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Antibiotrophs: the Complexity of Antibiotic-Subsisting and Antibiotic-Resistant Microorganisms

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http://informahealthcare.com/mby ISSN: 1040-841X (print), 1549-7828 (electronic) Crit Rev Microbiol, Early Online: 1–14 ! 2014 Informa Healthcare USA, Inc. DOI: 10.3109/1040841X.2013.875982 REVIEW ARTICLE Antibiotrophs: The complexity of antibiotic-subsisting and antibiotic-resistant microorganisms Yvon Woappi1, Prashant Gabani1, Arya Singh2, and Om V. Singh1 1Division of Biological and Health Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Bradford, PA, USA and 2Department of Computer Science, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, USA Abstract Keywords Widespread overuse of antibiotics has led to the emergence of numerous antibiotic-resistant Antibiotic-production, antibiotic-resistance, bacteria; among these are antibiotic-subsisting strains capable of surviving in environments antibiotic-subsistence, antibiotrophs, with antibiotics as the sole carbon source. This unparalleled expansion of antibiotic resistance extremophiles, gene-transfer, multi-drug reveals the potent and diversified resistance abilities of certain bacterial strains. Moreover, resistance, systems biology these strains often possess hypermutator phenotypes and virulence transmissibility competent for genomic and proteomic propagation and pathogenicity. Pragmatic and prospicient History approaches will be necessary to develop efficient therapeutic methods against such bacteria and to understand the extent of their genomic adaptability. This review aims to reveal the Received 1 October 2013 niches of these antibiotic-catabolizing microbes and assesses the underlying factors linking Revised 6 December 2013 natural microbial antibiotic production, multidrug resistance, and antibiotic-subsistence. Accepted 12 December 2013 Published online 4 February 2014 Introduction antibiotics, and the molecular genetics of the respective microorganisms have been well studied over the years Bacterial survival has been optimized by fast reproduction (Helling et al., 2002; Nikaido, 2009). However, the metab- cycles, frequent genomic interchange and swift metabolic For personal use only. olism of unmetabolized drugs from the extensive use of adaptability. This metabolic flexibility can trigger the forma- antibiotics in humans and animals has yet to be understood. tion of secondary metabolites (e.g. antibiotics and toxins) that Prolonged exposure to residual antibiotics under both in vivo are not essential for the growth and reproduction of the and in vitro conditions produces microorganisms that, under organisms that produce them. An antibiotic has been defined selective pressure, evolve into AREs (Gabani et al., 2012). as an organic compound produced by one microorganism to Antibiotic resistance in bacteria could be defined as the inhibit the growth of another; however, this definition does not microbial ability to sustain and multiply in the presence of reflect non-microbial sources (e.g. plants). For any one antibiotics (Aminov & Mackie, 2007), which has raised antibiotic, there is a specific group of microorganisms global concern due to its devastating impacts, such as spread comprising its inhibition spectrum, meaning they are sensitive of infections across continents and prolonged illness. The to the antibiotic at therapeutically possible dosage levels rapidity with which many resistances have appeared after the (Canton & Morosini, 2011). However, the most common introduction of new antibiotics suggests that resistance genes antibiotics and respective microorganisms (i.e. bacteria and were already present in nature prior to human use of fungi) in nature, as summarized in Table 1, may enforce long- antibiotics. Exclusively antibiotic-resistant strains have been Critical Reviews in Microbiology Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by University of South Carolina on 05/29/15 term selective pressure for the emergence of resistance, identified and their swift resistance adaptation patterns have generating another branch of extremophiles – antibiotic- been strongly linked to horizontal gene transfer (HGT) resistant extremophiles (ARE) (Gabani et al., 2012; Hawkey (Canton & Morosini, 2011; Liebert et al., 1999). The & Jones, 2009; Helling et al., 2002; Kajander & Ciftcioglu, intensifying relevance of resistant pathogens has, however, 1999; Nikaido, 2009). refocused contemporary studies toward resistance mechan- The bacterial spectrum can be divided into five central isms, leaving a relatively small amount of research investigat- metabolic groupings: (i) antibiotic producers, (ii) antibiotic- ing natural antibiotic production and its links to evolving resistant, (iii) both antibiotic producer and resistant, (iv) non- intercellular communication toward resistance (Martin et al., resistant, and (v) non-antibiotic-producing. The cellular 2005). Hence, an understanding of antibiotic production mechanisms for biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, i.e. and resistance acquisition is more relevant today than ever before. Over the past several decades, the methods of pathogenic Address for correspondence: Om V. Singh, University of Pittsburgh, Divison of Biological and Health Sciences, 300 Campus Drive, eradication have proven largely inefficient and unrealistic. Bradford, PA 16701 USA. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] In fact, they have promoted microbial propagation and have 2 Y. Woappi et al. Crit Rev Microbiol, Early Online: 1–14 Table 1. Biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, i.e. antibiotics, in most common bacterial and fungal origin*. Secondary metabolites Secondary metabolites Bacterial origin (i.e. antibiotics) Fungal origin (i.e. antibiotics) Amycolatopsis lactamdurans Cephamycin C Cephalosorium acremonium Cephalosporin C Bacillus licheniformic Bacitracin Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillins, Griseofulvin, Patulin, P. griseofulvin, P. urticae respectively. Bacillus subtillis Bacillin, Subtillin Aspergillus nidulans Penicillin Erwinia chrysanthemi (Dickeya dadantii) Indigoidine Acremonium chrysogenum Cephalosporin Lysobacter lactamgenus Cephabacin Cercospora kikuchii Cercosporin Micromonospora sp. Micromonosorin Cochliobolus carbonum HC-toxin Nocardia uniformis Nocardicin A Pseudallescheria boydii Pseudallin Pseudomonas aureofaciens Pyrrolnitrin Mucor ramannianus Ramycin Streptomyces antibioticus Actinomycin, Oleandomycin Carpenteles brefeldianum Griseofulvin Streptomyces griseus Indolmycin, Streptomycin, Cordyceps militaris Cordycepin Candicidin Streptomyces kanamyceticus Kanamycin Giberella baccata Baccatin A Streptomyces fradiae Neomycin Nectria radicicola, Monosporium Radicicol bonorden Streptomyces albinogen Puromycin Chaetomium aureum, C. trilaterale Oosporein Streptomyces sioyaensis Siomycin C. cochliodes Chetomin, Orsenillic acid Streptomyces lavendulae Streptothricin Edothia parasitica Diaporthin Streptomyces cinnamonesis Monensin Neurospora crassa Spermine Streptomyces veneguelae Chloramphenicol Lambertela corni-maris, L. Lambertellin hicoriae Streptomyces verticillatus Mitomycin Mollisia caesia, M. gallens Mollisin Streptomyces caelestis Celesticetin Blennoria sp. Citrinin Streptomyces cacaoi Polyonins L & M Pestalotia ramulosa Ramulosin Streptomyces spinosus Spinosad Candida albicans Mycobacillin Streptomyces hygnoscopicus Rapamycin Achorion gypseum Achoricine Streptomyces pencetius Avermectin Aspergillus giganteus Alpha-Sarcin Streptomyces erythrea Erythromycin A. amstelodami, A. proliferans, A. Amodins A&B, Proliferin, restrictus, A. variecolor, A. Restrictosin, Variecolin, nidulans, A. flavipes, A. humi- Cordycepin, Flavipin, cola, A. niger, A. velutinus, A. Humicolin, Jawaharene, oryzae Velutinin, Hydroxyaspergillic acid, respectively. Streptomyces thermotolerans Carbomycin A. fumigatus Helvonic acid, Fumigallin, Trypacidin Streptomyces peucetius Daunorubicin Beauveria bassiana Oosporein For personal use only. Streptomyces argillaceus Mithramycin Cephalosporium cellulens, Sellenin (Cellulenin), C. salmosynnematum Cephalosporins Streptomyces natalensis Pimaricin Cephalosporium sp. Cephalothecin Streptomyces ambophaciens Spiramycin Clavariopsis aquatic Citrinin Streptomyces fradiae Tylosin Dendrodochium toxicum Dendrodochin Streptomyces coelicolor Actinorhodin Fusidium coccineum Fucidin Streptomyces clavuligerus Cephamycin C Paecilomyces persicinus, P. var- Cephalosporin N, Variotin, ioti, P. brefeldianum, P. fre- Brefeldin, Frequentin, Cyanein, quentans, P. cyaneum, P. Canescin, Albidin, canescens, P. albidum, P. nota- Xanthocillin, Nordin, tum, P. paxilli, respectively. Streptomyces maritimus Enterocin Oospora aurantia, O. colorans, O. Oosporein, Virescin, respectively. virescens Streptomyces roseofulvum Frenolicin Cephalosporium sp. Synnematin Streptomyces lincolnensis Lincomycin Fusarium lateritium, Fusarium sp. Locabiotal, Chlamydosporins, respectively. Streptomyces coelicolor Methylenomycin Critical Reviews in Microbiology Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by University of South Carolina on 05/29/15 Streptomyces rimosus Tetracyclin Streptomyces pristinaespiralis Pristinamycin Streptomyces alboniger Puromycin Streptomyces glaucescens Tetracenomycin Streptomyces cattleya Thienamycin Streptomyces sp. Novobiocin Streptomyces sp. P-8648 Viridogrisein Thermophilic actinomycetes Thermomycin, Thermocyridin, Refcin (anthracin) *Data collected from multiple articles available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed and http://www.scopus.com/home.url using key words for bacteria and fungal origin antibiotics. DOI: 10.3109/1040841X.2013.875982 Antibiotrophs: The complexity of antibiotic-subsisting 3 resulted in more cases of multi-drug-resistant strains (MDR) gradually
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