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Helgerud---Master.Pdf (1.489Mb) Radikalisering av etnisk vesteuropeiske konvertitter til islam post 11. september 2001 En komparativ studie av mulige årsaksmekanismer med strategiske implikasjoner for antiradikaliseringsarbeidet Camilla Helgerud Masteroppgave i statsvitenskap, Institutt for Statsvitenskap, UNIVERSITETET I OSLO Vårsemesteret 2015 ii Radikalisering av etnisk vesteuropeiske konvertitter til islam post 11. september 2001 En komparativ studie av mulige årsaksmekanismer med strategiske implikasjoner for antiradikaliseringsarbeidet Masteroppgave i statsvitenskap, Universitetet i Oslo Vårsemesteret 2015 Camilla Helgerud iii iv © Camilla Helgerud 16.03.2015 «Radikalisering av etnisk vesteuropeiske konvertitter til islam post 11. september 2001. En komparativ studie av mulige årsaksmekanismer med strategiske implikasjoner for antiradikaliseringsarbeidet» Camilla Helgerud http://www.duo.uio.no/ Trykk: Reprosentralen v vi Sammendrag Denne oppgaven tar utgangspunkt i en hypotese om at marginalisering og traumatiske livshendelser på et personlig plan, og påfølgende opprørstrang, går forut for og frembringer radikalisering av etnisk vesteuropeiske konvertitter til islam etter årtusenskiftet. Hypotesen er fremtredende i forskningsfronten, men samtidig i liten grad testet. Hypotesen får bare delvis støtte. Bekjentskaper, samt interaksjon med islamistiske ideologer og nettverk, ser gjennomgående ut til å ha større betydning for radikaliseringen enn trekk ved studerte enheter selv eller deres livssituasjon. Tross feilkildene som hefter ved valgte forskningsdesign, er funnene såpass robuste at de gir grunnlag for en nyansering av bildet visse teoretikere tegner av radikaliserte, etnisk vesteuropeiske konvertitter til islam som marginaliserte og opprørske ‘tapere’. Tilsvarende er det belegg for justeringer av relevante antiradikaliseringstiltak. Det er også formulert en hypotese om at elementer i global islamistisk ideologi inngår i radikaliserte, etnisk vesteuropeiske konvertitters motivasjon for troverdige trusler om, planlagte eller faktisk gjennomførte terrorangrep mot vestlige mål etter årtusenskiftet. Hypotesen får støtte. Et hovedpoeng i oppgaven er at vesteuropeiske stater ikke vil lykkes med å håndtere trusselen fra globalt orienterte militante islamister, herunder radikaliserte, etnisk vesteuropeiske konvertitter til islam, med mindre statene utarbeider en motstrategi som tar høyde for tankesettet og strategien bak global jihad. Med utgangspunkt i islamistisk originallitteratur skisseres seks overordnede prinsipper for antiradikaliseringsdelen av vesteuropeiske staters motstrategi. Det argumenteres spesielt for at antiradikaliseringsarbeidet må adressere det faktum at spredning av islamistisk ideologi, såkalt dawa, er et bærende og selvstendig element i globalt orienterte militante islamisters strategi. vii viii Forord Denne oppgaven har blitt skrevet parallelt med tøffe utfordringer på hjemmebane. Mange fortjener stor takk for hjelp og støtte gjennom en svært krevende skriveprosess. Veileder Janne Haaland Matlary har bidratt med konstruktive innspill hele veien. Biveileder Kjell Sjåholms uendelige strøm av litteraturanbefalinger, tilbakemeldinger, råd og vink har vært helt uvurderlig. Han har utvist en tålmodighet og et engasjement langt utover det man kan forvente av en veileder. Karl B. Stensbøl skal ha stor takk for tilbakemeldinger på oppgavens siste del. Øivind Bratberg har vært en viktig støttespiller og bidragsyter på metode og prosessporing. Erlend Kibsgaard Vestad og Lene Nielsen har kommet med tilbakemeldinger og konstruktiv kritikk. Alle feil og mangler er like fullt mitt ansvar alene. Jeg er også umåtelig takknemlig til foreldre og søsken for tålmodighet og støtte gjennom et langt studieløp. En spesiell takk til mamma og svigermor for hjelp med språkvask av oppgaven. Sist, men likevel først og fremst: Min kjære Øyvind. Jeg hadde ikke klart det uten deg. Camilla Helgerud Oslo, 16. mars 2015 Antall ord (ekskl. forside og litteraturliste): 36407 ix x Innholdsfortegnelse 1.0 Introduksjon til og begrunnelse for valget av hypoteser............................................................1 1.1 Terrortrusselen i europeisk kontekst: hjemmedyrket og islamistisk ............................................1 1.2 Operasjonalisering av begrepet «hjemmedyrket terrorisme» ......................................................2 1.3 Økende trussel, akademisk tomrom. Radikaliserte, etnisk vesteuropeiske konvertitter til islam ..3 1.4 Hypoteser ..................................................................................................................................9 1.5 Oppbygning av oppgaven ........................................................................................................ 10 1.6 Avgrensning ............................................................................................................................ 10 2.0 Hypotese 1 og 2: Analytisk rammeverk .................................................................................... 11 2.1 Global islamistisk ideologi ...................................................................................................... 12 2.2 Forskningsmetode ................................................................................................................... 17 2.3 Definisjoner ............................................................................................................................ 31 3.0 Casestudier ................................................................................................................................ 33 4.0 Prosessporing ............................................................................................................................ 57 4.1 En mulig kausalprosess og -mekanisme ................................................................................... 59 4.2 Delkonklusjon og veien videre ................................................................................................ 67 5.0 Del 2: strategiske implikasjoner for antiterrorarbeidet ........................................................... 68 5.1 Behovet for strategisk forankring av antiterrorarbeidet............................................................. 70 5.2 Sentrale elementer i globalt orienterte militante islamisters strategi .......................................... 74 5.3 Teoretisk grunnlag for motstrategien: Hva er opprørsbekjempelsesteori? ................................. 75 5.4 Teoretisk grunnlag for motstrategien: Hvorfor opprørsbekjempelsesteori? ............................... 80 5.5 Elementer i en indirekte strategi for å håndtere terrortrusselen fra radikaliserte, etnisk vesteuropeiske konvertitter til islam i vesteuropeiske stater ........................................................... 81 5.6 Utfordringer ved den skisserte tilnærmingen ............................................................................ 93 6.0 Konklusjon ................................................................................................................................ 94 7.0 Litteraturliste .......................................................................................................................... 101 Vedlegg 1: Forslag til konkrete tiltak som sorterer under hvert av de foreslåtte prinsippene i motstrategien ................................................................................................................. 135 Vedlegg 2: Universliste .................................................................................................................. 141 Vedlegg 3: «Ode to Osama» av Samantha Lewthwaite ................................................................... 153 xi 1.0 Introduksjon til og begrunnelse for valget av hypoteser 1.1 Terrortrusselen i europeisk kontekst: hjemmedyrket og islamistisk Terrortrusselen er sentral i Europa. EUs kontraterrorstrategi slår fast at terrorisme har alvorlige konsekvenser for unionens sikkerhet (Council of the European Union, 2005, s. 6). NATO fremhever spesielt det endogene aspektet ved terrortrusselen mot europeiske stater: Alliansen påpeker i sine retningslinjer for kontraterrorstrategi at terrorister og terrorgrupper med tilhold på de allierte statenes territorier forverrer trusselbildet (North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 2012). En rekke momenter sannsynliggjør at terrortrusselen mot europeiske stater skriver seg spesielt fra militante islamister. For det første hevder sentrale teoretikere at fremveksten av en islamistisk subkultur i Europa har åpnet en frontlinje for rekruttering til islamistisk terrorisme på kontinentet (Arasli, 2011, s. 29; Neumann, 2006, s. 74; Pargeter, 2008, s. 169; Taarnby, 2005, s. 4; Wiktorowicz, 2005, s. 213). For det andre viser Gilles Kepel (2006, s. 197) til at det siden 1980- årene har skjedd et skifte i islamisters oppfatning av Europa: I takt med politiseringen av den europeiske muslimske diasporaen, har kontinentet gått fra å være ansett som ”[a] domain of contractual peace” (dar al-Ahd) til i økende grad å bli betraktet som et område hvor muslimer må forsvare seg og føre jihad mot vantro (dar al-Harb). For det tredje har den amerikanskledede militæroffensiven mot islamistisk terrorisme aktualisert terrortrusselen i europeisk kontekst: Europeiske militærkontingenter i Afghanistan og Irak har plassert Europa i islamisters fiendebilde,1 og utstrakt vestlig militært nærvær i muslimske stater har fremtvunget delegering av myndighet og autonomi til europeiske terrorceller (Vidino, 2006, s. 368). Som en fjerde indikasjon
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