Folklore, , and Clicking Keys: A Brief Survey of the Literature for Unaccompanied from Latin America

The mid-20th century saw the growth of a struggle throughout Latin America to reconcile local or regional influences within the framework of European formalism—and particularly to serve the sonic possibilities of the unaccompanied solo flute.

by John L. Walker ince 1938, Latin America’s composers have turned repeatedly to the !ute as a vehicle not only to explore its artistic and technical possibilities but also as a way to push the boundaries of their compositional styles when applied to a medium Sas intimate as that of the solo wind instrument.

!e Historical Background Although there was virtually no interest in concert music for the !ute until the "rst decades of the 20th century, the pronounced partiality for the !ute that began some 78 years ago may be due to three historical factors. First, although it is di#cult to make sweeping generalizations about the music of indigenous populations prior to the Spanish conquest, !ute-like instruments were not only used throughout that region but were probably highly respected; evidence suggests that in many pre-Conquest cultures the !ute was “considered the closest representation of the human voice.”1 Second, Catholic missionaries undertook an enormous e$ort to evangelize the indigenous population of Latin America by establishing missions and schools where they taught the indigenes to play the !ute and other European instruments. During the mid-16th century in Ecuador’s San Andrés School, for example, the indigenous musician Juan Bermejo rose to such prominence as a !utist and keyboardist that “upon his reaching maturity the cathedral dra%ed him as organist and chapelmaster.”2 Lastly, the !ute continued to be cultivated in Latin America during the late 18th century and into the 19th, principally by musicians of European origin, such as Juan Daniel Ericourt, who from 1783 to 1814 was not only a highly respected !utist in , , but also trained many "ne students; and later, by peripatetic musicians such as Francisco Pennella, who advertised his services as an instructor of !ute, , and harp in the newspapers of Curaçao, Guayaquil, Ecuador, and San Francisco, California (and perhaps in other areas as well) from about the mid-1840s until around 1860.

Seeking an Authentic Voice Although the beginning of the 20th century witnessed the incorporation of the !ute into various chamber music compositions—one of the most important of these is Heitor Villa-Lobos’s Sexteto místico (1917, Mystic Sextet)—it was the German-born composer and !utist Hans Joachim Koellreutter (1915–2005) who introduced the concept of writing for the !ute as a solo instrument to Latin America. Because his own family denounced his engagement to a Jewish woman, in 1937 he was exiled to Rio de Janeiro, where the following year he began teaching in the Brazilian Conservatory of Music. His work for unaccompanied !ute, Improviso (1938), however, came on the heels of a period of stylistic reorientation in instrumental composition in Latin America. Indeed, not long a%er the "rst examples of this kind of music began to appear, from about 1915 until 1945, Latin American composers began to look for ways to disassociate themselves from European music and create an authentically Latin American musical language. &is movement manifested itself in several di$erent ways. For example, many of the early works of Brazilian Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) relied on folklore, ambient sounds particular to Brazil’s !ora and fauna, and urban street music that he combined with Western classical music. Another Brazilian composer, Luciano Gallet (1893–1931), “was particularly concerned with de"ning the exact nature of his country’s folk and popular music and of devising an adequate manner for utilizing their characteristics in his compositions.”3 In other parts of Latin America, composers developed an indigenist style by using

elements that they believed had been used before the Spanish conquest. In the Andes, for example, a number of composers followed in the footsteps of the Peruvian Daniel Alomía Robles (1871–1942), who, a%er transcribing more than 600 melodies while visiting remote settlements throughout Peru, proceeded to blend these melodies into his own compositions. Another common feature of this music is the incorporation of ostensibly autochthonous resources, such as in Xochipilli-Macuilxóchitl, una música azteca imaginaria (1940), by Mexican composer Carlos Chávez (1899–1978). In this work, Chávez directs all three woodwinds—piccolo, !ute, and E-!at clarinet—to reproduce only the sounds Aztec !utes were capable of producing and the trombone to 4 approximate the of a blown seashell.

FALL 2016 THE FLUTIST QUARTERLY 41 NFAONLINE.ORG No single approach has com- &erefore, no single approach has completely disappeared; rather, one of the strengths of Latin American composition— pletely disappeared; rather, and why it is so singularly positioned in the world—is that its syncretism consists of many di$erent in!uences. one strength of Latin American With this in mind, and to better illustrate these stylistic tendencies, I have selected seven published works by the composition is that its syncretism aforementioned composers that will be brie!y described below. Although works for unaccompanied !ute were printed throughout consists of many influences. the period 1938 to 2011, from 1950 to 1972, editions were not available in the United States. Nevertheless, in the hope that these Meanwhile, in addition to Koellreutter, during the 1930s Latin may soon become available, an appended table of these titles, as America began to receive European immigrant composers well as the more than a dozen as-of-yet unpublished compositions, escaping famine or persecution. By playing an important role as follows this survey. luminaries, they in!uenced not only their contemporaries but also future generations in their adoptive countries. , Improviso No. 1 (1941) In 1929, several years a%er arriving in , eclectic Russian &is work reveals an intermixture of folkloric and neoclassical composer Jacobo Ficher (1896–1978) cofounded the neo-classical in!uences. (See example 1.) On the one hand, the melodic and anti-folklore–oriented Grupo renovación (Renovation Group), design of the "rst two measures is strongly suggestive of the which “fought to open the ears and minds of Argentineans to the sort of popular song the composer might have heard in a social new tendencies that were boiling in the European and American setting or on the radio. &is melody also contains a falling half 5 centers of creation.” Like-minded movements arose in other step motive that recurs throughout the "rst and third sections of countries, such as the Agrupación tonus (Tonus Group) in Chile the composition. and Música Viva (Living Music) in Brazil. &e former, which was &e second section, with its rapid !ourishes and use of !utter led by Austrian composer and !utist Esteban Eitler (1913–1960), tongue, is cadenza-like. On the other hand, the work has a “rather produced “mostly dodecaphonic music with a tendency towards imprecise tonal orientation,”7 and the constantly changing meters 6 microformal structure.” and borrowed subdivisions in many measures create a sense of In 1939, Koellreutter founded the Música Viva group. &rough rhythmic instability that is not typically found in folk or popular this association he strongly in!uenced Brazilian composers, such music. &is characteristic may be challenging for some players. as Camargo Guarnieri (1907–1993), in the procedures of 12- Tristamente (e=100) (e=e) tone composition. Similar to the Argentine group, they issued 3 œb œœ. œb . œ a manifesto in 1946 that declared their opposition to folkloristic 4 J œ œ œb 3 4 œb œœ. œb œb œ. œn œ œb œ œ 5 œb œb &4 3 4 4 J œ œb J œ 8 œ œb nationalism and, because of this, many people viewed the group p as an anti-national campaign. Example 1. Guarnieri, Improviso No. 1, mm. 1–5. Reproduced by arrangement &e tension between modernist and nationalist composers with Broude Brothers, Ltd. erupted in 1950 in an open letter penned by Guarnieri, vigorously defending the nationalist movement while at the Willy Corrêa de Oliveira, Gesang des Abends (1973) same time warning younger composers about the dangers of From the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, Corrêa de Oliveira was the 12-tone technique. “stimulated by aleatory techniques applied to sonic collage During the 1950s, as more and more Latin American of borrowed materials from Western music and combined composers travelled to Europe and North America for advanced with controlled passages.”8 His Gesang des Abends (1973) was instruction, external in!uences produced either new mixtures composed as an homage and testimony to Robert Schumann. of indigenous elements with contemporary techniques or Divided into two parts, the "rst is dedicated to Florestan’s gestures composers altogether abandoned local in!uences—folklore, and the second to Eusebius (these were the names of Schumann’s two ambient sound sources, etc.—in favor of styles bearing little, if personalities). &e work features contemporary notational symbols, any, national or regional association. Examples of the former such as three kinds of fermatas, feathered beaming for changes include the Peruvian composer Enrique Pinilla (1927–1989), in tempo, and four square note heads, each of which represents a who as an ethnomusicologist was one of the "rst in his country harmonic center. &e excerpt reproduced below is followed by to study the music of the Amazon River basin. On the other six measures directing the !utist to play a barrage of second- and hand, a%er an initial but short-lived period of writing folkloric- third-octave staccato 16th notes as quickly as possible. (See example inspired compositions, during the 1960s the Brazilian composer 2.) &e section concludes with a long-held D4, at which point the Willy Corrêa de Oliveira (b. 1938) became one of that country’s composer indicates that the !utist, as if Florestan, is to remove a most important advocates of musical . However, handkerchief and wipe a “contracted and tired face.”9 the vast majority of Latin American composers do not "rmly Appassionato (q=66) Quasi maestoso q=100 (subito) identify with either extreme; rather, the music of composers such 5:4 5:4 3 . , œb œn - œb . - œ- œ as the Panamanian Roque Cordero (1917–2008), the Argentine œ- œb . wb œ- œ. œ œ. j œb - œ- œ J œ œ‰ r œ# œ œb œn œ# J 5:4 & œ œ J œ# œ. œ œb œ 5:4 Adriana Verdié (b. 1958), the Peruvian Antonio Gervasoni (b. R œ 5:4 - . F f SF ƒ sempre S 1973), and the Venezuelan Luis Pérez Valero (b. 1977) reveals a Example 2. Corrêa de Oliveira. Gesang des Abends, m. 6. Presented more eclectic style in which speci"c elements are chosen based with permission from ZALO/JP-PUBLICATIONS, PO Box 7273, on artistic or technical objectives. Bloomington, IN 47407.

42 THE FLUTIST QUARTERLY FALL 2016 NFAONLINE.ORG Table 1. Chronological list of unaccompanied Latin American works for "ute. Name Country Title Date Publisher Premier Performance BRA Honorio Siccardi Deseo BRA BRA Tonos BRA BRA BRA PAN BRA Suite PER Sonata PAN Estudio Diedros MEX Aforismo BRA BRA BRA PAN Peer MEX Peer MEX PER Arturo Rodas Andino III BRA PER PER Peer PER BRA BRA PER BRA PAN PER PER Roberto Sierra Subito Tres miniaturas

FALL 2016 THE FLUTIST QUARTERLY 43 NFAONLINE.ORG Roque Cordero, Soliloquios No. 1 (1975) bamboo pipes bound together into one instrument), which was In 1946, Panamanian composer Roque Cordero began to o%entimes played in an interlocking manner by two or more incorporate serial techniques into his music while o%en people. In all three movements of Flute 3.2.4., but especially in the maintaining a Panamanian !avor. Although not dodecaphonic, "rst, Verdié reproduces the hocket-like e$ect that interlocking each of the three brief but highly chromatic movements of his playing produces, but in this case, with only one instrument. Soliloquios No. 1 (1975) is quasi palindromic, in which the group (See example 6.) of notes at the beginning of each movement is repeated at the (Suggested tempo, q=120) end in retrograde motion but only a%er being interrupted by A j f j j j j j j æ ( œ ) ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ j œ# œ ‰ œ Œ œ# œ œ œ ‰ œ intervening unrelated pitches. (See example 3.) It may also be the j j ( ) œ j œ & œ œ œ œ œ œ# œ "rst composition for unaccompanied !ute to use proportional œ# Œ œ Œ Œ œ# Œ œ# ŒÓ œ# ŒŒ notation. &e work, which features key clicks, pitch bending and F Example 6. Verdié, Flute 3.2.4., I, mm. 9–12. Used by permission of Cayambis !utter-tonguing, also requires a careful approach to phrasing. Music Press.

flutter stacc. œ œ# œ# œ# Each of the movements is based on a pitch system generated & œ œ œ œ# œ# œ# œ œ œn . œ# œ# œ œb . œ. . . by speci"c intervals. &e example above illustrates the f FfFF Example 3. Cordero, Soliloquios No. 1, I, opening and concluding sections. relationship of thirds and sixths in the upper and lower lines © Peer International Corporation. International copyright secured. Reprinted of the melody. &e polyphonic nature suggested by the large by permission. intervallic relationships between the lower and higher pitches is further enhanced by the contrasting dynamic indication of Enrique Pinilla, Variaciones libres sobre temas both lines. &e second centers on seconds and sevenths, and (Free Variations on Indian !emes) (1987) the third on fourths and "%hs. &roughout the work Verdié indios speci"es tonguing indications, alternate "ngerings, tone &is piece strongly echoes the indigenist style of the 1920s and bending, and other techniques to approximate the capabilities 1930s. &e principal theme is derived from an old, possibly pre- and timbre of the siku. Conquest song, “Iskay munanakuk,” that might have been part of Ollantáy, a dramatic play written in the Quechua language. (See example 4.) Antonio Gervasoni, Argo Navis (2006) dim. In ancient times, Argo Navis was the name for the southern 3 p F j >œ >œ œ œ j > ^ ^ ^ ^ constellation representing the Argo, the ship used by Jason and the b œ J œ œ j j & J œ œ œ. œ œ Is- kay mu ----na na kuk ur pi Lla- kin, ppuœ - tin, anœ - chin,œ wa- kan Argonauts. Because of its large size, in 1752 the French astronomer Nicholas Louis de Lacaille divided it into Carina, Puppis, and Vela. f j j ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ œ > Suggestive as it is of travel, Gervasoni wrote the three-movement b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ & J J J J œ œ œ œ Is- kay-- ñin tas ka-- sa pa kan Kuk chaœ - ki mull- ppa kur-- ku pi. Argo Navis as a musical tribute for his friend, Daniel Cueto, on the

dim. occasion of the Peruvian !utist’s departure for Germany. ^ j œ œ j ^ ^ ^ ^ œ > Gervasoni created this work by turning graphic representations & b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ J J J J œ œ œ œ œ Is--- kay ñin tas ka-- sa pa kan Kuk cha- ki mull- ppa kur-- ku pi. of each constellation into progressions of notes. Although each Example 4. “Iskay munanakuk,” from Ollantáy. set of pitches resembles a tone row, the composition is not a serial work; rather, each set is freely used as melodic material that is With the exception of slight modi"cations for range and style, then twisted, broken, and transformed. With the exception of the theme is virtually the same as the indigenous song, thereby the second movement, the work eschews most contemporary making its source unmistakably identi"able to any Andean who techniques, yet the rapid passages in the outer movements might be present. (See example 5.) Although several sections of require a solid command of the instrument. (See example 7.) the six variations that follow are written in di$erent keys, Pinilla (q=92) exaggerated vibrato o #. œ# œ mmmmmm never abandons the fundamental pentatonic characteristic of the 4 ‰J œ œ w# j# œ . œ ‰Œ Ó & 4 3 œ# . œ# Ê R source material. &e minor third, a predominating interval in p sing: f 4 r ‰ much of the indigenous music of the Andes, plays an important & 4 & # w œ role in every variation. However, there are sections in the "nal Example 7. Gervasoni, Argo Navis, II, “Puppis,” mm. 26–31. Used by permission variation suggesting the presence of other source material. of Cayambis Music Press.

Lento (e=66) compás libre

j > j - U j b œ œ œ œ œ >œ. >> œ œ j œ b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ & 3 œ œ Luis Pérez Valero, Transversales (2011) dim. casi J dim. dim. casiœ œ œ œ F f p F f A broad range of contemporary styles—o%en !avored by Example 5. Pinilla, Variaciones libres …, !eme, mm. 1–4. Used by permission indigenous cultures, !ora, or fauna—is characteristic of of ALRY Publications. Venezuelan Luis Pérez Valero’s music. However, in Transversales, he uses a Bartokian compositional approach, described by Ernö Adriana Verdié, Flute 3.2.4. (1995) Lendvai as the “axis system,” in which thirds and tritones can Having grown up in west central Argentina, Verdié was never function as tonal substitutes for one another. very far away from the folk music of the Andes Mountains. For example, the "rst two measures of the excerpt below She was particularly fascinated by the siku (usually a set of 13 conclude the relationship between one of the piece’s four tonics

44 THE FLUTIST QUARTERLY FALL 2016 NFAONLINE.ORG (F sharp) and one of its four dominants (B !at). Also evident Shakuhachi Flute Traditions on Western Classical Repertoire.” Master’s thesis, here is the overall dramatic nature of this work: the intensifying California State University–Long Beach, 2014. rush to the long-held F sharp is so forceful that it causes a mirror-like echo of slapped keys. &e "nal section reveals a more Slonimsky, Nicolas. Music of Latin America. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1945. minimalist style. In short, the work represents a challenge for the technical and expressive capabilities of the !utist, who must manage temporal variations as well as a wide dynamic range. Endnotes (Leggero q.=approx.100) > only the keys 1. Mark Brill, Music of Latin America and the Caribbean > > W# œ# œ œb œ œ œ œ œ œ U 12 œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ 8 12 Œ. ¿ ¿ jŒ &8 7 4 8 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ 2. Reginaldo de Lizárraga, Descripción breve de toda la tierra del Perú, Tucumán, p S P S ƒ p S> Río de la Plata y Chile Example 8. Pérez Valero, Transversales, mm. 12–14. Used by permission of Cayambis Music Press. 3. Gerard Béhague, Music in Latin America: An Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Conclusion 4. Carlos Chávez: vida y obra (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Latin America’s composers have returned again and again to Económica the !ute as a way to not only explore the instrument’s artistic and technical possibilities but also to push the boundaries 5. of their compositional styles when applied to a medium as Argentina del siglo XX intimate as that of the solo wind instrument. &e cultural and historic importance of the !ute in Latin America set the stage Tempo for its repeated use in the modern period as a solo instrument. But the !ute also has provided its composers with a vehicle Isla negra with which to explore a signi"cant range of compositional 7. Marion Verhaalen, Camargo Guarnieri, Brazilian Composer (Bloomington, IN: styles. Since the "rst appearance of this genre, at the same time that there has been a constant production of unaccompanied !ute music, nearly every region in Latin America can boast of 8. Béhague, 346. multiple contributions to the genre. 9. James J. Pellerite, ed., The Contemporary Solo Flute, Vol. 1 (Bloomington, IN: Nevertheless, because of its syncretic characteristic, the performance of this music may have to be approached in a more nuanced fashion aided by an appreciation of the cultural, social, or even political aspects that are unique to Find it at FQ Plus Latin America. Despite these challenges to an informed performance, flutists can meet this repertoire regardless of their own geography, and, through increasing familiarity, can Visit FQ Plus in the Publications section come to discover that Latin American classical music is best served by one’s own individual voice. at nfaonline.org for a performance of Flute 3.2.4. by Adriana Verdié. John L. Walker has written extensively on Latin American classical music, particularly the in!uence of Italian immigrant musicians on the classical music of the Andean region during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 2013, he cofounded and is the general manager of Cayambis Music Press, a The Levit Professional Flute music publishing company that specializes in Latin American chamber music. Levit Kingma System Flute of the absolute Bibliography !n" América latina en su música, 7th ed. Mexico City: Siglo Veintiuno finest precision, sound Editores, 1993. and beauty; built to be Béhague, Gerard. Music in Latin America: An Introduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: an extension of you.

Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean

Mariz, Vasco. História da música no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 1981. LEVIT

Pellerite, James J. A Handbook of Literature for the Flute, 3rd ed. Bloomington, IN: [email protected] www.levitflutes.com

FALL 2016 THE FLUTIST QUARTERLY 45 NFAONLINE.ORG