British Jihadism: The Detail and the Denial Paul Vernon Angus Stott A thesis submitted to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. University of East Anglia School of Politics, Philosophy, Language and Communication Studies 30 April 2015. This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived there from must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. 1 Abstract Since the early 1990s British Islamists have been fighting, killing and dying in a succession of conflicts across the world, beginning with the Bosnian civil war of 1992-95. A decade later this violence reached the United Kingdom, with a series of deadly attacks on the London transport system in July 2005, the first suicide bombings in Western Europe. This thesis provides a historiography of the involvement of Britons in global and domestic jihadist struggles at home and abroad across three decades. It catalogues and records their actions, and bring into a central document the names and affiliations of both British Islamist combatants, and those from jihadist organisations who have settled in this country. The ever increasing number of Britons travelling to the Islamic State does not come as a surprise when the scale of past involvement in such causes is considered. This thesis deconstructs the religious objectives is intrinsic to these trends, and emphasises that in British Jihadism it is the goal, as much as the message, which is religious. The reluctance of British Muslim representative organisations to address early examples of these developments, the ‘denial’ – is analysed herein. The development of a religious terrorism which often targets women and minority groups may have been expected to face critical examination from academics, in particular from within the critical terrorism studies school. Regrettably such rigour is found to be lacking. Indeed it is within the academy that some the most sustained attempts to deny any religious influences behind contemporary terrorism have been found. Detailed 2 feminist critiques of Islamist practice are deployed to advocate a new approach – one that leads to a critical terrorist studies which critiques not just government responses to terrorism, but terrorist actors also. 3 Contents Abstract 2 List of Tables 8 Acknowledgements 11 Glossary and abbreviations 12 Introduction 16 Definitions 16 Research Questions 23 Theoretical Background: The Chimera of Terrorism Studies 24 The Theoretical Approach Herein 30 The Data Set Used in this Research 36 Challenges with Terrorism Data 40 4 Chapter Outline 43 Chapter 1 – Literature Review 47 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Literature on Jihadist Terrorism 48 1.3 British Islamism and Jihadism 56 1.4 Academic Studies of Terrorism 66 1.5 Critical Studies on Terrorism 72 1.6 Conclusions 73 Chapter 2 – Contested Territory: Roots, Articulations and Denial 77 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Genealogy of Jihadism 78 2.3 The Displacement of Nationalist Struggles by Jihadism 89 2.4 Indigenous Articulations of Jihad 95 2.5 Jihad? Not In Our Backyard? 101 2.6 Conclusions 109 Chapter 3 – Settlement: The Migration of Foreign Jihadists to the United Kingdom 112 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Algeria 115 5 3.3 Bangladesh 124 3.4 Egypt 125 3.5 India, Kashmir and Pakistan 130 3.6 Jordan 134 3.7 Libya 137 3.8 Maldives 145 3.9 Morocco 146 3.10 Palestinian Territories 146 3.11 Saudi Arabia 148 3.12 Syria 150 3.13 Tunisia 154 3.14 Al Qaeda in the United Kingdom 155 3.15 Londonistan 157 3.16 Conclusions 164 Chapter 4 – British Jihadism 169 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Terrorist Attacks by British Jihadists 171 4.3 Failed Jihadist Attacks in Britain 188 4.4 Four Lions? The Clerical Leaders of British Jihadism 194 4.5 Al Muhajiroun: The Emigrants 205 4.6 The Academic Battlefield 213 4.7 British Islamism and Political Violence 220 4.8 Conclusions 223 6 Chapter 5 – The Geographical Distribution of British Jihadis 228 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Afghanistan 233 5.3 Bosnia-Herzegovina 240 5.4 Chechnya 246 5.5 India, Kashmir and Pakistan 249 5.6 Indonesia 256 5.7 Iraq 256 5.8 Israel and the Palestinian Territories 259 5.9 Kenya 259 5.10 Nigeria 261 5.11 Somalia and Somaliland 261 5.12 Sweden 264 5.13 Syria 265 5.14 Yemen 273 5.15 The Scope of British Jihadism 277 5.16 Conclusions 279 Chapter 6 – A Missed Opportunity: Critical Terrorism Studies and the British Jihad 285 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Critical Terrorism Studies – An Overview 290 6.3 ‘Critical’ Approaches to Jihadism and the War on Terror 292 7 6.4 Critical Terrorism Studies on Campus 305 6.5 Critical Terrorism Studies and Cage 313 6.6 Why the Failings of Critical Terrorism Studies Matter 318 6.7 Conclusions 323 Chapter 7 Conclusion 326 Appendix: BBC Transcript of Mohammed Sidique Khan’s Suicide Video 339 Bibliography 341 List of Tables 3.1 Overseas Jihadists in Britain by State 114 3.2 Algerian Jihadists in Britain 120 3.3 Egyptian Jihadists in Britain 129 3.4 Jihadists from India, Kashmir and Pakistan 133 3.5 Jordanian Jihadists in Britain 137 3.6 Libyan Jihadists in Britain 143 3.7 Moroccan Jihadists in Britain 146 3.8 Palestinian Jihadists in Britain 147 3.9 Saudi Arabian Jihadists in Britain 150 3.10 Syrian Jihadists in Britain 154 8 3.11 Key Al-Qaeda members entering Britain 156 3.12 Newspaper references to Londonistan 162 4.1 Jihadist terrorist attacks in Britain 186 4.2 Failed Jihadist attacks in Britain 191 4.3 Al Muhajiroun’s Jihad: Members Killed 212 4.4 Universities, ISOCs and Terrorism 219 5.1 Britons and Jihadist Organisations 231 5.2 Jihadist attacks involving Britons overseas 232 5.3 Britons who attended Afghan training camps 237 5.4 British Jihadis fighting in Afghanistan 238 5.5 Britons killed in Afghanistan 239 5.6 Britons in the Bosnian Mujahideen 244 5.7 Britons killed in Bosnia 245 5.8 British Jihadis in Chechnya 248 5.9 Britons who have fought in India, Kashmir or Pakistan 252 5.10 Britons Trained in India, Kashmir or Pakistan 252 5.11 British Jihadis killed in India, Kashmir or Pakistan 255 5.12 Britons known to have fought in Iraq 257 5.13 Britons killed in Iraq 257 5.14 British Jihadis in Kenya 260 5.15 Britons trained in Somalia 262 5.16 British Jihadis in Somalia 263 5.17 Britons killed fighting in Somalia 264 5.18 British Jihadis in Syria 268 5.19 British women in Syria 271 9 5.20 Britons killed in Syria 272 5.21 Britons killed in Yemen 276 5.22 Britons jailed in Yemen for terrorism 277 5.23 Britons killed in Jihad overseas 1992 – 31 March 2015 278 10 Acknowledgments Throughout my time at UEA I have been supported by Prof Lee Marsden and Mr Michael Bowker of the School of Political, Social and International Studies. Their counsel has been invaluable. I am also grateful for the contribution of Dr Barbara Goodwin during the initial stage of this thesis, to Prof Alan Finlayson in its later stages, and the support of Dr Scott Wright. Outside of the UEA I am grateful for the assistance of Dr Earl Gammon and Dr Larry O’Hara, Colin Bramwell and Neil Preston both helped more than they realised. At several stages when I faltered I was able to progress only thanks to the support of my mother, Mrs Nancy Stott, and my wife Thelma. I hope that when they come to read this research, our twin boys, Leonard and Reginald may find the world a slightly better place than it is today. I dedicate this thesis to James May (1969-2012). 11 Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations Used Allah Akbar God is great. Al-Qaeda Jihadist organisation responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States. Also abbreviated to AQ AQAP Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula AQIM Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb ARC Advice and Reformation Committee. An organisation of Saudi dissidents based in London, who distributed many of Osama Bin Laden’s early statements. BMI British Muslim Initiative. Representative group established by former figures in the Muslim Association of Britain. Caliphate A system of governance established following the death of Muhammad. The established leader, the Caliph, ensures the sharia is enacted. Dawah or dawa Mission, often involving missionary work to call people to Islam Deen Religion DGSE Direction Generale de la Securite Exterieure – France’s external security service 12 EDL English Defence League. An organisation opposing what it perceives to be Islamic extremism. Formed after members of Al-Muhajiroun booed a march by the Royal Anglian Regiment in Luton in 2009 Fatwa Religious ruling issued by an Islamic scholar FOSIS Federation of Student Islamic Societies. Umbrella organisation for ISOCs in the UK and Republic of Ireland GIA Abbreviation of Groupe Islamique Armé, an Algerian jihadist group known as the Armed Islamic Group in English Hadith Term applied to the sayings and practice of Muhammad Harkat ul-Mujahideen Pakistani jihadist organisation, abbreviated as HuM. Hizb-ut-Tahrir Global Islamic party seeking to restore the caliphate. Also known as HuT. ISI Inter-Services Intelligence – the primary Pakistani security agency ISOCs University Islamic Societies Jahiliyyah A concept developed by Sayyid Qutb, referring, roughly, to ignorance JeI Jamaat-e-Islami – the largest clerical party in Pakistan 13 LIFG Libyan Islamic Fighting Group. From 2011 it has used the name Libyan Islamic Movement for Change Madrasa A Muslim institution of learning.