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM: STAATS Illustrative Biography: Tiger Woods Reinforcement Behavior as the Data for Scientific Study The Evolutionary Context of Operant Behavior Basic Behavioral Repertoires The Rate of Responding The Emotional-Motivational Repertoire Learning Principles The Language-Cognitive Repertoire Reinforcement: Increasing the Rate of Responding The Sensory-Motor Repertoire Punishment and Extinction: Decreasing the Rate of Situations Responding Additional Behavioral Techniques Psychological Adjustment Schedules of Reinforcement The Nature-Nurture Question from the Applications of Behavioral Techniques Perspective of Psychological Behaviorism Therapy Education Radical Behaviorism and Personality Theory: Some Concerns Chapter Overview Part IV: The Learning Perspective Personality Assessment from a Ivan Pavlov: Behavioral Perspective Heuristic Accendental Discovery The Act-Frequency Approach to Personality Classical Conditioning Measurement John B. Watson: Contributions of Behaviorism to Personality Theory and Measurement Early Behaviorist B. F. Skinner: Radical Behaviorism Arthur Staats: Psychological Behaviorism 1 10/14/08 Conditioning—the process of learning associations . Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning . 1849-1936
    [Show full text]
  • A(Nthony) Charles Catania Curriculum Vitae August 2018
    A(nthony) Charles Catania Curriculum Vitae August 2018 Date of Birth, New York, NY: 22 June 1936 Married: Constance Julia Britt, 10 February 1962 Children: William John, 3 February 1964 Kenneth Charles, 5 November 1965 Educational History P.S. 132, Manhattan; Bronx High School of Science, Class of 1953 A.B., Columbia College, 1957 New York State Regents Scholarship; Phi Beta Kappa; Highest Honors with Distinction in Psychology M.A., Columbia University, 1958 Ph.D. in Psychology, Harvard University, 1961 (March) National Science Foundation Fellow, 1958-60 Professional History Columbia College Teaching Assistant, 1956-58 Bell Telephone Laboratories Research Technician (under H. M. Jenkins), Summer 1958 Harvard University Research Fellow in Psychology (supported by B. F. Skinner’s NSF Grant), 1960-62 Smith Kline and French Laboratories Senior Pharmacologist (under L. Cook), 1962-64 University College of Arts and Science, New York University Assistant Professor, 1964-66; Associate Professor, 1966-69; Professor and Department Chair, 1969-73 University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC) Professor, 1973-2008; Program Director/CoDirector, Applied Behavior Analysis MA track, 1998- 2007; Professor Emeritus, Departmental Curmudgeon, 2008- University of Wales (formerly University College of North Wales) Professorial Fellow and Fulbright Senior Research Fellow, 1986-87; Visiting Research Fellow, 1989- Keio University, Tokyo, Japan Visiting Professor, July 1992 Office: Department of Psychology (Emeritus Faculty office, Sondheim 012) University of
    [Show full text]
  • On Spirituality Century with the Rise of Secular Views on Spirituality [10, 11]
    February 2008 The Irish Psychologist ARTICLE historical and conceptual coupling between religiosity and spirituality, a conceptual coupling that has been thrown into disarray over the past On Spirituality century with the rise of secular views on spirituality [10, 11]. I recently asked a group of third year Part 1: Deconstructing, students, "Do you think psychologists should study spirituality?" Some of grappling, and moving in the them said, "No, spirituality cannot be observed or objectively measured – it has no place in psychological field of others science." I wondered if this reply reflected a misunderstanding of Michael J. Hogan the goals of psychological science - a curious negation of certain Mike Hogan is a lecturer in psychology at the National University of Ireland, categories of human experience as a Galway. Correspondence regarding this article may be addressed by email to focus of inquiry - or simply a dislike [email protected]. for entertaining ideas that are in some way associated with orthodox religion. In truth, I cannot claim to have direct The highest activity a human being can and every attempt to construct an access to the minds of my students, attain is learning for understanding, objective account of consciousness and I can only speculate as to why because to understand is to be free struggles with the problem of human they think the way they think. At the Baruch Spinoza, Ethics subjectivity [6, 7]. Consciousness same time, even though the students itself - coupled with our prolific failed to tell me what spirituality is, We are staggeringly lucky to find imaginations - can offer us a sense many students did at least consider ourselves in the spotlight.
    [Show full text]
  • 175 Alexandra Rutherford's Major Premise, She Tells Us, Is That B.F. Skinner Has Had an Enduring Impact on American Society An
    Behavior and Social Issues, 18, 175-177 (2009). © Peter Lamal. Readers of this article may copy it without the copyright owner’s permission, if the author and publisher are acknowledged in the copy and the copy is used for educational, not-for-profit purposes. FROM RATS AND PIGEONS TO CULTURAL PRACTICES: A REVIEW OF BEYOND THE BOX: B. F. SKINNER’S TECHNOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR FROM LABORATORY TO LIFE, 1950S TO 1970S BY ALEXANDRA RUTHERFORD (2009). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9774-3. 224 pp. $55.00. Alexandra Rutherford’s major premise, she tells us, is that B.F. Skinner has had an enduring impact on American society and her book describes the how, when, where, and why of this impact. Furthermore, although the experimental analysis of behavior and the philosophy of radical behaviorism continue to be vibrant areas, Rutherford’s thesis is that Skinner’s lasting impact is due to his development of, and adoption by others, of his technology of behavior, “Skinner’s most enduring achievement was to treat human behavior change like any other technological problem” (p. 10). At the same time, however, Rutherford reminds us that Skinner’s system was and continues to be rejected by many on philosophical grounds and by others on ethical grounds. This book outlines the evolution of Skinner’s behavioral technology by describing several projects undertaken during the 1950s through the 1970s. The development of the experimental analysis of behavior relied heavily upon experiments with pigeons and rats in free operant chambers, the latter often referred to as Skinner Boxes, after their inventor.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 11: Behaviorism
    Chapter 11: Behaviorism Megan Davis, Nicole Pelley and Stephanie Quinlan Behaviorism (1892-1956) ● Psychology has been the study of the mind since the Greeks ○ The definition of the mind has been debated extensively ○ 20th century: Shift from what the mind was to what it did ■ Mind causes behavior ● New field of research ○ Psychology was redefined with help from animal psychology ○ People started believing humans evolved from animal forms ○ Had to rethink Descartes’ definition of the mind New Directions in Animal Psychology New Directions in Animal Psychology Animal psychology as Romanes begun it, used 2 methods: 1. Anecdotal Method → Collect data 2. Method of Inference → Interpret data Close examination in late 19th, early 20th century. Anecdote → Experiment From Anecdote to Experiment ● Experiment replaced anecdotes and informal, naturalistic experiments ● Aim of animal psychology - produce natural science and anecdote not the path to science ● Two important research programs: ○ Thorndike ○ Pavlov From Anecdote to Experiment Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949): ● Initially wanted to study children ● Not many readily available, took up animals ● Studied with William James ● Developed “connectionism” ○ Methodological and theoretical approach to animal learning ○ Formulation of an S-R psychology he called “connectionism” ○ Anecdotal method overestimated animal intelligence From Anecdote to Experiment Thorndike’s Puzzle Boxes ● Trap cat inside box ● Each box opened by cat in different way ● Rewarded with salmon for escaping ○ Ex. of instrumental
    [Show full text]
  • Biologicau Co~Ntrir~Utio~Rne to the Development Of
    ,- B BiologicaU Co~ntriR~utio~rneto the Development of Psychology KARL H. PRIBRAM AND DANIEL N. ROBINSON INTRODUCTION This chapter concerns several important influences that biology has had on the development of psychology as a science. Specifically, we attempt to account for an apparent paradox: In the nineteenth century, rapid advances were made in relating biology in general and brain func- tion in particular to the phenomena of mind. Throughout much of the first half of the twentieth century, however, these same relationships were all but ignored and the foundations for a scientific psychology were sought in the environment. The biological aspects of psychology, perhaps more than other special branches of the discipline, resist historical compression. Psychobiology, as we shall call the subject,' is deeply rooted in both philosophy and 4 ' There is still no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing among the terms physiological psychology, psychobiology, neuropsychology, and biopsychology. A grow- ' ing convention would reserve the term neuropsychology to theory about the human ; nervous system based on research involving complex cognitive processes, often in settings in which clinical findings are directly relevant. Physiological psychology strikes many as too restricted, for much current work falls under headings such as biophysics, computer science, or microanatomy that are synonymous with physiology. Thus, psychobiology is used here to refer to the broadest range of correlative studies in which biobehavioral investigations are undertaken and referenced to phenomenal experience. 345 POINTS OF VIEW IN THE Copyright 0 1985 by Academic Press, Inc. MODERN HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY All rights of reprod~lctionin any form resewed. ISBN 0-12-148510-2 346 Karl H.
    [Show full text]
  • What Interbehavioral Psychology Has to Offer Education--Now
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 288 755 SO 018 331 AUTHOR Cornwell, David; Hobbs, Sandy TITLE What Interbehavioral Psychology Has To Offer Education--Now. PUB DATE 87 NOTE 27p.; Paper and Appendix Two presented at the Annual Conference of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Group (Fife, Scotland, 1986). PUB TYPE Viewpoints (120) -- Speeches/Conference Papers (150) EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Behavioral Science Research; *Educational Psychology; Educational Research; Experimental Psychology; Learning Processes; *Learning Theories; *Psychoeducational Methods; Psychological Studies; Psychologists IDENTIFIERS EKRIB System of Analyzing Teaching; *Interbehavioral Psychology; Kantor (J R); Skinner (B F); Thyne (J M) ABSTRACT B. F. Skinner's influence on various applications of psychology in education has been greater than J. R. Kantor's, the founder of interbehaviorism. However, the field of education might benefit from a greater input of Kantorian, as apposed to Skinnerian, theory. Policymakers, administrators, and teachers have failed to totally adopt Skinner's educational proposals, which focus heavily on programmed instruction and do not consider how teaching is actually practiced or how educators discuss educational goals. Two examples of interbehavioral educational approaches are presented. One, based on "The Psychology of Learning and Techniques of Teaching" by J. M. Thyne, explains learning as the adoption of a new response to a situation. The second example, the EXRIB System of Analyzing Teaching, was developed as an indisciplinary endeavor and as part of the Classroom Interaction Project (CIP) at Jordanhill College. Project participants analyzed statements about teaching and observations of actual teaching situations and devised a model based on teaching as a goal-oriented activity. Appendices include an explanation of the EICRIB system and a report entitled "An Interbehavioral Perspective on Applied Behavior Analysis." Figures and tables are included.
    [Show full text]
  • Methodological Behaviorism As a Radical Behaviorist Views It
    Behavior and Philosophy, 39/40, 145-202 (2011/2012). © 2011 Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies METHODOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM AS A RADICAL BEHAVIORIST VIEWS IT J. Moore University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee ABSTRACT: Methodological behaviorism is a stance on verbal processes and the meaning of “psychological” terms and concepts that are deployed in theories and explanations of behavior. According to this stance, all such terms and concepts should be based on observable stimuli and behavior. Over the years, psychologists have interpreted the phrase “based on” in at least three different ways. One interpretation was that psychologists should remain formally silent on causal mental terms, and not speak at all about unobservables. A second interpretation allowed psychologists to appeal indirectly to mediating mental terms, provided the psychologists could logically connect the terms to observables through operational definitions, where those definitions were exhaustive. A third interpretation again allowed psychologists to appeal indirectly to mediating mental terms, provided the psychologists could logically connect the terms to observables through operational definitions. This time, however, the definitions need be only partial instead of exhaustive. We argue the interpretations lead to an incomplete psychology, if not also an institutionalized mentalism, because they fail to recognize private behavioral events. None of the interpretations are consistent with the radical behaviorism of B. F. Skinner. Key words: methodological behaviorism, radical behaviorism, operationism, logical positivism, theoretical terms, psychological terms Methodological Behaviorism as a Radical Behaviorist Views It Skinner (1964) opened one of his canonical articles with the following paragraph: Behaviorism, with an accent on the last syllable, is not the scientific study of behavior but a philosophy of science concerned with the subject matter and methods of psychology.
    [Show full text]
  • Willis and the Virtuosi
    Forum on Public Policy The Scientific Method through the Lens of Neuroscience; From Willis to Broad J. Lanier Burns, Professor, Research Professor of Theological Studies, Senior Professor of Systematic Theology, Dallas Theological Seminar Abstract: In an age of unprecedented scientific achievement, I argue that the neurosciences are poised to transform our perceptions about life on earth, and that collaboration is needed to exploit a vast body of knowledge for humanity’s benefit. The scientific method distinguishes science from the humanities and religion. It has evolved into a professional, specialized culture with a common language that has synthesized technological forces into an incomparable era in terms of power and potential to address persistent problems of life on earth. When Willis of Oxford initiated modern experimentation, ecclesial authorities held intellectuals accountable to traditional canons of belief. In our secularized age, science has ascended to dominance with its contributions to progress in virtually every field. I will develop this transition in three parts. First, modern experimentation on the brain emerged with Thomas Willis in the 17th Century. A conscientious Anglican, he postulated a “corporeal soul,” so that he could pursue cranial research. He belonged to a gifted circle of scientifically minded scholars, the Virtuosi, who assisted him with his Cerebri anatome. He coined a number of neurological terms, moved research from the traditional humoral theory to a structural emphasis, and has been remembered for the arterial structure at the base of the brain, the “Circle of Willis.” Second, the scientific method is briefly described as a foundation for understanding its development in neuroscience.
    [Show full text]
  • Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology
    Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology Edited by Claude E. Buxton Department of Psychology Yale University New Haven, Connecticut 1985 ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers) Orlando San Diego New York London Toronto Montreal Sydney Tokyo Passages from the following are reprinted by permission of the publishers: Newell, Α., Duncker on Thinking, in S. Koch & D. Leary (Eds.), A Century of Psychology as Science. Copyright 1985 by McGraw-Hill. Neisser, U., Cognitive Psychology. © 1967 by Prentice-Hall. COPYRIGHT © 1985 BY ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY, RECORDING, OR ANY INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHER. ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. Orlando, Florida 32887 United Kingdom Edition published by ACADEMIC PRESS INC. (LONDON) LTD. 24-28 Oval Road, London NW1 7DX LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION DATA Main entry under title: Points of view in the modern history of psychology. Includes indexes. 1. Psychology— History. I. Buxton, Claude E. BF81.P57 1985 150\9 85-4010 ISBN 0-12-148510-2 (alk. paper) PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 85 86 87 88 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contributors Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors' contributions begin. Mitchell G. Ash (295), Department of History, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242 William Bevan (259), John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, Chicago, Illinois 60603 Arthur L. Blumenthal (19, 51), Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts at Boston, Boston, Massachusetts 02125 Claude E.
    [Show full text]
  • An Introduction to the Philosophy Called Radical Behaviorism Stephen F
    ntroduction to Radical ehaviorism 25 An Introduction to the Philosophy Called Radical Behaviorism Stephen F. Ledoux he work of B.F. Skinner simply did not follow the majority views of his time. In this he was not the first. He stood, as the saying goes, on the shoulders of giants. He ad- vanced another major step in a trend whose continuity in the West began nearly years ago. That trend is one of replacing what could be characterized as humanity’s self– centeredness with an increasingly more effective natural science perspective about people’s place in the order of things. This trend got a big push when Copernicus reit- erated what Aristarchus of Samos and the ancient Ionian Greeks had discovered much earlier but which had been lost in the intervening centuries: the Earth, and thus hu- manity, were not the center of everything. Later, Darwin showed that our bodies (our physical forms, structures, and functions) are also products of the same natural laws that apply to all other living and non–living things. Then Skinner, through the behav- iorology discipline arising from his work, demonstrated that our very being, our con- sciousness, our conduct, our behavior, is also necessarily and properly within the reach of natural science. From that demonstration, and its associated applied technologies, arises an increased opportunity for humanity to solve its problems: from day–to–day personal difficulties, through challenges such as the crisis in education, to the global problems threatening survival itself. To benefit from that opportunity, people must ex- pand their behavior repertoires with respect to behaviorology, the discipline responsible for the relevant science and technology.
    [Show full text]
  • We Are All Methodological Behaviorists
    Behavior and Philosophy, 41, 1-10 (2013). ©2015 Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies WE ARE ALL METHODOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISTS Marcus Bentes de Carvalho Neto Universidade Federal do Pará ABSTRACT: Methodological and radical behaviorisms have been contrasted not only with respect to their consideration, or lack thereof, of private psychological events, but also with respect to their criteria for scientificity. Skinner (1945), in particular, dismissed the criterion of scientific truth by agreement (an inherently social criterion) and argued for its replacement by a form of individualistic pragmatism. In this article I argue that truth by agreement remains as fundamental to science as it ever was. In this sense, and regardless of indirect validations of claims about private events, we are all methodological behaviorists. Key words: methodological behaviorism, radical behaviorism, agreement, replicability, science Behavior analysts are acquainted with a traditional and unqualified division between two types of behaviorism, the (merely) methodological and the radical one (Skinner, 1974/1976; for a detailed analysis of methodological behaviorism see Moore, 1981, 2001). A keystone of the methodological-vs.-radical distinction rests on the kind of data to be included in our scientific understanding of behavior. Methodological behaviorism, it is argued, adheres to a rigid and naive version of operationalism that was already present in the traditions of logical positivism and realism. As a consequence, methodological behaviorism deals exclusively with what can be publicly observed: Observation thus became (...) fundamental to [methodological] Watsonian Behaviorism1: Observation defines the category of behavior as a subject matter. Behavior is what is observable, but only observable by the other one (...). To qualify as subject matter for a behaviorist, behavior must affect the senses of other organisms; it must be available for measurement and recording by others.
    [Show full text]