THE RIGHT RESPONSE: THE REACTION OF THE SILENT MAJORITY TO THE SOCIAL MOVEMENTS OF THE SIXTIES A Dissertation by BRITTANY BOUNDS Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Terry H. Anderson Committee Members, Joseph G. Dawson, III John H. Lenihan Terence Hoagwood Head of Department, David Vaught August 2015 Major Subject: History Copyright 2015 Brittany Bounds ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the conservative response of mainstream Americans to the various social movements that captured the nation’s attention in the 1960s. In conjunction with opinion polls, newspaper articles, and archival collections, this project uses an unconventional methodology by analyzing White House mail summaries and personal letters Americans wrote and telegraphed to the White House in response to liberal activities. I conclude that the group President Richard Nixon labeled the “Silent Majority” – while tolerant of tempered social change – despised protests and demonstrations. These citizens felt they were losing their grip on an American identity established in the 1950s that included American exceptionalism, anticommunism, state’s rights, and a strong sense of morality. To counter demonstrations and perceived media bias, conservatives mobilized and demanded a return to law and order. My dissertation explores the Silent Majority reaction to the main social movements of the decade, which also examines their interpretation of the American identity. In the first chapter, I ascertain that conservatives and moderates tried to halt the pace of integration by investigating their response to the Freedom Rides, Ole Miss, and the Civil Rights Act. The second chapter explores the conservative response to the New Left and campus protests; they demanded that university administrations regain campus control from radicals and expel protestors. In the third chapter, I examine the Silent Majority’s reaction to antiwar demonstrations and Moratoriums through grassroots ii organizations and pro-war rallies. The project then turns to the response to the counterculture in the fourth chapter, and how citizens distrusted Hippies and eventually tried to incorporate them back into the mainstream. The fifth chapter delves into the visceral backlash against Black Power and federally enforced busing mandates in the North. The last chapter investigates the grassroots organization of housewives to counter women’s liberation, abortion, and the Equal Rights Amendment. I argue the Silent Majority was not as silent as their moniker implies, and in fact influenced policy decisions and elections, leading to the rise of the neoconservatives in the 1970s. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I could never by written word express the amount of gratitude I hold for those who helped me through this Ph.D. process. I would like to first recognize my committee chair and my committee members for their guidance and support throughout the course of this research. Dr. Terry H. Anderson shared his guidance on teaching, the job market, critical thinking about the Sixties, and his wife’s (Rose) famous gumbo on many an occasion. Dr. Joseph G. Dawson always provided an editorial eye to my writing; Dr. Terence Hoagwood exposed me to the fascinating world of evaluating films with a critical eye; and Dr. John Lenihan consistently asked poignant questions that made this project a better manuscript. Thanks also to my friends and colleagues across many departments at the university, and the History department faculty and staff for making my time at Texas A&M University an enjoyable experience. Dr. Bill Collopy was my closest friend and entrusted colleague in the department, and I thank him for serving as an excellent mentor. I must extend my thorough gratitude to my supportive department for recurring funding so I could research at locations coast to coast and present my findings at conferences. I also want to extend my gratefulness to the Gerald Ford Presidential Library, which provided research funding vital to the completion of this project. The Texas A&M Race and Ethnic Studies Institute also provided me a fellowship to explore racial issues in the project. I would be remiss to not thank the incredible library ILL staff iv at A&M for the countless hours they put in to provide scans of articles and pull books for me. I want to thank the hard-working and generous archivists at the libraries and archives I visited for going above and beyond normal duties to ensure I received the best treatment. In particular, Pam Eisenberg at the Nixon Library, Tara Craig at the Columbia University Archives, Bill McNitt at the Ford Library, and Allen Fisher at the LBJ Library all went out of their way to make me feel at home. Finally, thanks to my family, who set the foundation for graduate school long, long ago. My mother and father provided their encouragement – if unrelenting at times – at every educational phase, and stimulated me to never stop achieving. Indirectly, as children of the Sixties they served as a source of inspiration for this project. Although he will not be able to read this for many years, I also thank my toddler son, Joshua, for somehow keeping me sane through the daily chaos (“Mommy go type?”), and for always giving me a reason to laugh. Last but never the least, thanks to my husband, Steve, for his patience and love. He served as my research assistant, my sounding board, and my personal massage therapist. I could not have completed this massive project without your partnership and support – through thick and thin. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ………...……………………………………………………………... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………….………………………………….. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………...………..…..... vi LIST OF FIGURES ………..…………………………..……………..……...…….. vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION …………………....……………..…………...….. 1 CHAPTER II THE RESPONSE TO CIVIL RIGHTS ……..……………..……….. 25 Freedom Rides …………………………..…………………………………. 33 Ole Miss ………………………………………..…………………………... 38 The Civil Rights Act …………………………..…………………………… 59 CHAPTER III STUDENTS AGAINST CAMPUS RADICALISM..…….......……. 85 The Free Speech Movement …………………………...………………....... 90 Columbia University ……...………………………………………………... 102 1968 Democratic National Convention ……………………………...……. 131 CHAPTER IV PATRIOTS FOR THE VIETNAM WAR ……….…….…...…....... 138 1965 Moratoriums …………………………………………….…...……..... 141 1967 Marches for Peace ……………...…………………….……………… 150 Victory in Vietnam Demonstrations ………...……………………………... 155 1969 Moratorium …………………………………...……………………… 161 CHAPTER V REINTEGRATING THE COUNTERCULTURE …...….....………. 204 Rise of the Hippie …………………………………………....…………….. 205 Reaction to Hippies …………………………….......……………..……….. 211 Reaction to Drugs ……………………………………………...…………... 221 Obscenity …………………………………………………………………... 227 Decency Rallies ……...…………………………………………………….. 233 Altamont …………………………………………………………………… 253 The Jesus Movement ………………………………………......................... 258 vi Page CHAPTER VI HALTING BLACK POWER ………………………………....…... 270 Urban Riots …………......………………………………………………….. 273 Voting Rights Act ………………………………………......……………… 276 Black Power …………………………………………………………........... 283 Newark and Detroit Riots ………………………………………………….. 284 Black Panthers ……………………………………………………………... 291 Black Silent Majority ………………………………………………………. 309 Busing for Integration ……………………………………………………… 313 CHAPTER VII FIGHTING WOMEN’S LIBERATION ………....……………..... 328 Birth Control ……………………………………………………………….. 332 Women’s Liberation ……………………………………………………….. 335 The Equal Rights Amendment …………………………………………….. 341 Abortion ………………………………………………...………………...... 349 Roe v. Wade ……………………………………………………………....... 352 Opposition Arises to the Equal Rights Amendment …...…………………... 366 International Women’s Year Conference ………………………………….. 392 CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS …………………………………………………. 399 Epilogue ………………………………………………………..……........... 402 Concluding Remarks ……………………………………………...……….. 409 REFERENCES …………..……………………………...……………………...….. 415 vii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Mail vs. Polls in Favor of LBJ’s Vietnam Policies …………......…......... 154 Figure 2: Legal Abortions and Legal Abortions Ratios ……………….....……….. 354 Figure 3: Abortion Approved in Certain Circumstances, 1972-1980 ……….......... 358 Figure 4: Equal Rights Amendment Approval ……………………...…………...... 397 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION “We, the Moderate group, support you. You are our President. We back your stand to remain unmoved by the storms raging around you. Patience can be very rewarding. When the clamor and din ceases, when the shouting and tumult die down, we shall still be here. Those who rage today will be wiser tomorrow, For nothing tempers man more than time, and only time subdues a storm.” – Letter to President Nixon, 19691 In January 1970, Time magazine chose a group it called “The Middle Americans” as its “Man of the Year.” They were also known as the “forgotten Americans” until President Richard Nixon gave them a name that stuck: the Silent Majority. They could be seen praying in schools defiant of the Supreme Court order, supporting law enforcement in communities, and displaying car bumper stickers reading “HONOR AMERICA” or “SPIRO IS MY HERO,” referring to the vice president who took a firm stand against protesters and perceived media bias that favored liberal movements. As the publisher Roy E. Larsen described, “The American dream that they were living was no longer the dream as advertised.” They seemed to be losing their control over the country