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The Routledge History of Terrorism

Randall D. Law

Pre-Modern Terrorism

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 Donathan Taylor, Yannick Gautron Published online on: 02 Apr 2015

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 5–5BE.Aogohrtig,ti novdardcini h oiia uhrt fthe (57–55 BCE).Amongotherthings, thisinvolved areduction inthepoliticalauthorityof Aulus Gabinius, proconsul toSyria Judea occurredduringthetenure of reorganization of Roman disorder several authority. internal years later, Afterafresh round anadditional of Jerusalem, followed by theinexorablenecessitated athree-month siegeof application of secure Rome’s control over intheLevant. Seleukidterritories taskultimately This former his effortstofurther as partof thecountry Hasmonean claimantstothe high priesthoodof Roman generalPompey (106–48BCE)undertooktoresolve adisputebetween rival political events which unfolded within Judea Jewish history. scholars of identity hasgenerated endlessdebate amongmodern violentdissidentscalledtheSicariiwhose Amongthesewasabandof self-determination. certain radicalgroups withinthelocalcommunity toopposebothinanexpression of thelargely Hellenized Jewish socialandreligious elite, finally compelled acquiescence of foreign rule, togetherwiththecollaborative Judaea,In theRoman decadesof province of among theJewish population societyhassubsequentlyidentifiedasterrorism. which modern violence Common Erathat created anenvironment conducive toauniqueexpression of the circumstances arose by of century themid-first Levant, auniquesetof In theSouthern describing themasterrorists withinboththeircontexts andours. theirtimes, andexplores theappropriateness of violencewithinthecontexts of uses of Persia chapter andSyria.This analyzes thesetwo movements, explains their Assassins of Judaea andthe violence: theSicariiof modesof for theireeriefamiliaritytoourmodern between public andprivate acts. Two world, examples standoutinthepre-modern however, revolutionary politicalchange, or now-common delineations ideological availability of thestate, the of – but conceptions tookplaceinsocietiesthat didnotpossessmodern tactics–suchanalyzing violencethat asassassination inducedterror ormimickedmodern killing, they reveal thedifficultiesassociated with this onedemonstrate thetimelessnessof ourown time. Whilethechapters directly preceding andfollowing negativephotographic of a criticallyimportantelements, what Steven IsaacinChapter4describesastheutilityof of terror by modern highlightingthepresence orabsence violence illuminates thecharacter of ancient ormedieval violence. More often,theanalysis of intriguing rhetoricalconstructionof with findingtheoccasionaltacticalsimilarity, therare parallelstrategic consideration, oran terrorism must modern-day usuallybecontent searchingThose roots for thepre-modern of The circumstancesThe which gave risetotheSicarii h ae ftheSicariiandAssassins casesof The PRE-MODERN TERRORISM Romans, Jews, andSicariiinJudaea Donathan Taylor andYannick Gautron 2 3 duringthepreceding century. In63BCE,the 28 found theirorigininthesocialand 1

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 aiyh,ltrt ecle,atrhsaqiiino Roman citizenship, Josephus. Flavius Matityahu, later tobecalled,afterhisacquisitionof Roman–Jewish theFirst War ben during theopeningstagesof (66–73CE),Yosef theJewish general historianandformer derived from biasedsource asingle –theworks of thiselusive sectiscomplicated by thefactthat almostallextant knowledge is character of currentscholarship tounravel the authority inJudaea, abilityof the Sicariistoodapart.The domestic, inevitably assumedpotentreligious overtones. rulership, whether foreignfrom or theBible, Jewish of resistance toobjectionable forms Israeliteculturaltradition,derived largely in theirreligious teachings. Given thenature of “Gentiles,” many Jews found recourse surrounded intheirancestrallandsby thousandsof munity. localHellenized leaders, and Governed by foreign rulers, subjecttotheauthorityof upper socialandeconomicelite, generated growing agitation withinthegreater Jewish com- n hi te omtett ar u cso voec gis ebr fthe Jewish of members violenceagainst outactsof and theiruttercommitment to carry “Nolord but God” sect from allotheropposition groups inJudaea: theirextreme doctrineof Josephus, two characteristics canbe ascertainedthat distinguishthe In acareful analysisof theMediterranean. colonistsfrom various partsof experienced aninfluxof which subsequently several towns, thelatter of high priesthoodandtherebuilding of entv oncincn nfc,b eie rmayo theextant works. definitive connectioncan,infact,bederived from any of between thetwo sectshasfueledpassionate discussionamongscholars, althoughno Jerusalem thisrelationship in70CE.Sincethenineteenthcentury, thepotentialexistence of widely identifiedoppositiongroup toRoman rulein theevents endingwiththefallof historians have posited alinkbetweenthemost theSicariiandZealots(Kanna’im), interface between Roman authorityandJewish culture. that factors cametogether at the aconfluenceof appearancewastheresultTheir of theRoman procurator Antonius Felix duringthegovernorshipcentury of (52–60CE). the Sicarii hisworks, Jewish War The Antiquities,Josephus collectively andThe portraysThrough two of only addedfueltothegrowing civilunrest. force military maladministration paired withthesometimesindiscriminantapplication of theJewish population.periodicboutsof These with littlecare shown for thewelfare of Judaea,maintain supervisionover callouslymishandleddomesticrelations theprovince of (64–66CE),who were appointedby(62–64 CE),andGessiusFlorus theemperor to later procurators, such asVentidiussuccession of Cumanus (48–52CE), LucceiusAlbinus Roman authorityhardened. For Rome, thematter wasnotmadeeasierby thefactthat a orated between thelocalJewish population andtheirforeign overlords, andresistance to thesenewchanges, relations furtherdeteri- of Under thesubsequentconstrainingeffects Syria,P. ataxcensusby thegovernor of SulpiciusQuirinius(6–12CE). the application of Judaeathe Roman andthenmoved Province tofurtherconsolidate itsauthoritythrough of people from Roman authority. liberating theJewish a fertileenvironment from which theirgoalof theSicariipursued CE,Jewishcentury discontentwithRoman rulegenerated aconstanttensionthat provided mn h ml ioiyo extremist groups that emerged at thistimetoopposeRoman Among thesmallminorityof These and other internal changes administered by andotherinternal These Rome, thoughacceptabletothe From certainintertextual evidence inJosephus andlesserTalmudic sources, somemodern n6C,Rm omlyjie h ein fJudea, Idumea,andSamaria into In 6CE,Rome joinedtheregions of formally sa nieosgopo violent religious radicalsthat emerged inthemid-first as anindigenousgroup of PRE-MODERN TERRORISM: SICARII/ASSASSINS Sicarii violenceandterror 5

29 4 And by the latter half of the first thefirst of Andby thelatter half 8

3

7 6

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 cso reprisal. acts of . This term hasnoothercurrency inGreek orJewish term called asica.This literature before Josephus. adistinctive weapon whose designmostresembled thecurved Roman dagger with theuseof derived fromname Sicarii,aLatin term thefactthatouttheirattacks theassassinscarried Roman authoritiesinJudaea who almostcertainlyassignedthe captured theattention of community that dared reject thisbelief. enemies.” thoseJewsagainst “who consentedtosubmitRome and inevery way treated themas elite foracquiescing toRoman willingly authority. Josephus says that the less significant.Inafurtive manner, they soughttointimidate andpunishtheruralJewish associates. theirincarcerated prominent Jews asameanstosecure thefreedom of abduction of greater troubles.” Albinus eventually therequest, but granted Josephus notesthat “thiswasthebeginningof their fellow Sicariicurrentlyimprisoned by theRomans. Following Ananias’entreaties, high priest,Ananias(63CE).They thenofferedhisrelease inexchange for thefreeing of thecurrent Albinus thetemplecaptainandsonof when they seized Eleazar,of secretaryof politicalextortion. thispracticeduringtheprocuratorship They began Jews of for purposes population. such against behavioras astark warning toboththeJewish rulingeliteandthecommon was perceived tobeahighprofile collaborator withtheRomans andhisdeath would serve thistacticwastheHighPriestJonathan, doubtlessselectedbecausehe victimof first The community. Such tacticsinevitably resulted inwidespread psychological anxietywithintheJewish originated inJerusalem andrelied onanonymity asaninstrumenttoinstillfear. They their enemies. Josephus says that unliketheruralbanditscommontoJudaea, theSicarii society. Roman Jewish authoritiesorotherwiseacquiescedtotheforeign influencespermeating particularly prominent inthecommunity leaders –such aspriests–who cooperated with The instabilitygeneratedThe inJerusalem by thisandothersuch sensational incidentsquickly h ciiiso theSicarii activitiesof The nadto oassiain h iai lorsre otekdapn fprominent In additiontoassassination, theSicarii alsoresorted tothekidnappingof The terror inspiredThe by theSicariiwasmagnifiedby themannerinwhich they intimidated conspirators andsocraftyineludingdetection. suspicions were aroused andthey were onguard, they fell;soswiftwere the and would nottrusteven theirfriendswhen they approached. Yet, even while their battlefield, hourly expecting death.watch Menkept at adistanceontheirenemies thanthecalamityitself;every paniccreatedThe one, wasmore alarming asonthe plausible behavior, were never discovered. indignation and, through this [the victim]fell,themurderers joinedinthecriesof undertheirclothing,daggers withwhich they stabbed theirenemies. when Then, their specialseasons, when they wouldwiththecrowd, short mingle carrying thecity.committed murders inbroad festivals The were daylight intheheartof 14 To thewealthy inselect thisend, they plundered anddestroyed theestates of 11

13 DONATHAN TAYLOR ANDYANNICK GAUTRON Emboldenedby theirsuccess, theSicarii likewise extended where intothecountryside they proved no 9 I sec,tetreso theirviolencewere Jews, Inessence, thetargets of 30 10

continued toemploy the Sicarii moved 12

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 Dead Seainorder tocollectneededsuppliesandfoodstuffs. attack, The which occurred on the Engediontheshores of thevillageof outaviciousassaultagainst the Sicariicarried theirattacks more grew violent.Unlikeprevious incursions, plies, but in timethemannerof thefortress’ occupation, they raidedneighboringcommunities for sup- the early stagesof country bycountry violentmeans. theJewish population becameincreasinglyresolved tofree their a growing segmentof theRoman occupation, protracted inabilitytoexercise becauseof self-determination revolt. thefirst-century Faced witha in theimmediate years priortotheoutbreak of political conditionspresent inJudaea asthey were acontributor toitsfurtherbreakdown ot-otes fJerusalem, overlooking theDeadSea. south-southeast of Masada,roughly 30miles managed toescapetheisolated Herodian mountainfortress of the the remainder of theirperceived extremism,other Jewish rebels who opposedhisbrutalmethods. Becauseof thehighpriestAnanias, ledtohisown death by Menachem, which includedthemurder of briefly involved theirleader intheevents inJerusalem before thetyrannicalactionsof 66CE,theSicariiwere only inthesummerof When thegeneraluprisingfinallybegan Jerusalem.places, festivals such andtheTemple aspilgrimage of by thefactthatfurther confirmed such incidentsoccurredat religiously significanttimesand theseattacks wasaimedprimarilyat theJewish population is the psychological of purpose assassination, kidnapping, orproperty destruction.That of few direct reprisalsintheform only Jews. Extantevidence indicates that Roman suffered personnel civiliansandmilitary thisnature targeted Perhapsgenerally corrupt. mostnotable isthefactthat Sicariiattacks of wedge between theJewish peopleandtheirtraditionalleadership, whom theSicarii saw as vely, theseactionsserved tofurther isolate Roman forces while simultaneously drivinga events intheprovince.the meanstoanticipate andthereby Collecti- control of thecourse from information Jewish who leaders provided theRomansdisrupt theunchecked flow of from amongthewiderpopulation. Atthesametime, animmediate tangible result wasto highsymbolic politicalvalue inorder todiscouragepro-Roman grassroots cooperation of the Jewish socialandreligious elite, theSicariiwere carefully selectingindividualswho were terror.popular collaboration Bytargeting withImperialofficialsthrough theapplication of 67 years earlier. Quirinius’census revolt at thetimeof who wasinstrumentalinraisingthe standard of GamalainGaulanitis, oneJudas theGalileanof Josephus claimswasadescendantof theSicariiatop MasadawasEleazarbenYair,revolt. leaderof The anindividualwhom ting Silva legion,the LegioXFretensis, (73–81CE),besiegedMasada withasingle andsuppor- Judaea, L.Flavius theconflict,newly appointedRoman governor of seventh year of Judaea, lord but God.” “No Judaeaneastern proclaim Desert,theSicariicontinued tostubbornly theirdoctrineof At Masada, the terroristic nature of the Sicarii once again fullymanifesteditself. theSicariionceagain During At Masada,theterroristic nature of Yet theunstable socialand theSicariiwere in many ways asmuch asymptomof nec ntne h atc ftheSicariiwere specific,violent,andcalculated tocurtail In each instance, thetacticsof h cuaino Msd a h atsgicn hpe ntehsoyo theSicariiin Masadawasthelastsignificantchapter of inthehistory occupationThe of i ups a ooecm hsls eann okto resistance inthe was toovercomeauxilia. Hispurpose thislastremaining pocketof and the site of the final event of the First Roman–Jewish theFirst War thefinalevent of (66–73CE).Inthe and thesiteof The theSicarii Roman–Jewish War andtheendof 17

PRE-MODERN TERRORISM: SICARII/ASSASSINS Sicarii inthecitywere likewisekilledinthepurge, althoughafew 31 16 Tee ntermtns fthe There, intheremoteness of 15

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 h iai i o mrei h is fthese uprisings. the Sicariididnotemerge inthemidst of oppositioncomparable tothat of (69–70CE),but(60 CE),andGermany any expressions of Roman authorityoccurred,mostnotably inNorthAfrica(17–24 and45CE),Britain nowhere elseinantiquity. century, Duringthefirst otherseriousNative revolts against “terror” tactics, one’s especiallyagainst own people, isfound concentrated application of Jewish–Roman relations andprovoke broad popularresistance toforeign rule. assassination andkidnapping, internecine asinstrumentstodestabilizefear, through actsof Roman–Jewish theFirst War.of They were intendedfrom toincitepanicand theirinception theirmantra. exhortations stark wasseemingly validation of 960peoplethat followedtheir own deaths. Yair’s For theSicarii,masssuicideof theirbeliefsjustifiedeach violentactthroughout theirexistence, including righteousness of theirlives The inapocalypticterms. and hisfollowers toperceive each circumstance of ftherock face. of bedrock side onthewestern circumvallation andconstructedasiegeramponspurof subsequent weeks astheRomans systematically enclosedtheentire plateau inawallof thesituation, acertaintymadeallthemore manifestin doubtless saw theinevitability of theirconviction. of be, anything andanyone couldbesacrificedonbehalf need justified ashelpingtosustaintheirorder’s fanatical resistance toRoman occupation. If how heinous, terror, couldbe from regardless theirrighteouscause, of andcertainactsof kidnapping. Fullyinculcated intheirbeliefs, nomoralimpedimentwasallowed todetract actions at Engediwere asvirtuousthosein Jerusalem that endedinassassination and “Nolord but God,”itisreasonable toconcludethat theSicariibelieved their the doctrineof theirideologicalconvictions which emanated from profit.personal Butgiven of thedepth bruteviolencefor attack may have beennothing more–theexercise thansimplebanditry of choose suiciderather thansubmit toRoman slavery. theMasada siege, thedissidentleadercompelledthosearound himtofreely survivors of Jewish brethren who consentedtosubmitRome] as[foreign] enemies.” theSicarii. Here henotesthat theSicarii“inevery way . extremism of . . treated [their Jewish War The emphasizes thisovertJosephus’ andunique observation inBook 7of terror by theirown dissidentsagainst people. authorities through thepremeditated useof practices intendedtodrive awedge between theindigenouspopulation andRoman warfare, guerrilla yet neitheruprisinginvolved atof somepointincludedepisodes struggles omnt htRmnatoiyifigduo h tews netrdepeso fcommunity that Roman authority infringedupontheotherwiseunfettered expression of by century, the Jewish themid-first anactive perception existed of withincertainsectors resistance wasreligious. Josephus’ accountsmake itclearthat of such anexceptional form of waste thewhole district.” and Josephus tellsus, “they madesimilarraidsonallthevillagesaround thefortress, andlaid Passover, some700villagers, includingwomen andchildren, endedwiththemassacre of nme fnogreater intrinsicworth thanRoman adversaries. enemies of “foreigners” ornon-Jewish the Sicariirelegated theirJewish opponentstothestatus of Jewish religious andculturaltradition,thisstatement isrevealing.context of Inessence, h xetoa aueo theSicariiisfurtherunderscoredby thefactthat such ahighly exceptionalThe nature of From theSicariiwere uniqueamongtheevents Josephus, itisevident that theactionsof EleazarbenYair theirbeliefspersuaded Like terrorists centurieslater, thefanaticism of hnte1,0-toglgoayfreo Silva finallyreached Masada,theSicarii When the10,000-strong force legionary of Engedi.The Josephus doesnotsay why theSicariialtered theirmethodsfrom thetimeof In Judaea, thecriticalcomponentthat provided for theconditionsnecessary emergence In aspeech given by Yair tohisfellow Sicarii,asrelated toJosephus by two DONATHAN TAYLOR ANDYANNICK GAUTRON 18

32 19

20 Both the African and German BoththeAfricanandGerman 22

21 Within the

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 and religious outcomesthrough theiractions. IraqandSyria(ISIS),theSicariisoughtbothpolitical al-Qaeda andtheIslamicState of such counterparts, as theirmodern twentieth andearly twenty-firstcenturies. Likemany of theSicariiandmore terrorist movements contemporary inthe between thecharacter of modern anti-terrorism experts wouldmodern labelasterrorists. adissidentgroup that religious andpoliticalcircumstance combinedtoinspire thebirthof exist. Roman–Jewish ButtheFirst War erathat wasnotthelasttimeinpre-modern leadingupto70CE.Withoutcentury thosepreconditions, theSicarii eventually ceasedto therarifiedsocialandpoliticalenvironment created inJudaea byresult of events duringthe subsequent events demonstrated, thegroup’s raisond’être wasproven tobeexclusively the only isolated thegroup from thegreater Jewish community but inhibiteditsexportation. As fomenting broad resistance toRoman rule. relations between thegeneralpublicundermining andtheircolonialoverlords, thereby of specific,lethaltacticsfor thepurpose Judaea by theapplication of population of the Sicariideliberately worked andnon-combatant toinstillfearamongthecivilian leaders Cyrene likewisefailedinitsoriginalpurpose. insurrection.Asecondincidentin overand turned totheRomans, endingthethreat of Sicariiwere Romanseized retribution. Inresponse, hundreds of fearof community outof Jews the theSicariifailedlesstoinflameEgyptian thanalarm this timetheactionsof socialrankinthecity, themoderate Jews but of same tactics, they initiallymurdered some of incite theJewish community inAlexandria torevolt Roman against authority. Usingthe the factthat in73CEsomeSicariifledfrom Judaea where toEgypt they soughtto again local terrorism –were uniquetotheplaceandmomentisperhapsfurtherilluminated by part, by by theviolenceperpetrated theSicariiontheirfellow Jews. volatile environment that inevitably moved thesituation toopenwar, aresult achieved, in distinctsocial,political,cultural,andreligiousinJudaea factors generated a of commingling h oino terrorism is, impactremains theAssassins’deep incontestable: not onlytheir the notionof Assassins asprobably terrorists inhistory. thefirst as for thesignificantpsychological Lewis regard impact.Many the likeBernard authors resorted toassassinations that followed specificmethods, asmuch for thestrategic effectiveness terrorism. Organized inatightcommunity withprecise objectives, they systematically they provide avery instructive casetoallwho thehistoricalroots wanttounderstand of tosupportsuchfirst targeted violencewithideologicalorreligious justifications. Nevertheless, As madeclearabove, theAssassinswere hardlytousepoliticalassassination thefirst orthe Jewish oppositiontoRomanfurther energized thevociferous rule. nature of resistance toforeign domination asaprecursortodivinedeliverance cultural traditionof theSecondTemple. Likewise,destruction of theprominent withinIsraelite acceptance theemerging revolutionary sectsintheimmediate years priortothe among someof apocalypticandmessianic–eschatological influencesinJudaism, particularly prevalence of thissituation wasfurtheraggravated by the sensitiveMosaic tradition.The nature of Though theyThough were anaberrationintheirown time, significantparallelscanbeidentified nteed h dooyo theSicarii,alongwithextreme violenceitgenerated, not of In theend,ideology That theconditionsthat brought Roman–Jewish abouttheFirst War –andinconsequence eadeso theways inwhich as such anassertionmightbequalifiedandasmodern Regardless of PRE-MODERN TERRORISM: SICARII/ASSASSINS The Assassins 24 33 25

Inorder toachieve theirideologicalgoals, 26

23 Intheend,

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 esa rmtect fQum,Hasanwasada‘i((pl.du‘at)literally,A Persian from inArabic,“onewho thecityof initiated by thefounder Hasan-iSabbah several years earlier. reflection arose from struggle identity, aprocess of religious particularism,anditsmethodsof thetenthcentury. AlthoughtheNizarimovementthe endof officiallyoriginated in1094,its inPersia aradical trend born from Isma‘iliShi‘ismat were infacttheNizaris, adherents of much more complex historical,political,religious, andculturalrealities. works such astheAssassin’s Butthisoftenromantic Creedsaga. visionhides videogaming theMountain”tofictional imagination, from medieval the“OldManof myths concerning name passedintocommonusage, but they leftalastingimpression ontheWestern collective to overthrow theexisting order. ered liable for the Muslimworld’s splintering, anditseemedwidespread and strong enough Isma‘ilism proposed analternative totheSunniestablishment, which the Isma‘ilisconsid- Islam, followers. Claimingtobethelegitimate way of the unquestionedobedience of absoluteauthoritythat requires faithfulness and of Isma‘ilism wasbasedonta‘lim , aconcept questioning. theimamandhisdu‘at;thus divinetruths were These delivered by thefigure of aswell popular understanding asresponding tointellectual adapting toalllevels of initiation andinterpretation, such, Isma‘ilismoffereditsadherents several of degrees what isreferred toinChristiantraditionasgnosticwisdom).As truths (theequivalent of relies ontheideathat itstexts have esotericandsecret meanings(batin)that containdivine condemned andhoundedby Sunni“orthodoxy.” cal oppositionmovement, coherent andcentralized, andsecretly spreading even asitwas eighth century, Isma‘ilismwasmuch more radical.Itrepresented bothareligious andpoliti- governing power.iniquitous andusurping Arisingfrom aschism that shookShi‘isminthe martyrdom, suffering, and,above an against all,struggle fervor that draws uponthemesof theprophet Muhammad,theShi‘itepartyhassincedeveloped a shortly afterthedeath of theopportunity toleadtheMuslimcommunity by theSunnis Shi‘ism.Deprived of of that originated from determination thevery nature adherents showed fervor andakindof Seljuks’ overwhelming strength military withadeadlyreputation. underground religious current, into anopenandrebellious movement that defiedthe theSeljukempire. HesucceededinmakingPersian Isma‘ilism,which usedtobean of Seljuk rule, plusconceivingtacticalschemes that couldbeadaptedtothecircumstances certainaspectsof Hasanlay inanalyzingandtakingadvantage of strength andtalentof difficulties, Isma‘iliPersian communities couldnotrely oneffective supportfrom Cairo. The in thetowns. Duetotheirremoteness from the Fatimid Caliphate anditsown internal theSeljukEmpire where Sunnismwastheofficialreligion, especially within thecore of by the Fatimid Caliphate, Hasanoperated inPersia from 1081onwards. Hisassignmentwas “orthodox” defended(inreality, Sunniheadquarters ruled)by theSeljukTurks. Dispatched Baghdad,the theAbbasid Caliphate of political,religious, rival and military of the chief Cairo, “summoning” tothedoctrine/mission)wasthenbasedwithFatimid Caliphate of theda‘wa(“invitation” or the imam,withspreading of Isma‘ilidoctrines. headquarters The summons,” that is, anevangelizing charged, missionary), astheauthorized representative of Those whomThose theWestern Christiansreferred toas“Assassins” sincethetwelfth century ftheQur’an,Isma‘ilism While theSunnifollow theexoteric orapparent meaning(zahir)of Isma‘ilism hadalready received afavorable response from thepopulaceinPersia. Its DONATHAN TAYLOR ANDYANNICK GAUTRON Cornerstones of the Nizari struggle theNizaristruggle of Cornerstones 34

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 assassination of Nizam al-Mulk, basing the story onlostIsma‘ilisources. Nizamal-Mulk,basingthestory According toJuwayni: assassination of theAssassins. the many assassinations that mark of thehistory therefore targeted by theIsma‘ilicommunity, andhisdeath intheyear of 1092wasthefirst Isma‘ilistrongholds. campaignagainst inamilitary Malik Shahengaged Nizamal-Mulkwas theIsma‘ilis. Itwas likelyonhisadvicethat theSeljuksultan became thefiercest opponentof HasanintheDaylam since1088and Nizam al-Mulkhadpaidattention to theactivitiesof astate inevitably ledtoareaction from theSeljuks. vizier The nity andtheemergence of theIsma‘ilicommu- histactics. declaration The of assassination soonbecameoneof use of direct confrontation withtheSeljukempire. With Hasannow actinginbroad daylight, the the majorda‘i. Alamut, seat of strongholds operated cohesively of dueto the centralleadership network of present-day Iran,Pakistan, andAfghanistan,theIsma‘ili Quhistan, nearthefrontiers of Rudbar andQumisinDaylam, aswell asfartothe southeast in among theregions of Seljuks, but theNizaristate wasdefinitelyestablished by theyear 1118.Althoughscattered theseplaceswere recaptured by the thelocal people. Someof time by conversion of the Isma‘ilissubsequently capturedThe many strongholds, sometimesby siege, mostof anIsma‘ili(and later Nizari)state. Seljuk authorityandessentiallymarked thefoundation of Alamut direct wasthefirst blow against had togive upthestronghold. seizure The of theplace, who heldAlamutopenly revealed from theSeljuksultan, themselves, thelord of convert andlocalpeople. thegarrison Intheyear 1090,when thenewlyconverted Isma‘ilis effectiveness on thisoccasion:Hasansenthisdu‘attoAlamut anditshinterland inorder to Alamut, averitable eagle’s nestreputedtobeimpregnable. da‘warevealed The citadel of its Hasan’s strategy. of thecornerstones Heselectedthefamous as refuges becameoneof forquarters thePersian refuge according totheMuslimtradition,that hecoulduseashead- dar al-hijra, aplaceof region’s population wasalready opentoIsma‘ilipreaching. Hasanwassearching for hisown theirpoliticalandreligious identityandautonomy,Strongly imbued withasenseof the theCaspianSea. Daylam, tothesouthof power, tothemountainous region of andturned open revolt theSeljukempire. against thealready vibrantIsma‘ilimomentumtolaunch an territories, hecouldtakeadvantage of preaching Isma‘ilisminSeljuk autonomy from Cairo, becamethemainda‘iincharge of Persian identityandenjoyed his Isfahan. WhenHasan,who probably shared thissenseof tenth century, andfrom theyear 1070,Persian Isma‘ilisacknowledged onlyoneda‘ibasedin identity.Persian Isma‘ilida‘wahadbeenwell The established inPersia senseof sincethe dynasties andespeciallytheSeljuktriumphrevived bothlocalpeople’s discontentanda Turkishdled Persian culturalidentitythenunderArabicdomination.emergence The of preaching. Bagdadandrekin- Many Persian dynasties hadalready opposedthecaliphate of uan,aPrinato fthethirteenthcentury, the Juwayni, aPersian provided authorof adetailed accountof strongholds proved that there wereIsma‘ili preaching alternatives toa andseizure of Hasan gave upIsfahanasabase, ill-suitedasitwasforSeljuk openactivitiesagainst olderdissidenttraditions, Persia provided acontext favorableAs acradleof toIsma‘ili the falsehood, withabsurd preparations and spuriousdeceptions, helaidthebasisof of deceitandthe trickery increase thereby hisown reputation. With of thejuggling destructionand catch somesplendidgame, such asNizam-al-Mulk, inthenetof artificesinorder at opportunityto thefirst Hasan-i Sabbah spread thesnare of fida‘is (“thosewho sacrificethemselves”). calledBu-Tahir, Aperson by Arrani PRE-MODERN TERRORISM: SICARII/ASSASSINS h ezr fstrongholds inmountainousdistrictstobeused seizureda‘wa. The of 35

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 excellence, Islamfrom within.Sunnisalready undermining regarded Shi‘ismasareligious Sunni andShi‘itetreatises theNizarisas malahida (“heresy”) aggressively denigrated par it doubtlessguidedSunnireligious andpoliticalorthodoxy towards theNizaris. Subsequent directed theirfervor anddevotion. Hasanshowed inhow hecultivated and Nizarismachieved, thetalentof founding of naturally andrecognized accepted by thewhole Persian Isma‘ilicommunity. With the ta‘lim,was Hasan,buttressed by thenotionof thedivineknowledge. authorityof The of theoccultedimam, that is, hislegitimate representative onEarthanddispenser ”)of (“proof Since Nizarwasexecuted, Hasanbecame–according toIsma‘ilidoctrines–thehujja in theSeljukempire, Hasannow Nizarida‘wa. spearheadedanewandtotallyindependent Fatimid recognize Nizar’s brother asthelegitimate Isma‘iliimam,Hasanconsequentlysplitthe however, even asthelatterwere andhissupporters Byrefusing eliminated to inEgypt. al-Jamali installedNizar’s young Nizar, brother inpower. Hasanupheldthelegitimacyof Mansur Nizarassuccessortothecaliphate andthustotheIsma‘iliimamate, vizierBadr totheprovisionscontrary laiddown by thecaliphal-Mansurdesignating hiseldersonAbu Nizari community. Fatimid The Caliphate experienced asuccessioncrisisintheyear 1094: the thePersian Isma‘ilimovement ledtothevery birthof intherenewalA furtherstep of h itr fbothPersia andIslam, itvehemently condemnedheresies: of the history governance intendedfor SultanMalikShah.Grounded(“Rule in for Kings”),atreatise of year beforehebecamethe world: by SunnisandtheFatimid Isma‘ilis, aswell asotherShi‘itemovements. In1091,the Nizariphenomenon wasunequivocallyThe andfiercely condemnedby thewhole Muslim whole purpose isonly to abolishIslamandleadmankindastray.”whole purpose he worriedabouttheirincreasing importanceandthedangerthat they represented: “their Nizam hr a obte xmlro teofiilve hntetets fNizam al-Mulk,and theofficialview than thetreatise of There wasnobetterexemplar of hi ysaeoe o in ftheevil eye.their eyes are openfor signsof seditionand seeking todestroy are thereligion.ears alertfor Their thesoundsof crowd thanthesepeople, and tothiscountry who behindwallsare plottingharm and prophets. Never hasthere beenamore vile, more perverted ormore irreligious until now inevery intheworld country they have risenupinrevolt kings against Adam(uponhimbepeace) haveSeceders existed inallages, andfrom thetimeof by thefida‘is. that blow tobekilled Nizam-al-Mulkwasmartyred. person Hewasthefirst his harem. Bu-Tahir who wasdisguisedasaSufi,stabbedandby himwithadagger inthelitterfrom theSultan’sthe fast,wasbeingborne audience-placetothetentof Nihavand. Nizam-al-Mulk,having broken at astagecalledSahnaintheregion of Ramazan485[October16,1092]hewent uptoNizam-al-Mulk’s litter the 12thof Friday and inhismisguidedstrivingafterbliss intheworld tocomeonthenightof thenext,” thisworld andof name andby origin,wasafflicted“withthelossbothof al-Mulk devoted longsectionstodenouncing sudsue edro Persian allIsma‘ilisliving Isma‘ilisand,inreality,da‘wa. Asundisputedleaderof of 27

DONATHAN TAYLOR ANDYANNICK GAUTRON ulmpretoso theNizaris Muslim perceptions of Nizaris’ first victim,Nizam al-Mulk hadwrittenSiyarNizaris’ first al-Muluk 36 28

Isma‘ilis, namedBatinis(from 29

batin), as Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 es frectitude. sense of (like theKharijites)hadmadeitareligious duty, justifyingtheirdeedsby anantinomian antiquity, startingwiththeSicariiand,ineighthcentury, several radicalMuslimgroups theNizariseither:several groups have useditsince such actswere notthepreserve of of anopponentisasoldhumanityitself. Ideological,religious, orpoliticaljustifications of assassinations. Asstated above, theAssassinsdidnotinventuse of this. Physical elimination theSeljukEmpire but theirsystematic theNizarisinheartof dangerous emergence of hostility. What mostastoundedtheMuslimworldmous feelingsof wasnotsomuch the “Heyssessini,” etc.,which eventually became“Assassins” over time. theNizaris amongWesterners “Al-Hachichine,” tooktheform historicalmentions of first theterm rare, theuseof they usedhashish;they practiced,tothecontrary, asceticism andmoraldiscipline. Although casting theNizarisasoutlawsfrom theMuslimcommunity munity as lMl’ sasnto,“h udro ti eo stebgnigo bliss.” thisdemonisthebeginning of al-Mulk’s assassination, “the murder of standing administrator and a fierce opponent of the Isma‘ilis, considerably undermined the theIsma‘ilis, considerably undermined standing administrator andafierce opponentof Nizam al-Mulk, who wasanout- for opposingforces keeping off-balance. killingof The mightwasvirtuallyimpossible,military assassinating key characters seemedthebestoption loyalty. theempireties of was basedonpersonal Sincedirect confrontation withSeljuk of theSeljukpower must recognize that the unity thevery nature of hand, any consideration of who,century likeJuwayni, reliedonNizari sources attributed allsimilaractstothem. struggle. They useditoftenenoughandinanidentifiable mannerthat medieval methods of could have justified thesemethods. anillegitimate ruler, tyrannicide, asareligious obligation toridtheworld of of concept legitimate revolt Lewisgoesfurther, andmartyrdom. Bernard of sayingconcepts that the On theonehand,Isma‘ilisandNizaris, asradical Shi‘itetraditions, were nurtured by allied assassination seemstohave comeaboutinanatural andlogicalway.Nevertheless, the useof Alamut inthethirteenthcentury.the Nizaris’sources were destroyed duringthefallof Hasanregarding assassination, asmostof It isvirtuallyimpossible toanalyze thethinkingof way. hashishiyya withoutany (“hashishusers”), justification but undoubtedlyinavery pejorative to time:duringanideologicaldispute, theFatimid caliphal-AmirdescribedtheNizarisas from contemptappearedin1123andthenagain time first prohibitions. Oneexpression of any sort. regarded astrueMuslims–oreven Muslimsof Nizariscouldbe important aplace. Onekey if issueinthesetreatises wastodetermine theQur’an andplacingexclusive emphasisonta‘lim,thereby givingtheimamtoo of that Isma‘ilismthreatened religious law andIslamby extending even furthertheinterpretation error, theQur’anvia batin.ButbothSunniandShi‘itesbelieved sinceitdared tointerpret that hashishabusers were considered criminalsby Muslimsociety. thefaithful,topoint andmoralityof Islam, owing ontheintegrity toitsadverse effects century, when they mentiontheNizarisashashishis.Hashishusewasseverely condemnedby Never wasaMuslimcommunity more severely condemned,norsubjecttosuch unani- nadto,sm et srbdlcniu aist h iai nvoaino thereligious In addition,sometexts ascribedlicentioushabitstotheNizarisinviolation of 30 Ti aryrr emwsrpae yteSiaZyi fPersia, inthethirteenth wasrepeated fairly by This rare term theShi‘aZaydis of wsteeoepriual fesv n naos iuetwyo hashishiyya wastherefore particularly offensive andinfamous, avirulentway of PRE-MODERN TERRORISM: SICARII/ASSASSINS 32 Butrecurringassassinations played anessentialpartintheNizaris’ seems to have come to the knowledge of Crusaders: the Crusaders: hashishiyya seemstohave cometotheknowledge of h s fassassination The useof 33 Rsi lDn esa hoilro thethirteenth Rashidal-Din,aPersian chronicler of 37 sources, thushadHasansay, . Howev er, it is quitedoubtfulthat 31 Characterizingacom- 34 Ontheother about Nizam

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 underlines thisexaltation. In1126,several fida‘iyinstabbed todeaththeatabeg Bursuqi, thethirteenthcentury, al-Din,aSyrian chronicler recountedKamal ananecdotethat of thecommunity. theircommitmentoreven theirsacrificeintheinterests of as asignalof such deedswere designated fida‘i(pl.fida‘iyin ), “hewho by devotes, theterm sacrificeshimself,” pntetrehre,tebaesodmn atrr fkings!” upon thethree heroes, thebrave swordsmen, capturersof Azerbaidjan benedictionsbe in1191,hasalsocome tous:“Praise, glory, andthousandsof three fida‘iyinwho eliminatedgovernor QizilArslan, thirteenth century, of of for theglory the their victims. Apoemwrittenby aNizarihistorianof HasanIbnSalahBirjandi, thefida‘iyinand honorfeaturing thenamesof aroll of theexistence at Alamutconfirm of thisstory, JuwayniAlthough itisdifficulttoassesstheveracity of and Rashidal-Dindo frightened by warrior.” asingle accompanies us, the king, who possessesmore than ahundred thousandcavalry, would be bothworlds this inhispoem:“Brothers, when theblessed time arrives, andthegoodluckof thecommunity. perfectlyepitomized and todiscouragethepotential adversaries of Birjandi without any limitthan asearch for death; they aimedtoimpress thepopularimagination boldness their missioninsuch circumstances, intentionwasmore theprimary adisplay of flee thesceneandsometimessucceeding. Althoughthey hadlittlechance tolive through overstatement tocallthesesuicidemissions, aschroniclers to oftenmentionfida‘iyintrying Ramadan.Itwould bean prayer orthemonthof mosques, duringthedays of heart of daylight, inapublic place:atcamps, thecourt,inmilitary or, inamore strikingway, inthe approached theirvictims, andgenerallyactedinfull sometimesdisguisedasSufisorbeggars, Lewis emphasizes that “Assassins always never usedadagger; poison,never missiles.” thesedeeds, hadasignificantpsychological impact. from reinforcing theritualcharacter of sasno hisvictim. . . hadaritual,almostsacramentalquality.”Assassin of justification. asthesole as prefects orjurists, but they never aimedrandomlyandblindly withterror itself theNizaris.ideological campaignsagainst They aimedoccasionallyat civilianofficials, such religious figures such asqadis( Judges withreligious, civil,andjudicialfunctions)involved in targeted dignitaries, politicalandmilitary such asviziers, emirs, orotherofficials, and Abbasid andal-Rashid,in,respectively, caliphsal-Mustarshid 1135and1138.Nizarismostly victims besidesNizamal-Mulkwere theFatimid caliphal-Amirin1130andtheSunni strategic, whether inadefensive orarepressive way. mostsymbolicallymeaningful Their civilwaramonghispotentialsuccessors. besieging Alamut andopenedaperiodof thetroops SultanMalikShahledtothewithdrawal of empire. death The soonafterof pt n fthesemanagedtoescape. al-Dinthentellsus: Kamal spot, oneof hisattackerswere slaughtered onthe Mosul,inamosque;althoughmostof (governor) of Assassinations committedby theNizaris hadtheirown modusoperandi,which, aside While itwasnot,properly speaking, areligious duty, Lewisnotes, killingby “The the theassassinationsoutby carried theNizariswastherefore of ultimateThe purpose her face. later, shewasdistressed by thisand,inherpain,sheshaved herhairandblackened gladness. Whenshesaw himbacksafeandsoundafewdays with kohlasatokenof them,sheshowed great satisfaction andmadeuphereyes her sonwasapartof andhismurderers, bothBursuqi andknowing thedeath of of when shelearned anadvanced oldage; youngThis man,who managedtoescape, hadamotherof 36

DONATHAN TAYLOR ANDYANNICK GAUTRON 39

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35 Nizarisinvolved in 38 They Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 tools and sharpened sabres.”tools andsharpened servants, slaves, andblack alltypes, guards, alarge number plusvarious of with weapons of them against theBatinis, andsurrounded himself thesectof and alert,especiallyagainst vizier al-Afdalwas“extremely distrustfulandprecautious, wasalways standingonguard theAssassinsadoptedhyper-elaborate protections. Fatimid The such that opponentsof were ordered by thelatter tokill princeswithagoldendagger. idea that theirsalvation ontheir unquestioningobediencetotheirlord, depended they Latin, Greek, andArabic;oncethey reached adulthoodand were fullyimbued withthe from theworld, where several they learned languagessuch as age inpalacescutoff Frederick Barbarossa, reportedthat theAssassinswere brought up from avery young Emperor of Strasbourg, who traveled through theHolyLandaround 1175onbehalf everywhere becausethey killkingswithdisregard for their own life.” the assassination andparticularly therecruitment, training, andindoctrination of their useof recounting invividcontrastlicentious habitsthat wentMuslimlaws. against the Assassinsonlywithgreat difficultyasbelongingtotheMuslimworld, sometimes “Nizaris,” “Batinis,”twelfth theterms century. or“Mulahid,”they identified Unaware of the 1152. ButWestern chroniclers didnotmentionthecommunity untilthelastthird of the Mountain.” under Rashidal-DinSinan’s reign, known through Western sources “OldManof asthefirst appointed by thePersian headquarters, but they after1169, assertedtheirindependence onAlamut, were Syrian Nizarisoriginallydepended anditsleaders after 1130.The present-day Syria) strongholds intheJabal coastof Bahra(nearthenorthwestern network of coastline. seizinga AftersettlementattemptsandDamascusfailed,Nizarisbegan inAleppo andDamascusand,ontheother, Aleppo thefour Crusaderstates alongthe governors of mountain rangethat provided anaturalbetween, boundary ontheonehand,Seljuk identities (Druzes, Nosayris) were potentiallyopentotheNizari by the Fatimid Caliphateandcommunities sincethetenthcentury withstrong religious fragmentation offeredadvantageous conditions. Isma‘ilidoctrines hadbeendisseminated context, unlikeinIraq,plusitspoliticalandreligiousactivity spreadgeographic toSyria.The thetwelfth century, theMuslimworld. Nizari Atthebeginningof proportion withthat of WesternThe medieval reaction tothe Nizarisandtheirassassinations wasoutof following Nizaridoctrines.” “put todeath sixthousandpeopleaccusedof Damas orders from authorities. Damasceneal-Dahabirelates The that in1129,thelord of communities inmany towns through popularuprisingsdriven by uncontrollable fearorby penetrate.” could thedagger thesabre northeblade of chain mailinadditionwhich neitherthepointof withsquires andbodyguards, from headtotoe. armed withsoldiers himself . . . Hewore and stoodonguardanattempt against ontheirpart[theBatinis]; hesurrounded Mountain administered anarcotic beverage tohisfollowers; heafterwards promised them the toreportthat Lübeckwasthefirst theOldManof the thirteenthcentury, of Arnold iairlgospatc riett eenttefcso Western writers. Instead, itwas Nizari religious practiceoridentity were notthefocus of Tripoli Western first The in figure assassinated by theNizariswasCountRaymond of Nizari Initial reactionsoutby totheactscarried thefida‘iyinwere theslaughterof sBnai fTudela pointedoutinasimplesummation: “they are feared fida‘iyin. AsBenjaminof 42

PRE-MODERN TERRORISM: SICARII/ASSASSINS etr ecpin ftheNizaris Western perceptions of 41 Bursuqi, killedin1126by Bursuqi, the Nizaris, hismindalert “kept 39 da‘wa. They lived inthe 44 A h einn f Atthebeginningof 43 40 Brhr f Burchard of Mistrustwas

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 office, orbenefice. any dignity,sending Assassinswastobesentencedexcommunication andthelossof order, SentencingandJudicial Matters”)that anyone who killedanotheronhisown orby(“Of Lyon, Pope InnocentIVprovided provisionsCouncil of inthedecree entourages. Whatever thetruth,thesestorieshadsuch animpactthat in1245,duringthe infiltrating Assassins intotheiropponents’ were others Assassins’ daggers, accusedof and sovereigns were allegedtohave paidtribute to theOldMansoastobespared by the theMountaininmany politicalcasesinEurope. Whilesomelords involved theOldManof a constantthreat. Rumors spread throughout thethirteenthcentury, andWestern authors which represented murderous reputation, methods, strikingbehavior, allof andunheard-of whom itwasdealing, Westerners were stillassessingtheNizari community, alongwithits theunsuccessfulattempts). Indeed,althoughtheMuslimworld knewwell with some of dozen Muslimvictimsthroughout theirhistory, they onlykilledfive (notcounting Crusaders Christianswho fellvictimtotheAssassins:while Nizarisclaimedseveral small number of ho hmevsfo h o fatower tocertaindeath ontherocks below inorder throw themselves from thetopof hisAssassinsto Champagnevisitedhim, theOldManordered someof 1194, asHenriof assassination. Onechronicler reported that in from asdidtheirmethodicaluseof authors theMountainattracted asmuch attention theAssassinstoward theOldManof loyalty of theNizaricommunity.Holy Land,farexceeding themundane realities unquestioned of The theMiddleEast andthe theMountainandhisAssassins fedafantasized visionof Man of nrnhdmutioslcto ftheAssassins. entrenched mountainouslocation of “elder”andto have combineditwiththe seem tohave onlyretained themeaningof intellectualandmoralauthority).Westerners or“elder” withaconnotation(“wise person” of Arab–Muslim sources. Lewisproposes that Nizarisnaturally referred totheirleaderas Nizari community. Itseemstohave beenapurely Western creation, asitisabsentfrom the the Syrian generic titleadoptedby theWestern sources torefer tothesuccessive of leaders beenalocaldesignation theMountain”hadfirst for himbefore itbecamea “Old Manof diplomacy andconfrontation withneighboringpowers, titleof includingtheCrusaders. The Sinan, who played animportantrole ontheSyrianpolitical chessboard, alternating Rashidal-Din him coincidedwiththereign of mentionsof about theAssassins. first The they fulfilledhiscommand. thedelightsthey hadseenintheirdrug-induceddreams, provided that possessionof eternal young men,aimingtosendthemassassinate hisopponents. hadraisedandindoctrinated Guiart claimedinapoemthat Richard theLionhearthimself thethirteenthcentury, Guillaume solongthat persisted atAnd therumors beginningof ogdalte rmteOdMno theMountainproclaiming Richard’s innocence.forged aletterfrom theOldManof handthat chancellery theEnglish night, infearfor hislife. accusations The gotsooutof protected by sergeants-at-arms, bothday and kill KingPhilipAugustus, whohimself kept Conrad. French chroniclers even claimedthat hesentAssassinsintoFrance inorder to theMountaintokill having contractedwiththeOldManof Lionheart wasaccusedof politicalanguishbuilt kingRichard English onwildrumors. The the sparked awave of entourage over several months. event This impression madeadeep onWesterners and Jerusalem, wasmurdered by two Assassinswho hadinfiltratedant tothekingshipof his h ipootoaerato f etresi ut oal,epcal nve fthe Westerners isquitenotable, especiallyinviewof disproportionateThe reaction of But intheend,Western fascination outpacedWestern fear. Legendsbuilt around theOld TeOdMno teMuti”qikybcm h eta gr ftheWestern stories theMountain”quicklybecamecentralfigure of OldManof “The n19,na h n f ahda-i ia’ edrhp ordo Montferrat,aclaim- Rashidal-DinSinan’s leadership, Conradof In 1192,neartheendof 49 DONATHAN TAYLOR ANDYANNICK GAUTRON

45

40 46

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De sentenciaetre iudicata Shaykh 47

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 he didnotwanttoloseAssassinswhere there isnothingtobegained.” killed one, would bebrought anotheroneasgoodtheformer backinplace;andfor this, he killed.Heknewthat, theHospitallers if theTemple orof hehadthemasterof nothing if tallers, because theseordersdreaded nothingfrom theAssassins, becausehewould gain the Mountain]paidatribute totheTemple andtotheHospi- OldMan of in 1253:“[The theMountaintoSaintLouis, theembassysentby theOldManof when of hetoldthestory inSyriawerelers able toexact tribute from theAssassins. Jean deJoinville explained this theHospital- theTemple andof that theOrdersof whom itrelied.isnotsurprising Thus thefigure on power wassusceptibletocollapsewiththedeath of theedificeof effective if France. Furthermore, politicalassassination wasonlytruly even withKingLouisIXof they exchanged embassiesandmaintainedrelationships withcertain Frankish lords and andDamascuswhen Aleppo they wantedtobegintheirmissioninSyria;and governors of theSeljukempire; they approached the intheheartlandsof others against certain emirs the potentialbenefitsforconsolidation. theircauseorterritorial They thussupported the Nizaris;they were notabove establishing alliancesanddiplomatic relations, according to thesect.Butassassination wasnotanexclusive weapon for occluded mostotheraspectsof the assassinationsoutby carried theNizaris, animpactstrong enoughtohave impact of to prove theirobedience. They reportedlydidsowithouttheslightesthesitation. Paradise through doingyour commands.” so Ihave served Love withunswerving loyalty”; and“Iamyour Assassin,who hopestowin power thantheOldManhisAssassins”;“Just astheAssassinsserve theirmasterunfailingly, teenth century, verses, delivering somesurprising such as:“You have memore fully inyour thethir- neartheendof intheircourtlypoetry troubadours usedthisthemeasornaments “Assassin” thusseemedfor awhile synonymous withabsolutefaithfulness. Several Provençal recapture the HolyLand: France, in1332,histreatise onhow to KingPhilippeVIof Guillaume Adamwarned themystical Assassins, Paradise, andof hisgardensof theMountain,of theOldManof of proved thethirteenthcentury tobethemostaccomplished mythification at thevery endof assassinations. Inany event, theNizarishadlosttheirsubstanceandway.one-off for allin1271.They were reduced tobeingusedfor ashortwhile by SultanBaybarsfor Alamut in1256.InSyria,theMamluks forced themtosubmitonceand and destructionof Nizaris were eliminated from Persia by afterthecapture theMongolsandthendispersed thethirteenthcentury. The of powers that swampedtheMiddleEastinsecondhalf proved struggle thetwo ineffective against conquering influenceandtheir methodsof Their Persiaamong many onthecomplex andSyria. andunsettled,always moving, chessboard of the Nizarisfailedtooverthrow theirrivals. They were reduced over timetoonefaction order. theday, Althoughconsidered bothareligious andpoliticaldangerby thepowers of suited toitsenvironment, NizariIsma‘ilismlaunched aseriousthreat totheestablished h etr ln ntesoyo theAssassinsallows ustofullyassessthepsychological WesternThe of slantonthestory hi erfigrptto eeteesotatdte.Wieteacuto Marco Polo reputation terrifying neverthelessTheir outlasted them. Whiletheaccountof theSunniestablishment andperfectly asarebel movementBorn inthevery heartof various nations, peopleandspecific individuals;thuscovered skins, with sheep they as thedevil does, when they adoptthegestures, language, lifestyleand factsof light, thesoul.They transfigure themselves intoangelsof into accountsalvation of who lust afterhumanblood, who killaninnocentfor acertainpriceanddonottake I nameinsixthplacetheAssassins, and tobeavoided, cursed who sellthemselves, PRE-MODERN TERRORISM: SICARII/ASSASSINS 51

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50 The term term The Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 8 MortonSmith,“ZealotsandSicarii,Their OriginsandRelation,”HarvardTheologicalReview 8 Josephus, 7 Josephus, 6 5 Josephus, 5 Richard 4 A. Horsley, Josephus, Jewish War, 3 trans. H.St.J. Thackerayetal.(Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press/ Throughout thischapter, theregion isreferred toas“Judea” intoanew untilitwasincorporated 2 Yannick Gautron andRandallD. Law would liketothankSteven Isaacfor hisinvaluable aidin 1 itsmorehallmarks. importantcontemporary terrorist tactics isoneof applicability of worlds, andmodern between thepre-modern for, aswe know, thesheermutability andvast asignificantdivide we know –mimickedtheSicariiorAssassinsreveals theexistence of was stillanideawhose timehadnotquiteyet come. Thatnoothergroups –at leastasfar world such tacticsinthepre-modern that alsosuggests terrorism ideologies. Buttherarityof media,weapons,that groups coulduseterror withoutmodern or tacticstogreat effect Sicarii, theAssassins, terrorists andmany isilluminating. modern Attheleast,itdemonstrates key similaritiesbetween the misleading connotations. Nonetheless, theidentification of behaviors rhetoricaldevice unavoidably topre-modern andactors amodern callsforth of andtwelfthin thefirst centuriescannothelpbut beanachronistic. Afterall,theapplication years away, violencestillhundreds of itsinvocation itasadistinctcategoryof recognition of theword “terrorism” andthe isbesidethepoint. With theinventionterminology of beingcalledterrorists,groups warrant but inanimportantway, such theapplication of nor promoted terror soactively. Historianstoday canendlesslydebate whether thesetwo assassination soextensively theirtimesusedthetacticof respective eras. Noothergroups of As describedthroughout thischapter, theSicariiand theAssassinswere each uniqueintheir developed by Hasan-iSabbah 250years earlier, was effective. politicalassassination anditspsychological impact, the extent towhich of thestrategy GuillaumeAdam.Hisrecommendations letusmeasure threat, aswe seefrom thetreatise of the Assassinsnotonlyremained very much alive inEurope, but itstillrepresented atangible theNizaricommunities, themyth of an impact:despitethedisappearanceorwithdrawal of his Hasan-i Sabbah doubtlessnever imaginedthat thereputation of 57, no.4(1967):263–4.Reference ismadetotheSicariiinaselectnumberofTalmudicpassages. 64, no.1(1971):18;andSolomon Zeitlin,“TheSicariiandMasada,”JewishQuarterlyReview MN: Fortress Press, 2003),37–8,81. 14.28–79, 91. Thackeray etal.(Cambridge, MA.:Harvard University Press/Loeb ClassicalLibrary, 1930–65), Loeb ClassicalLibrary, 1926–8),1.127–57,160–70;andJosephus, Antiquities, trans. H.St.J. Roman province “Judaea.” in6CE,at which timeitbecomestheRoman province of translating thesectiononAssassinsintoEnglish. place, lineage, are conditionandperson completelyknown. fleeting orvileitmay be, we donotreceive anybody except those whose country, thekingisthatinhis the protection of kill before beingrecognized. . . . Andtheonlycure that Iknow for theguard and Jewish War, 2.252–4. Jewish War, 1.3. Jewish War, 2.223–57,271–84,301–9;andJosephus, Antiquities,20. DONATHAN TAYLOR ANDYANNICK GAUTRON Jesus and Empire: The Kingdom of God and the New World GodandtheNew Disorder (Minneapolis, Jesus Kingdomof and Empire: The Conclusion Notes household, forwhatever service 42 53

fida‘iyin would have such , however Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 14 Josephus, 13 Josephus,Antiquities,20.210. 12 Brighton, Ibid.,2.240,256;andJosephus,Antiquities,20.164–5. 11 10 Josephus, MarkA.Brighton,TheSicariiinJosephus’sJudeanWar:RhetoricalAnalysisandHistoricalObservations 9 3 DavidC.Rapoport,“FearandTrembling:TerrorisminThree ReligiousTraditions,” 23 TheGreekwordJosephusselects tousein7.255is 22 21 Josephus, 20 Tacitus, 19 Ibid., 4.323–6. 18 Josephus, Ibid.,2.118;andJosephus,Antiquities,18.4. 17 16 Josephus, RichardA.Horsley,“TheSicarii:AncientJewish‘Terrorists,’”JournalofReligion59,no.4(1979): 15 6 Kamalal-Din,“Extraits delachroniqued’AlepparKemalal-Din,”inRecueildesHistoriens 36 35 Lewis, 34 Rachid al-Din, 33 Lewis, FormoreontheKharijites,seeChapter17byJohnCalvertoriginsofmodern Islamism 32 31 Franz Rosenthal, 30 Al-Amir, 29 Ibid., 238. 28 Nizam al-Mulk, 27 Juwayni, 26 Bernard Lewis, ISISisalsosometimesidentifiedbygovernment, internationalaid,andmediasourcesasthe 25 24 Josephus, (Atlanta, GA:SocietyofBiblicalLiterature,2009),148–9. York: Doubleday,1992),6:1043–54. 1999); andDavidM.Rhoads’balancedassessmentin“Zealots”the Prophets andMessiahs:PopularMovementsintheTimeofJesus(Harrisburg,PA:TrinityPressInternational, chapter, “FourthPhilosophy,Sicarii,Zealots,”inRichardA.HorsleyandJohnS.Hanson,Bandits, each separately.Forfurtherinsightintothedistinctionsbetween“Zealots”and“Sicarii”see Josephus makesadeliberateefforttodifferentiatebetweentheSicariiandZealotsbydescribing For examples,see another tribe”). Harvard UniversityPress/LoebClassicalLibrary,1925–37),4–5.24. Library, 1925–37),2–4,14.29–39;andTacitus,Histories,trans.C.H.Moore(Cambridge,MA: 439–41; andHorsley,JesusEmpire,44. 8). Thislawwasenactedin81BCEbythedictatorLuciusCorneliusSulla. sicariis etveneficis[CornelianLawofAssassinsandPoisoners](Institutes4.18.5Digesta48,Title sources toidentifyanassassinormurderer.Anotableexampleofsuchuseisthe Gautron. Croisades. Historiensorientaux(Paris:ImprimerieNationale,1884), 3:654.TranslationbyYannick Muhammad MudarrisiZanjani (Teheran, 1960),110.TranslationbyYannickGautron. and salafijihadism. and KeganPaul,1960),193. University Press,1958),2:676–7.Formoreonthetermfida‘i,seelaterinthischapter. 22 byDaveedGartenstein-Rossonthehistoryofal-Qaedainthis volume. Islamic State(IS)ortheofIraqandLevant(ISIL). FormoreonISIS,seeChapter Esdras. intertestamental literaturefromtheperiod.Forexamples,seebooksofEthiopicEnochand2 influences inJudaismbeforetheFirstRoman–JewishWarcanbefoundcorpusof allusions inJosephus,evidencefortheprevalenceofapocalypticandmessianic–eschatological Political ScienceReview78,no.3(1984):669;andHorsley, The Assassins,127. The Assassins,125–7. Annals, trans.J.Jackson(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress/LoebClassical The HistoryoftheWorld-Conqueror,trans.JohnAndrewBoyle(Cambridge,MA:Harvard Al-Hidaya al-Amiriyya,trans.A.Fyzee(Calcutta:P.Knight,1938). Jewish War,2.254–7. Jewish War,7.254–5. Jewish War,4.398–405. Jewish War,2.433–8. Jewish War,7.409–17,436–50. Sicarii inJosephus,144;andJosephus,Antiquities20.186. Jewish War,7.254.TheLatintermsicarius(Gr.ıȚțȐȡȚȠȚ) The Assassins:ARadicalSectinIslam(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1987),129. PRE-MODERN TERRORISM: SICARII/ASSASSINS Jami al-Tawarikh;qismat-iIsma‘iliyyan , ed.MuhammadTaqiDanichpazhuh and The BookofGovernmentorRulesforKings,trans.HubertDarke(London:Routledge The Herb:HashishversusMedievalMuslimSociety(Leyde:E.J.Brill,1971). Avot de-RabbiNathanandtheEcclesiastesRabbah.InJewishWar,7.253–74, 43 ਕȜȜȠijȪȜȠȚ, allophyloi“foreigners”(literally,“of Jesus andEmpire,37,81–5.Asidefrom is commonlyusedinRoman Anchor BibleDictionary(New Lex corneliade American

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 Horsley, R.A.“TheSicarii:AncientJewish‘Terrorists.”’JournalofReligion59,no.4(1979): Brighton, MarkA.TheSicariiinJosephus’sJudeanWar:RhetoricalAnalysisandHistoricalObservations F.M.Chambers,“TheTroubadoursandtheAssassins,”ModernLanguageNotes64(1949):245–51. 51 “L’EstoiredeEraclesEmpereur,”inRecueildesHistoriensCroisades:occidentaux (Paris, 50 “ChronicaMinorAuctoreMinorita Erphodiensi,”inMonumentaGermaniaeScriptores(Leipzig, 49 CharlesE.Nowell,“TheOldManoftheMountain,”Speculum22,no.4(1947):510. 48 47 Matthieu Paris, 46 Lewis, ArnolddeLübeck,“ChronicaSlavorum,”inMonumentaGermaniaeHistoricaScriptores(Hanover, 45 BurcharddeStrasbourg,ItineraHierosolymitanacrucesignatorum,ed.SabinoSandoli( 44 Jerusalem: 42 Ibn al-Qalanisi, 41 Ibn al-Qalanisi, 40 Al-Dahabi, Ivanov,“AnIsmailiPoem,”67. 39 38 Lewis, WladimirIvanov,“AnIsmailiPoeminPraiseofFidawis,” 37 Daftary, Farhad.TheIsma‘ilis:TheirHistoryandDoctrines . Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press, 43 Benjamin de Tudèle, Zeitlin, Solomon.“TheSicariiand Masada.”JewishQuarterlyReview57,no.4(1967):251–70. Tacitus. TranslatedbyC.H.Mooreetal.5vols.Cambridge,MA:Harvard UniversityPress/Loeb Smith, Morton.“ZealotsandSicarii,TheirOriginsRelation.” HarvardTheologicalReview64,no.1 Rapoport, DavidC.“FearandTrembling:TerrorisminThreeReligious Traditions.” Josephus. TranslatedbyH.St.J.Thackerayetal.10vols.Cambridge,MA: HarvardUniversityPress/ —. GuillaumeAdam,“Directoriumadpassagiumfaciendum,” inRecueildesHistoriensCroisades: 53 JeandeJoinville,VieSaintLouis,ed.andtrans.JacquesMonfrin(Paris:Garnier,1995),222. 52 Atlanta, GA:SocietyofBiblicalLiterature,2009. 1990. Classical Library,1925–37. (1971): 1–19. Science Review78,no.3(1984):658–77. Loeb ClassicalLibrary,1926–65. 2003. 435–58. Jesus andEmpire:TheKingdomofGodtheNewWorldDisorder 1859), 2:210and230–1. 1925), 24:200. 2, 207–9. 1884), 21:178–9. Franciscan PrintingPress,1980),2:407. (Aix-en-Provence: Massoreth,1998),209–10. but theAssassinswereaccusedofit.TranslationbyYannickGautron. français deDamas,1952),153.Al-Afdalwasassassinatedin1121byorderoftheFatimidcaliph, 1979), 93.TranslationbyYannickGautron. Asiatic Society14(1938):66. Documents Arméniens(Paris,1906),2:496–7. The Assassins,8. The Assassins,127. Kitab duwlal-Islam,ed.andtrans.ArletteNègre(Damascus:InstitutfrançaisdeDamas, Grande ChroniquedeMatthieuParis,trans.A.Huillard-Bréholles(Paris:Paulin,1840), Damas, 167.TranslationbyYannickGautron. Damas de1075à1154,ed.andtrans.RogerLeTourneau(Damascus:Institut DONATHAN TAYLOR ANDYANNICK GAUTRON Les voyageursjuifsduXIIèsiècle:BenjamindeTudèle,ed.andtrans.HaïmHarboun Further reading The Assassins The Sicarii 44 Journal oftheBombayBranchRoyal . Minneapolis,MN:FortressPress, American Political . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:38 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719061, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719061.ch3 Madelung, Wilferd.ReligiousSchoolsandSectsinMedievalIslam.London:VariorumReprints,1985. Lewis, Bernard.TheAssassins:ARadicalSectinIslam.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1987. Laoust, Henri.Lesschismesdel’Islam.Paris:Payot,1977. —. Hodgson, MarshallG.S. —. TheAssassinLegends.London:I.B.Taurus,1994. Press, 1974. World. TheHague:Mouton,1955. The VentureofIslam.Vol.2, PRE-MODERN TERRORISM: SICARII/ASSASSINS The OrderofAssassins:StruggletheEarlyNizariIsma‘ilisagainstIslamic The ExpansionofIslamintheMiddlePeriods.Chicago:UniversityChicago 45