AUSTRALIA'S NOR1 These places are world famous.

U1uru (Ayers Rock) and Kakadu National that lie hidden 10,000 metres below them. Park are both on the "must-see" list for Never mind, their loss is your gain. overseas visitors. You will have a more private viewing of Sadly, many tourists fly the l,500kms Nitmiluk (Katherine Gorge) with its thirteen, that separate Uluru (Ayers Rock) and Kakadu, immense water-filled gorges; of Litchfield missing out on the wealth of experiences National Park which rivals Kakadu·' of the

A USTRALIA'S NO When you buy a Gore-Tex garment you are buying a can do which will harm your Gore-Tex garment - in fact, a good wash after commitment to excellence. any regular use will serve only to extend its life. Over 16 years of sustained research, testing and development has More often than not, every1hing that doesn't affect Gore-Tex fabric maintained Gore-Tex as the performance leader in foul-weather clothing. will degrade competitive fabrics - to the point where they leak. Take And it's designed to keep on performing at that same high level. one example: in temperatures below zero the coatings on coated At the heart of our fabrics is a tough yet light and supple fabrics become stiff and brittle and will crack and chip membrane of expanded PTFE. It retains uncompromised away from the flex and wear points on a garment. function in temperatures well beyond the human survival Gore-Tex fabrics with their supple membrane are a range. Being virtually chemically inert, it is unaffected minimum of 5 times more durable to cold and by any common chemicals - like insect repellents wet, flex and abrasion. and cosmetics. Similarly salt-water, mould, mildew, That's why we can make the unparalleled UV light and other common performance reducing agents commitment that Gore-Tex outerwear is Guaranteed will have no effect. It doesn I 'wear-out" or become hard or to keep you dry . It will be keeping you dry long after brittle over time. you've forgotten the little extra you paid for it. In fact, barring mechanical damage (cuts, abrasions, pin-holes) Advice and Service: Consult it will remain fully functional as long as the fabrics to which it is trained shop staff and our User's Guide laminated remain serviceable. when choosing a garment for your outdoor luORE}Jr In stark contrast to the situation with other waterproof fabrics there is needs. For service phone W.L. Gore and Crear,ve Technologies nothing in the way of normal cleaning, washing or dry-cleaning that you Associates free on 008 226 703. Worldwide WATERPROOF•BREATHABLE • WINDPROOF •DURABLE• GUARANTEED [ERN TERRITORY ------�-- These places aren't. Yet.

huge thermal pool at Mataranka; of the other treasures. Discover them at your leisure, Devil's Marbles, known in Aboriginal culture before the rest of the world does.

as the Eggs of the Rainbow Serpent; of the For details and bookings contact Qantas

spectacular- gaps and gorges in the majestic Australian on 13 14 15, Ansett Australia on

MacDonnell Ranges. 13 13 44 or your travel agent.

These are just a sample of the Territory's "You'll never never know, if you never never go."

HERN TERRITORY ANH NEWS FREE DOLPHIN'S Gin An The Winter issue's offer is a special department stores and video retail­ Apology one for all dolphin lovers! The new ers for $29.95 rrp. ABC video "The dolphin's gift" tells We have ten copies of "The dol­ In the Autumn 1994 issue of ANH the story of Fungi, a friendly phin's gift" to give away, courtesy we published a box on "Eastern Bottlenose Dolphin that lives at the of Roadshow Entertainment. To win Whale- watching Hotspots". mouth of Dingle Harbour, County a copy all you have to do is send a Unfortunately some of the informa­ Kerry in south-west Ireland. Fungi postcard or letter with your name tion and contact numbers provided has been charming local people and address to The Dolphins Gift were incorrect. We apologise for any and visitors to County Kerryfor six Giveaway, ANH, Australian inconvenience caused and suggest years, and the film documents his Museum, PO Box A285, Sydney that, for any information regarding relationship with a variety of people. South 2000 by Friday 10 July. The the best vantage points from which "The dolphin's gift" is available from first ten names drawn on that date to view whales and the availability ABC shops, ABC Centres and leading will receive a free copy of the video. of tours, you contact the local tourist and visitor information centre for Save the Described as bright WINNERS that area. These and other correct and fun, coming in contact numbers are listed below: Koala Day The winner of the Discovery is a special three shades, and Ecotours Holiday in our day organ­ sporting a cheeky Airlie Beach, Whitsundays: ised every Koala face, they Autumn '94 subscribers Whitsunday Visitors Bureau year by the will cost only competition is Stuart Galrns (079) 466 673. $2.00 each. Australian of Perth, WA. The Autumn HerveyBay : Hervey Bay Koala For more informa­ Information Centre Pie Teaser winner was K. Foundation to tion about Save the (071) 242 448. Wynn-Moylan of Billinudgel, focus attention on the Koala Day please contact Bundaberg: Lady Musgrave Barrier plight of the Koala. This year it will Ann Sharp on (07) 229 7233. NSW. Reef Cruises be Friday 29 July 1994. It provides (071) 529 011. an opportunity for people to take Moreton Island: Tangalooma some positive action towards saving Just some of the events in the TAMS (The Australian Museum Resort (07) 268 6333. the Koala, either by protecting habi­ Society) calendar: Stradbroke Island: Queensland tat, fund- raising, planting a tree or in An all day Seminar on Sunday "Putting Cats their Place" Government Travel Centre increasing understanding of the July 31 at The Australian Museum, 10am-5pm. (07) 221 6111. Koala's plight and what can be Cost: Members $38.00, Non Members $50.00 (includes Australian Whale done to help. Lunch). Byron Bay: This year you can also buy Save Conservation Society the Koala Sun Visors at outlets, "The Expanding Universe - Measuring Hubble's (07) 398 2928. Constant" A lecture by Professor Jeremy Mould, Professor of including pharmacies, throughout Korogoro Point, Hat Head Astronomy at ANU will be held on Thursday 28 July - 6.30pm Australia to help the cause. National Park: NSW National at The Art Galleryof NSW. Parks & Wildlife Members $10.00, Non Members $12.00 Cost: Service in PortM acquane: Another Go Fossil Fishing for the Weekend - A field trip led by Dr Alex (065) 842 203. one bites Ritchie at the Devonian Fossil Fish Sites, in Canowindra NSW, Friday 9 Wollongong: Wollongong Visitors - Sunday 11 September 1994 Centre (042) 280 300. Cost: Members $235.00, Non Members $260.00 the dust Eden: Eden Tourist Information Sorryto saythat we have Centre (064) 961 953. As an ANH subscriber, you can enjoy all the benefits of being a TAMS There are no longer any tours oper­ runout of stock of another member (including free admission, magazines, discounts and events) for ating out of Sydney and Heron only a small additional fee. For further information phone the Society's back issue - this time Island as sightings are too office on (02) 339-8225. Volume 22 No. 7. unreliable. Australia's Leading Nature Magazine If not claimed 1n 14 da� please return to ANH, PO Box A285. Sydney South. NSW 2000 SURFACE POSTAGE PAID DO NOT FOLD MAIL AUSTRALIA Printed on Recv

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Our forests have never before been under some of the world's most remarkable animals such attack. Only urgent action will pre­ will soon become paper bags for Japan. vent the destruction of what precious.little Whether the governmentand woodchipping remains of our forest wilderness. industry like it or not, these forests still have a Across the country The Wilderness Society voice-The WildernessSociety! is working hard to save our native forests Your donation will keep us lobbying in the -we have the solutions, but we need parliaments and boardrooms; visiting schools YOUR help to implement them. and community groups; running street stalls; .It's hard to believe but the Federal Govern­ producing award-winning education kits, ment has just approved another five-and-a­ videos and posters; and working in the forests half million tonnes of export woodchips from and outside the chipmills. our forests - that's a death warrant for two Help us to stop the senseless butchering of million trees. our native forests. Please give generously and What are now the living, breathing homes of post your pardon for the forests today.

Yes, I want to help save our nativeforests ! r _ ,I g-HE I.. . Name ______7(}ILDERNESS � I � I Address,______----,-- JOCIETY �_1J ,. � I I ______P/code. ___ Phone. ______I Please return this form I Here is my donation of D$ 100 D$50 D $20 D $_ in an envelope I (no stamp required) to: I DI enclose Cheque/Money Order, OR, Q please debit my REPLY PAID 106 I I OMastercard OBankcard OVISA Expiry Date,___ I I The Wilderness Society I I Card no.------130 Davey St. I I I Hobart TAS 7000 I I Signature,______L------' I I I I I'd like to; D join The Wilderness Society. I enclose O $36 Regular D $25 Concession membership I I . I D help sell badges on World Environment Day June 5 D receive raffie books I < I D become a Wilderness Supporter D receive information on the forest campoign. Cl) I I : P.S. Your donation is tax deductable. M ake your taxes work for the future of Australia's wild places. I L ____ Kai _____ ---�-----�------· ·------J

MARY E. WHITE AFTER THE GREENING AUSTRALIA and Antarctica today are island zones and its present-day vegetation patterns began with the continents. In the modern world they share the honour formation of the orth Polar ice cap about 2.4 million years of being the most arid lands - Antarctica by virtue of having ago. Very dry, cool and windy glacial stages alternated with its water frozen, and Australia the driest vegetated continent warmer and wetter interglacials. The last glacial maximum, with more desert within its boundaries than exists within the between 18,000 and 14,000 years ago, saw most of the borders of any other country. continent covered by wind-blown dunes, acute aridity, and In the prehistoric past Australia was part of the southern enormous stress for flora and fauna. We live today in the supercontinent Gondwana and was attached to Antarctica. interglacial that follows the recovery from that last glacial stage The two lands shared a Gondwanan flora and fauna, and of the continuing ice age. when the final separation between them occurred (only 45 The arrival of the Aboriginal people in the continent, million years ago), both lands were well-watered and possibly as long ago as 140,000 years, and the impact of their supported forests of conifers and flowering plants with a "fire-stick farming" on an ice age-affectedland was profound, mixture of kinds which are today sorted and sifted into cool altering the nature of vegetation over much of the continent. temperate and subtropical, mesophyll and sclerophyll. The impact of European settlement on this unique land in This book traces the evolution of the driest vegetated the last 200 years has been devastating. The reasons why are continent from the green and forested, well-watered piece of clearly seen in the DRIFTING and DR YING story. Gondwana. Like the birth, maturing and aging of an UNBALANCING THE BIOTA, looks at current problems organism, the evolutionary stages RIFTING, DRIFTING and from the prehistoric perspective gained from the study of the DR YING have produced the modern land we know today - development of the driest vegetated continent from a green a wide brown land, time-worn and unique. and forested piece of Gondwana. How Australia broke free from Gondwana, and the geological processes which were involved, forms the RIFTING Mary White is a Palaeobotanist whose fascination section of this book. DRIFTING documents the changing with prehistoric Australia, its changing environments vegetation, climate and landscapes as the Island Continent and flora and fauna, resulted in her books The Greening of moved northwards away from Antarctica. The progressive Gondwana, The Nature ofHidden Worlds- and Time in Our Hands-. cooling of Antarctica which resulted from its increasing She believes that the degradation of Australia's soils, its isolation affected world climates and Australia began to dry grazing lands and forests,can only be understood and hope­ out. Its forests contracted and were replaced by arid-adapted fully remedied when the history of the land and the nature vegetation, with a consequent increase in the impact of fire of its finely balanced ecosystems are understood. With After on the biota. When the South Polar ice cap formed fifteen the Greening she has shared with her readers the story of the million years ago, the world was on track towards an ice age birth, maturing and emergence of modern Australia - hoping and climatic fluctuations from warm and wet to cool and dry that respect, reverence and understanding of this amazing became marked. and wonderful land will ensure that humans do not continue The DR YING of the Australian continent that resulted in to misuse it in a way that threatens to turn it into a lifeless its blown-sand and stony deserts, its vast arid and semi-arid desert. ISBN 0 86417 585 X, 288pp, 300 colour plates, 290 x 210 mm (8¼" x 11%"), rrp $59.95 May ------ORDER FORM

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Please mail to: Kangaroo Press P.O. Box 6125 Dural Del_ivery Centre Dural NSW 2158 Australia or phone (02) 654 1502 or fax (02) 654 1.3.38 BE TEMPTED Up Front TO ISLANDS NEAR AND FAR OF SPECTACULAR UNTOUCHED BEAUTY STEEPED IN HISTORY, CULTURAL ALLURE AND UNCLUTTERED LIFESTYLES - MATCHED n the first Sunday in March, ONLY BY THE PEOPLE Australians0 gather to take part in one of the most TI-iEMSELVES worthwhile events of the yearly calender-Clean ... CHOOSE YOUR 0/1/N Up Australia Day. This year saw over 500,000 5oUTH PACIFIC Australians collect more than 20,000 tonnes of PARADISE AND ENJOY garbage from all over this beautiful continent-a AN AFFINITY WITH continent that far too many of us use as our own NATURE. Nigel Wace is passionate private rubbish tip. In recognition of the impor- about rubbish. tance of this event, which has now expanded into a Clean Up the World cam­ LORD HOWE ISLAND A World HeritageArea paign, its organiser, Ian Kiernan, was made 1994's Australian of the Year. In this issue of ANH, we would like to introduce you to another Australian who, NORFOLK ISLAND like Ian, is passionate about rubbish. Historical - Picturesque Dr Nigel Wace was amazed to discover that televisions and refrigerators are KINGDOM OF TONGA found washed up on the beaches of uninhabited coral atolls that lie in the mid­ The Friendly Islands dle of the Pacific, far from the madding crowd. As a result, he decided that it was time someone tried to find out just how much litter is floating around out WESTERN SAMOA at sea, what il consists of and who is The Cradle of Polynesia using the oceans as a garbage tip COOK ISLANDS anyway. In order to answer some of Visit Heaven on Earth these questions, he has spent quite a bit of time on an isolated beach in UNIQUE - NATURAL - UNFORGETTABLE South Australia collecting, recording EXPERIENCES! and analysing rubbish. In his article An Australian scorpion fluoresces under "Beachcombing for Ocean Litter", FOR INFORMATI ON ultraviolet light. AND BOOKINGS CALL Nigel explains that, as good as it is to clean up the garbage, it is far better to identify where it is coming from and hopefully prevent it from becoming litter at all. We also look at one of our great opportunists-the Australian Pelican, and 163 Eastern Valley Way Middle Cove NSW 2068 profile a mysterious dolphin that inhabits northern Australian waters. We P.O. Box 755 Willoughby 2068 investigate whether we're living in a universe full of WlMPs or MACHOs, and PH: (02) 958 2799 discover that Australian scorpions are not as fearsome as their overseas FAEECALL: 008 244336 (free outside Sydney area) relatives. FAX: (02) 958 2079 L.H.I. FASTBOOK VACATIONS PTY LTD -Jennifer Saunders UC: 2TA003131 ACN: 003926369

ANH 3 Articles FISH CAPERS Winter 1994 AT CAPE CUVIER �NHVolume 24 Number 9 In June last year, amazing scenes of a man·ne feeding Published by The Australian Museum Trust frenzyoff the coast of Western 6 College Street. Australia were broadcast Sydney, NSW 2000. around the country. Whatled Phone: (02) 339 8111 to such a spectacular Fax: (02) 339 8313 Phenomenon and how often TrustPresident: Patricia Watson does it occur? PELICANS Museum Director: Desmond Griffin BY BARRY HUTCHINS EDITOR just about everyone can Jennifer Saunders, B.Sc. 26 recognise a pelican and many SCIENTIFIC EDITOR of us have delighted in Georgina Hickey, B.Sc. watching and feeding these PHOTO RESEARCHER big, comical-looking birds. Kate Lowe They are one ofAustralia's ARTDIRECTION great opportunists and have Watch This! Design T taken to life with humans like 1YPESE1 ING Keen Permofilm ducks to water. But has all PRJ TI G this familiarity bred an Excel Printing Company, Hong Kong undeserved contempt? MARKETING AND SALES BY WALTER BOLES Mike Field Phone: (02) 339 8331 36 ADVERTISI G Sari Jarvenaa Phone: (02) 339 8331 SUBSCRJPTIONS Mary Pollinger Phone: (02) 339 8119 Toll-free (008) 028 558 Fax: (02) 339 8313 Annual subscription (4 issues) Within Australia SA30 Other countries SA42 WHERE IS THE REST Two-year subscription (8 issues) Within Australia SA58 OF THE UNIVERSE? Other countries SA78 Although our understandingof BEACHCOMBING Three-year subscription (12 issues) the universehas come a long FOR OCEAN LITTER Within Australia SA81 way since the 17th century, we How much litter floats about Other countries $A108 still don't know what 90 per at sea? Whatdoes it consist of! New subscriptions can be made by credit card cent of it is made of! Will this Who puts it there? A remote on the ANH toll-free hotline (008) 028 558 unknown dark matter turn out beach in South Australia or use the form in this magazine. to be a bunch of WI MPs or are provides the ideal place for a If it has been removed. send cheque, money MACHOs more its style? bit of marine detective work. order or credit card authorisation to the BY GEOFF Mc AMARA address above, made payable to the BY IGELWACE 'Australian Museum' in Australian currency. 28 46 All material appearing in ANH is copyright. Reproduction in part or in whole is not permitted without written authorisation from the Editor. Opinions expressed by the authors are their own and do not necessarily represent the policies or views of the Australian Museum. ANH is printed on archival quality paper suitable for library collections.

Published 1994 ISSN-0004--9840

Australian Natural History is proud winner of the 1987, '88, '89, '90 , '91, '92 & '93 Whitley Awards forBest Periodical. Front Cover The Australian Pelican is a skilled opportunist and this, combined with little direct human pre­ dation, has allowed the birds to exist in healthy numbers while overseas pelican populations have declined. Photo by Kevin Deacon/Dive 2000.

4 ANH NIGHT STALKERS Scorpionsare often the Columns recipients of our fear and loathing, yet few Australians LETTERS know much about these Trees on the Beach; More on mysterious creatures and Mounds; Zebra Stripes a11d even fewer have come across Swatting Tails; To Kiss or to one in the wild ...despite Sniff?; Condor Update; Writing their abundance. in Mysten:ous Ways; Infectious BY ADAM LOCKET Cats; All Aboard. 54 6

RARE & ENDANGE RED BURROWING BETTONG The Burrowing Bettong is unique among the ka11garoos THE IRRAWADDY for its habit of living in an DOLPHIN underground warren system Northern Australia is possibly much like rabbits. But unlike QUIPS, QUOTES the last refuge for the largest these rampaging foreignersthat &CURIOS co11centrationof lrrawaddy dominate our landscape, the Burrowing Bettong occupies Live Gut Flora from Extinct Dolphins i11 the world. Yet most Mastodon; Moulting and Australia11s have 11ever heard less than one per cent of its former ra11ge. Fasting in the Cold; Bacteria of, let alone seen, these Blamed for Ulcers; Seed Pods magnificentcreatures. BY JEFF SHORT VIEWSFROM THE FOURTH DI MENSION Take the Witness Stand; Not BY ALEX BORTOLI 22 the Last Wave?; Cross-dressing VELVET WORMS: NON­ in Hyenas?; Getting the Gossip; 66 WIL DFO OD S MISSING MISSING LINKS Homing Croes; Talking Among In the world of 'living fossils' the Animals; A Bird with an BUSH SOAP and 'missing links', Ear for Fruit; Frogs Fake it/or Early explorers had no excuse peripatus are risi11g stars. Freedom; Quick Quiz. These diminutive little 'worms' THE BACKYARD NATURALIST for being dirty in the bush.for 10 Australia is rich in soap have finallybeen rediscovered as the link between annelids SUCKING UP TO plants. And, as the author REVIEWS reveals, cleansing was not and arthropods. Wildlife of Gondwana; Uluru THE HUMBLE LEECH their 011ly use. BY MICHAEL ARCHER A walk through an Australian Fauna; life in a Rotten log; rainforest usually guarantees BY TIM LOW 68 Australian Fisheries Resources; an encounter with a jawed 24 CS/RO Handbook of Economic sucker intent 011 tappi11g into THE LA ST WORD Plantsof Australia; A Natural your blood supply. Selection; The Human Nature of Birds; just Published. BY STEVE VAN DYCK BEYOND THE KANGAROO David Freudenberger has an 20 answer to this country'sland 70 degradation, feral pests and spiralling native extinction rate. But are we brave enough to support him? BY DAVID FREUDENBERGER

P H O T O A R T 80 UNDERWATER ABSTRACTS Underwater close-up photography can reveal a delightfulworld ofcolours, shapes and textures normally Q&A hidde11 from our land-locked ,- 4, Cat Napping; Popular Palms?; lives. ) A Case of Mistaken Identity?; J- The Ant a11d the Mole Cricket; BY JON BRYAN �' Pie Teaser. 60 �;�·� 78 ANH ' 5 And it's not very old, either. Tasmanian forest industries On most of the timber there are using what they already were the unmistakable have, before they are given LEI I ERS marks of chainsaws, with access to any more. I cannot The forum for readers to clean cuts through the mas­ understand how any indus­ air their views about their sive trunks, showing how try can throw so much away, they had been felled and dis­ and still insist that it needs concerns, past articles and membered. Why were they more. Interesting personal events. felled if they were just going In southern Australia, to be thrown away? many of the rivers that drain Today people come to this forested catchments end in beach to collect firewood. coastal lagoons and lakes, so and also to scavenge high­ that forestry waste floating quality pieces for craftwork. downstream doesn't actually I was told that such scav­ reach the sea. Il would be Trees on the Beach coast for several kilometres engers pay $25 a year for a interesting to look at the bot­ In north-western Tasmania, is choked with tree trunks licence to take wood from tom of, say, Macquarie the Arthur River and its trib­ up to a metre or more in the beach-hardly the sort Harbour in Tasmania or utaries flow through the wet, diameter, jumbled up on the of sustainable use one would Lake Macquarie in New heavily timbered Campbell rocks and in the sand. expect for such a valuable South Wales. Do these sedi­ Range in the Tarkhine Strolling along the tidelines resource as this. ments contain a lot of water­ Wilderness. and straight into in the dusk, while the surf I wonder how much more logged timber; a hidden sig­ the Southern Ocean. The pounded the beach, I could of this wasted old-growth nature of the past use of our river has no sand-barred only feel dismayed and timber in the Arthur catch­ forests? lagoon typical of many river angry at the carelessness ment never got into the I live in Canberra-a beau­ outfalls on the mainland, so and waste displayed by all river? How many more trees tiful planned city. When the trash that floats down the these trees lying on the have been felled and left to overseas visitors want to see Arthur goes straight into the sand. Trees are not only burn or rot on the hillsides, the city, I take them round sea. The catchment of the valuable as timber, but they while the prime timber is the tourist sights. But for Arthur includes large areas are also valuable as sinks for taken away to feed the mills? those people who really want of old-growth forest that carbon dioxide to redress The trees on Arthur Beach to understand Canberra, I have been logged for many the imbalance in the atmos­ are the result of a 'driftnet make sure we go to the tip. years. Striking evidence of phere brought about by mentality': catch everything, If you look at what is being this logging can be seen on human burning of fossil then throw away what you thrown away by a city or an the beaches near the river fuels. Trees are not things to don't want for immediate industry, you gain an insight outfall. be thrown away. What right profit. into how it works as a physi­ While looking for beaches have we to question the Our forest industries are cal and biological system. In fronting the Southern Ocean destruction of tropical demanding they have guar­ this way, Arthur Beach in that could be suitable for forests in poor countries, anteed access to many of the north-western Tasmania is monitoring stranded ocean when we throw away our remaining old-growth forests like the Mugga Tip in litter (see article in this own trees like this? on crown land. Proponents Canberra. -Nigel Wace issue), I walked over the The timber on Arthur of this concept of 'resource Australian National University, ACT dunes to Arthur Beach-an Beach is not just rubbish security' should visit the out­ open strand to the south of wood. There is plenty of fall of the Arthur River to see More on Mounds the river mouth. The whole myrtle and blackwood there. for themselves how the Despite Geoff Bailey's claim to the contrary (Letters, ANH Summer 1993-94), the Weipa shell mounds are no longer a subject of contro­ versy. Had he read my Master of Science thesis entitled Origins of the Weipa shell mounds (ANU 1992) he would have found that there is a significant body of field evidence to support the claim that the mounds are natural-not cultural-in ori­ gin. This evidence consists of detailed maps and strati­ graphic sections backed by a comprehensive series of radiocarbon dates. For the first time ever it has been possible to interpret the mounds in a sensible geo­ ...u < morphological context. 3:.... The results of field work I ...,... z conducted in 1991 clearly � demonstrate that the shell :::,"' mounds began as wave-built 0 u chenier ridges or related These trees are the result of a 'driftnet mentality': catch everything then throw away what you don't want. shoreline deposits. The

6 ANH anthropologist W.E.H. in the landscape. Shellfish Stanner was of a similar mortality on the scale evi­ opinion in 1958. The fact that dent at Weipa is normally many of these deposits attributed to natural process­ appear as tall, steep-sided, es and, if archaeologists conical mounds can only be wish to believe otherwise, explained in terms of they must have good reason. reworking by the Orange­ -Tim Stone footed Scrubfowl (Mega­ Mawson, ACT podius reinwardt). This Zebra Stripes and process is observable and Swatting Tails also explains the many simi- I am writing in regard to the 1 ar mounds composed of QQC article about Zebras sand and gravel. Although and tsetse flies (ANH Spring Bailey interprets mounds of 1993), which suggested that different composition in terms of the Zebra's stripes might fundamentally dif­ help prevent it being bitten ferent processes, it is not the by the fly, since it has been dictate of Occam's razor to shown that the flies avoid have two theories for the horizontally striped forms. one phenomenon. This seems an unlikely Bailey also believes that explanation of the situation composition can distinguish to me. Surely the phenom­ middens from cheniers. enon to be explained is why However, like middens, che­ tsetse flies avoid horizontal niers may also be composed stripes, rather than why of large whole shells and Zebras have them, and sure­ geomorphologists attribute ly this is simply because it this phenomenon to sorting helps them avoid being swat­ by wave action. The location ted by the Zebra's tail. The of the Weipa shell mounds rump of the animal is the on sand ridges or silt sub­ most obvious horizontally strates is also characteristic of shell chenier deposits. striped area and, if a fly was The presence of other fauna! able to select some part of remains, ash lenses and the the animal other than its occasional artefact can also rump, perhaps it would have be explained by natural a better chance of both fin­ processes. Bailey would do ishing its meal and surviving to have another. smell of your cheek". Why do tsetse flies avoid better to consider that the horizontal stripes? -Timothy Millar Possibly there are many criteria archaeologists tradi­ Elsternwick, Vic. tionally use to distinguish more examples of such Edison had buried power behaviour around the world middens from natural shell To Kiss or to Sniff? lines and installed raptor and, as in Thailand where deposits are flawed. The insert box "Give me guards on high-voltage tow­ a sniff" the word for kiss is the same ers but they hadn't expected The radiocarbon evidence accompanying as 'to smell', it's probably not is as powerful as that drawn Michael Stoddart's article the condors to come so from geomorphology. "Picking up the human an unusual practice at all. close to town. (What you -Terry Coldham essentially have with these Dating of the shells in the scent" (ANH Winter 1993) Sydney, NSW Kwamter mound was under­ intrigued me greatly. The young condors are unsuper­ taken not to distinguish reported examples of Condor Update vised 'teenagers' exploring scrubfowl mounds from mid­ humans sniffing as a substi­ An update on the Californian their surroundings with no dens, but to test Bailey's tute for kissing dated back Condor situation (QQC experienced adults to keep very specific hypothesis of to 1831, the implication Autumn 1993). The juvenile them out of trouble!) how the shell mound being that such behaviour Condor Xewe actually died These large birds also formed. He claimed that the died out some time ago or is of poisoning due to drinking make tempting targets. A shells accumulated from the only practised by obscure antifreeze, not lead poison­ couple of men hiking in the activities of generations of societies untouched by the ing as reported. The source back-country took several human occupants and envis­ modern world. of the antifreeze is still shots at a condor. aged a period of at least In fact Lin Roth's 1890s debated, but it is thought to Fortunately, their aim was 1,000 years for this to hap­ description of the greeting have originated either from poor and a wildlife officer pen. This hypothesis is false habits of the Khyoungtha rain gauges being dumped was nearby and observed because most of the shells I people is an accurate or spillage left by a motorist. the incident. One man has had dated from the Kwarnter description of greetings still Of the six additional juv­ since been brought to court mound are all of the same practised in modern-day eniles that were released, and fined $US1,5 00 for age. Thailand. unfortunately two were elec­ shooting at an endangered It is reasonable to assume There couples still prefer trocuted in power lines near species. that human shell-gatherers the traditional 'sniff to the­ the town of Fillmore. The The next condor release is have made some contribu­ modern 'kiss', and almost power company (Edison) planned for a remote area of tion to the shell deposits at every time a woman picks up has since installed raptor Santa Barbara County, in an Weipa. It is unreasonable, a baby or toddler it is accom­ guards to make the poles effort to avoid some of the however, to claim that panied by a long, deep sniff and towers unsuitable for problems encountered in Ventura County. human predation caused the and often preceded by the perching. Closer to the -Susan Williams death of almost every cockle expression "please give me a Sespe Condor Sanctuary, Ventura, California

ANH 7 wild population of Eastern Barred Bandicoots on the Australian mainland. 'Disease' per se has also been proposed as an expla­ nation for the decline of dasyurids (Western and Eastern Quolls) on the Australian mainland, howev­ er there is no firm evidence that toxoplasmosis was responsible. Feral cats are also con­ tributing to disease on farms. Toxoplasmosis in young ewes can cause abor­ tions, stillbirths and a reduced lamb survival. Another protozoan disease spread by cats, sar­ cosporidiosis, produces large white cysts in beef and mutton and, although they don't generally lead to live­ stock deaths, it can cause carcasses to be condemned in abattoirs. -David Obe ndorf-Reld Launceston, Tas. All Aboard Echidna is a secretive Australian, A disease transmitted by feral cats Is partly responsible for the decline of the last wild population of Eastern Encounters with echidnas Barred Bandlcoots on the Australian mainland. are quite rare, But come the winter weather, Writing In other hand, in my case· the Bandicoots seem to acquire Theyget their act together, Mysterious Ways left) fits into Smetacek's the disease from insects and Yet not as you'd suspect- I read with interest the QQC scheme of things. earthworms that have had a single pair. item "Writing in Reverse" My curiosity is genuine, as contact with the infected cat (ANH Winter 1993). I'm not the phenomenon conjures faeces or contaminated soil. They form a conga line convinced, however, that the up some weird brain func­ Even carnivorous marsupials ofexp ectation, thesis of Smetacek as pre­ tion permutations! can become infected by con­ With nose to tail, that's sented gives the whole Finally, I just wish to add suming animal tissues that an echidna train. answer to the phenomenon. that ANH never fails to fasci­ contain the resting cyst But only one's a breeder, [The following two para­ nate me and I also wish to stage of the parasite. Several All male except the leader, graphs were hand-written in pass on my congratulations eutherian mammals can har­ A solitaryfemale chatelaine. mirrorscript.] The reason I (and thanks) for the persis­ bour these cyst forms with­ say this is that now, accord­ tent high-quality production out exhibiting any illness. Voyeurs are active ing to Smetacek, I should be of high-interest articles over Examples include intro­ on Kangaroo Island, writing with my left hand, as the past several years. duced rodents and sheep. We hope their observations the above paragraph was -Phil Plummer The impact of toxoplasmo­ aren't in vain. written with my right hand. Seychelles sis in wild populations of It should be fascinating, However, I am continuing to marsupials is only beginning To watch echidnas mating, write with my right hand. Infectious Cats to be investigated. In So hurryfolks or else The scrawly nature of this I wish to comment on the Tasmania, the mild climate you'll miss the train. reverse writing compared to diseases transmitted by cats favours the survival of the -Len Grtffl my usual forward writing to our native wildlife (as parasite and Bennett's V1udust, NSW above is primarily a conse­ briefly discussed in ANH Wallaby, the Tasmanian quence of a lack of practice. Winter 1993). Quite apart Pademelon, Common Wom­ Some years ago, however, I from the efficient predatory ba t and Eastern Barred ANH welcomes letters for used to write the occasional activities of cats, their dis­ Bandicoot have all suc­ publication and requests that they be llmlted to 250 letter or postcard in reverse. ease toxoplasmosis has a cumbed to fatal infections in words and typed If 1)05Slble. This practice ceased when, significant impact on the wild. In addition many Please supply a daytime for some inexplicable rea­ wildlife. This protozoan para­ species of marsupial now telephone number and type son, responses to my letters site has an infectious stage classified as endangered or or print your name and failed to arrive! that is passed in the cat's fae­ threatened have died of tox­ address clearly on the Anyway, be that as it may, ces, contaminating soil and oplasm o sis in captivity, letter. The best letter In I wonder just where a per­ herbage. Grazing marsupials including the Parma Wal­ each Issue will receive a son who writes both for­ (kangaroos, wallabies and laby, Kowari, Yellow-footed $20.00 gift voucher from wards and backwards with wombats) can become theMuseum Shopcatalogue. Rock-wallaby, Numbat and The winner this Issue Is the same hand (and who is infected by inadvertently Bilby. Toxoplasmosis has TimothyMIiiar. incapable of creating a ingesting these oocyst also been partly responsible recognisable scrawl with the stages while feeding. for the decline of the last 8 ANH

sealed from any outside water (and thus bacteria) by QUOTES & CURIOS an impermeable layer of heavy inorganic clay. These facts suggest that the bac­ (/1 teria are not the result of any contamination. They are the original gut flora (or their c. descendants) used to break down the food in the - mastodon's intestinal tract. Live Gut Flora rich environment were ideal As such, they may well be :::J from Extinct for the mastodon's preserva­ the oldest living organisms Mastodon tion. In fact, part of it was ever discovered. still alive when it was dug -C.B. 0 up. olfers at Burning Tree A cylindrical mass, Moulting COMPILED G Golf Club in Ohio have thought to be preserved gut an unusual obstacle to con­ contents, was isolated from and Fasting BY tend with. It's not a bunker the remains. Gerald in the Cold or a pond, but the resting Goldstein, a microbiologist GEORGINA place of a large mastodon from Ohio Wesleyan ,-tie two largest species of (Mammut americanum)-an University, wanted to see I penguins. the Emperor HICKEY extinct elephant-like mam­ what would happen when he Penguin (Aptenodytes mal. inoculated flasks of sterile forsterz) of the Antarctic and The mastodon skeleton broth with samples of the King Penguin (A. patagoni­ was discovered by a con­ material. Nobody else had cus) of the sub-Antarctic, live struction worker as he exca­ tried to culture bacteria from in harsh cold surroundings. vated a small pond on the the remains of extinct ani­ They are subjected to unusu­ golf course. For almost mals before. al environmental stresses 12,000 years the animal had Goldstein found, to his and cope with these in lain there, refrigerated in a amazement, that bacteria unusual ways. One aspect of cold peat bog. from the material grew in these processes was studied The mastodon was killed the broth. They were identi­ by French C RS res­ by human hunters who fied as Enterobacter cloacae, earchers R. Groscolas and Y. stashed the carcass in the a species found in the intes­ Cherel. who looked at how bog for later. Slowly it sank tinal tract of present-day these penguins survived into the mud until the mammals. periods of enforced fasting hunters could no longer Tests on the surrounding during the non-breeding sea­ retrieve it. The bog's cold, peat samples proved nega­ son. constant temperature, its tive to E. cloacae; and the Each year during summer lack of oxygen, and protein- bog had been effectively these penguins go through a moult in which all their feathers are simultaneously renewed. This moult period is particularly demanding on the penguins. Without the insulative and waterproofing properties of their feathers, they cannot enter the water to catch fishand so must fast for a period of two to five weeks. Although fasting also occurs for a longer period (up to four months) during the breeding season, when penguins must stay ashore to incubate the eggs, the energetic demands are nowhere near as great. During moult, additional energy demands come from the synthesis of new feath­ ers and the greater produc­ tion of heat to compensate for the reduction of thermal insulation.

Reconstruction of an extinct mastodon, Mammut americanum, whose well-preserved remains were discovered after being refrigerated in a cold peat bog for nearly 12,000 years. 10 ANH In the absence of food, the energy supply comes from the penguins' fat and body protein. During breeding, when moulting does not occur, a male Emperor Penguin loses about 16 per cent of his body protein. In contrast, a moulting Emperor Penguin loses about 50 per cent of its body protein in one month and can survive a 60-70 per cent loss. This is a remarkable feat: in most birds and mam­ mals a 30-50 per cent loss of body protein is considered lethal. It is little surprise that pen­ guins starting moult with a low body mass often do not survive the period. It is prob­ ably also not surprising that moult occurs at a separate time of the year from repro­ duction. This temporal sepa­ ration, the researchers sug­ gest, occurs because the two energy-demanding process­ es are under the control of different hormonal sys­ tems-reproductive hor­ mones for breeding and thy­ roid hormones for moult­ ing-that operate on near mutually exclusive time schedules. -Walter E. Boles Australian Museum

Bacteria Blamed for Ulcers

or decades, popular Ftherapy for peptic ulcers has meant out with ciga­ rettes, coffee, alcohol and the key to the executive bathroom, and in with baby food. antacids and the pur­ suit of a stres -free life. Yet, as many sufferers will attest, the sacrifices don't really ful in treating the painful study that reported up to 95 Moulting in King Penguins is an work long term. The reason, gastric complaints. They per cent of ulcers subjected energy-demanding process made according to a growing body tested the treatment in Perth to conventional treatment all the more difficult because of research, is that ulcers are in 1985 and published the recurred within two years. they can't enter the cold water not caused by stomach-acid results in 1988. While many researchers to feed. secretions but by bacteria. However, change in the are convinced that H. pyloric In 1982, while based at medical world comes slowly. causes ulcers, it may be Western Australia's Royal Only recently have other some time before antibiotics Perth Hospital, Barry studies been published to become a routine part of Marshall, a medical doctor, confirm Marshall and ulcer treatment. The mes­ and pathologist Robin Warren's work. that is that sage appears to be only Warren discovered and man­ antibiotics are more eUective trickling down from aged to culture a new bac­ in treating ulcers than researchers to clinical practi­ terium from the stomach antacids. One Austrian study tioners. And, even when it wall of ulcer patients. found that duodenal ulcers does get through, there are amed Helicobacter pylori, treated with antibiotics still many sceptics-50 years the researchers proposed it recurred in only eight per of medical dogma, it seems. caused peptic ulcers and cent of patients. This is in are difficult to shake! that antibiotics could be use- marked contrast to a US -K.McG. 11 ANH along many shorelines around the world. These great waves have nothing to do with the tides; rather, they are generated by severe earthquakes, landslips or volcanic explosions, like that of Krakatoa which, in 1883, generated tsunami 25 metres high, killing over 30,000 people. The word tsunami is Japanese for 'har­ bour wave', so called because their effects are most noticeable in shallow waters, such as harbours and bays, within which they often oscillate back and forth. Although the south­ eastern coast of Australia seems relatively secure from tsunami, research at the University of Wollongong indicates it to have been repeatedly struck by them in the past. Fellow geographer Ted Bryant and I first recognised traces of tsunami impact at Tura Head on the far south coast of New South Wales. Seed Pods Individual paloverde trees have There undoubted evidence Take the a characteristic DNA profile that of severe wave action lies has been used to link a murder well above the erosional lim­ Witness Stand suspect to the scene of the crime. its of even major storm n May 1992, the trees at from someone else. waves. On the north side of an abandoned Arizona fac­ Unfortunately, no such bank this headland, 15 metres toryI were silent witnesses to of DNA profiles exists for above sea-level, the top of a a woman's murder. The paloverde trees. sandstone ramp has been main suspect says he wasn't Helentjaris found wide carved by wave action into there. But, if two paloverde genetic variation among the parallel ribs up to a metre seed pods found in the back trees he tested. He could deep. Further down the of his truck could talk, they easily identify individual ramp, large angular blocks may well have another story. trees and, in one test, picked of sandstone, some weigh­ Paloverdes are thorny, the correct tree from 11 oth­ ing an estimated 20 tonnes, often leafless, desert trees of ers at the factory. Based on were quarried or plucked the pea family that can pho­ this, DNA profiles from the out by waves and swept tosynthesise through their pods were admitted as evi­ right offthe ramp. There is branches. One of the trees dence-the first time plant little doubt that Tura Head growing near the factory DNA has been used in court. was struck by a catastrophic driveway-a Blue Paloverde Matching the pods in the train of waves up to 20 (Cercidium floridum)-had truck with a tree at the mur­ metres high, and we have recently been scraped. If the der scene doesn't convict recently argued that these seed pods in the truck came the suspect, but it does sug­ were part of an enormous from that tree and had fallen gest his truck was there. (about 325 metres high) in as the suspect drove into However, because Helent­ tsunami that started from a the factory site, DNA from jaris could only test a rela­ submarine landslide at the the pods and the scraped tively small sample of trees, Hawaiian Island of Lanai tree should match. it's possible that there are about 105,000 years ago. To make the pods 'talk', trees elsewhere with the Such a great train of waves plant geneticist Tim same genetic profile as the would have had a severe Helentjaris of the University scraped tree. Without more long-distance impact along of Arizona had to match data, the suggestion remains much of the Australian their DNA to the tree, just as just that. coast. We have found similar human D A fingerprinting evidence of catastrophic ero­ is used to link blood or -(.B. sion on rock platforms and semen to a particular human ramps as far north as suspect. But when human Not the Last Wollongong. D A profiles are used as evi­ Wave? Although the Tura event is dence. a probability is given, the largest for which we based on thousands of sam­ sunami, or tidal waves have evidence, there appears ples, that the blood or Tas they are often incor­ to be evidence for at least semen could have come rectly called, are feared four more tsunami reaching

12 ANH "The Great Wave at Kanagawa." Painting of Japanese tsunami by Katfuskika Hokusai, held in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. the south coast of New South Wales between 10,000 and 200 years ago. One inun­ dated Batemans Bay about 3,000 years ago and would probably have drowned much of the present town site. The key to this argu­ ment is a deposit of sand, containing a curious mix of shells from sandy beaches, rock platforms, tidal mud­ flats and from even the inner continental shelf, that was swept into an extremely sheltered site near the tidal limit of Cullendulla Creek on the northern side of the bay. Even the most severe storm Cross-dressing girls have all been found to Hyenas led to the erroneous wave known would not have in Hyenas? have an abnormally high belief that they were her­ reached this point. level of androgens (male maphrodites (that is, had Some people have been ccasionally girls are hormones that are normally both male and female sex quick to write this claim off born with male-like present in only small parts). But this is not so. as just more Doomsday genOitals: their clitoris is amounts in females). In The sexes are separate and stuff. However, the evidence enlarged into the shape of a humans this occurs very reproduction carries on as is there and, if our interpre­ penis (pseudopenis) and rarely-as a result of certain per usual for placental mam­ ta tio n is correct, it could their labia majora have disease or drugs taken by mals, albeit with more diffi­ have severe implications for grown, folded down and the mother while pregnant­ culty. In a very awkward the planning of future joined into a false scrotum. but in Spotted Hyenas mating procedure to which coastal development. They have no testes but do (Crocuta crocuta) it is the the female must obviously -Bob Young have ovaries and develop norm. consent, the male inserts his University of Wollongong breasts at puberty. These The condition in Spotted penis into the female's

AUSTRALIA'S NORTHERN TERRITORY ·'PER ENC_ IF� WAS IN

Os�QO As part of your holiday experience in the Territory, you and your family can learn firsthand about painting, hunting and gathering, corroborees, tools and weapons, Dreamtime stories and so gain a rare insight into the rhythms of life 60,000 years ago. Please fill in the coupon below for a copy of our illustrated brochure or for bookings phone 13 16 88 for your nearest Northern Territory Travel Station. r------Please send me a copy of the brochure ..Come Share our Culture". 7 I I I Name ______I I I I Address ______Postcode ___ I Lodge, budget I Phone(H)( _ ) _____ (W)( _____ I accommodationand I Return to: The Northern Territory Tourist Commission GPO Box 1155, I I camping available. I I Darwin NT 0801. Bookingsand brochure: I I I Pb: (070) 971411 I I I I Fax: (070) 971450 I I ·You1I never never know, 1f you never never go· LavaLod&e, L ______-� I P.O. Box 6268, M11nu1, Nriervit. & CwVWTT3039 Cairns, Qld.4870. I AUSTRALIA'S NORTHERN TERRITORY I ------pseudopenis. The cubs are fighting-literally-to the develop male-like genitals. Male or female? It's difficult to also born through the extent that they routinely Although the female tell. The genitals of female pseudopenis, the opening of opt for same-sex siblicide Spotted Hyena's pseudope­ Spotted Hyenas mimic those which is so narrow that the (where one of the cubs nis and false scrotal sac may of males. first-born cub often dies in attacks and kills the other if be used in their meeting cer­ the process. it's the same sex; also the emony, it does not mean gossip. Well, the latest gos­ Evolutionary biologists only known case of siblicide those structures evolved for sip is that getting the gossip have struggled to provide an in mammals). By the time that purpose. They may sim­ may be good for us. explanation as to why the the cubs are 7-12 months ply have arisen as an auto­ Robin Dunbar, a biological female genitals of Spotted old they assume the social ma tic consequence of anthropologist at University Hyenas should mimic those rank of their mother, and increasing the level of andro­ College London, has a theo­ of males. given the obvious may gang up with other genic hormones in females ry that gossip is good for us restrictions of such a sys­ cubs to attack adults of (necessary for a female-dom­ because it binds us into tem. One suggestion has lower rank. However, when i n a ted society), and may social groups. Social groups been so that hyenas can the males reach sexual since have been put to good of humans are much larger recognise each other in the maturity (at about two years use. As we learnt from Mike than groups of other pri­ ritualised 'meeting ceremo­ of age) they leave their Archer's essay on "Palae­ mates because humans can ny' in which individuals sniff home clan to join another. ontological Poltergeists" keep in touch with more and lick each others' geni­ Here they assume the lowest (ANH Autumn 1992) and the individuals. Other primates tals (male-like genitals pro­ rank until another male joins QQC item on why kiwis' literally 'keep in touch' by vide a more conspicuous the clan. In this way female eggs are so large (ANH grooming members of their structure for recognition). dominance in the home clan Autumn 1993). use of a group. But grooming takes But recent studies on is maintained. structure need not imply it up a lot of time because only Spotted Hyenas both in cap­ This complex social organ­ was built for the purpose it one individual can be tivity and in the wild indicate isation of Spotted Hyenas. now serves. -G.H. groomed at a time. A human this line of reasoning may which is presumably neces­ conversation, on the other not be strictly correct. sary to maintain cohesion Getting the hand, can involve several Spotted Hyenas live in and survival of the clan, is individuals, and it doesn't clans that vigorously defend driven by their aggression. Gossip stop us doing other things­ territories and engage in exhibited from the moment we talk and drive, talk and communal hunting. They they squeeze their way out " rooke Shields Tells: My cook, talk and sort papers. have an extremely complex of the birth canal. And stud­ BLove for Michael Language allows humans social structure, with the ies so far seem to indicate Jackson" and "Fergie AJDS to keep track of many rela­ females being larger and that this aggression results Terror!". Magazines with tionships. More than a way dominant over males. Their from the high levels of shout lines like these sell in of exchanging information cubs are born with fully maternal androgens. which their millions because peo­ about ourselves. language erupted teeth and come out also cause female foetuses to ple love to hear the latest allows us to learn about

14 ANH ECOTOURING AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM WITH THE ELDERS CREATRUSSIAH World heritage rainforests, birds of paradise of i i'.: northmost Australia, tropicalva lleys of the Himalayan �.:..._G� � snowpeaks,the original Jurassic Park in the Mongolian � : Gobi desert, escorted by local elders chosen for their EDIHOSAUHS . . . . ' ...� - \.·Q depdrn/ rn,d,uMa\ ,ruj�,�,Jdnow\olg,. Experiemnce the inner. meaning of land and sea­ country, reefs and rainforests at the tip of Australia, guided by Aboriginal story tellers and staff biologist. April 30 to July 31 Be guided across the steppes by Mongoli an professors of conservation, to hidden ancient lakes. The biggest exhibition of dinosaur and other Stylish introductions to offbeat corners of the prehistoric reptiles ever to visit Australia planet, hosted by local experts in reading the Featuring: land. Special destinations, privileged intro­ • 24 complete dinosaur skeletons ductions, small, exclusive groups, take you in of 01iginal mate1ial. comfort to the heart of other worlds. Not a trek, • More than 50 dinosaur skulls but a new standard of wilderness experience • Real dinosaur nests, egg for the sophisticated traveller. and hatchlings

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PHONE OR WRITE FOR YOUR COPY TODAY 22 Cavenagh Street Darwin (PO Box 2541 Darwin NT 0801) other people. Gossip about someone teaches us how to relate to them. It lets us teach others about people they are yet to meet. Gossip organises relationships. Gossip dominates conver­ sations. Dunbar found that 70 per cent of the conversa­ tions he monitored in a uni­ versity refectory were about relationships and personal experiences. Interestingly he found that women tend to talk about other people, while men talk more about themselves. Evidence suggests that humans form 'natural groui:r ings' of about 150 individu­ als, and that it is only possi­ ble to keep track of this many people by getting the gossip. Arnhem Land. At least two implement, with the cooper­ Relocating 'problem' Saltwater -{.B. people have been killed by ation of traditional local Crocodiles may Just be a the reptiles in the small min­ Aboriginal landowners, a waste of time. ing township since 1979 and crocodile relocation pro­ Homing Croes large, potentially dangerous gram. (The Aborigines Walsh and Peter Whitehead adult crocodiles are common would not allow them to be from the Conservation altwater Crocodiles at waterways used by sent to crocodile farms as is Commission of the Northern (Crocodylus porosus) are humans in the area. the practice elsewhere in the Territory (CC T), however, aS hazard for the residents of The response by Govern­ Northern Territory.) A reveals this may not be the hulunbuy, in north-eastern ment officials has been to recent assessment by Bryan answer.

Red-billed Oxpeckers (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) prefer backs to branches. A Giraffe in Kruger National Park is this particular bird's host. particular spot on its body, perhaps where there was an annoying tick. Oxpeckers have a hypnotic effect on their hosts. Frequently when an oxpecker Is looking for parasites, the mammal it is on stops graz­ ing, stands still and appears mesmerised, sometimes even sinking on all fours to the ground. This, according to Breitwisch, makes the oxpecker's job less danger­ ous-just as predatory coral TALKING AMONG THE ANIMALS reef fish obligingly open their mouths for 'cleaner fish' to Communication between tating pests. In their search for encouragement. For example, clean inside. An immobile, oxpeckers and the mammals food, oxpeckers scurry over when an oxpecker hopped down relaxed animal is simply eas­ they peck their food from has every part of the animal. When a Zebra's back, the Zebra would ier and safer to clean than a recently caught naturalists' not feeding, they ride on the liftits tall as if to invite the bird moving, nervousanimal. attentions. Oxpeckers are ner­ animals' backs and heads, pre­ to inspect Its anal region. The ability to 'communi­ vous, 'flighty' birds common in ferring these to branches. Sometimes a Zebra would cate' between species has the savanna of sub-Saharan While observing oxpeckers in repeatedly shake off an oxpeck­ obvious benefits. Breitwisch Africa. They eat the blood-suck­ the Masai Mara Nature Reserve er-on ly to have It land on a has even suggested that the ing flies, maggots and ticks on in Kenya, Randall Breitwisch different spot. But rather than 'flightiness' of oxpeckers mammals such as Zebras, (University of Dayton) noticed discouragement, Breitwisch warns their mammalian lmpalas and Giraffes and, in so that most of the host mammals believes the Zebra may have hosts of impending danger. doing, rid their hosts of debili- appeared to communicate been directing the oxpecker to a -<:.B.

16 ANH Between mid 1986 and mid A Bird with an 1991, CCNT officers caught Ear for Fruit 52 'problem' Saltwater The Mountain Designs Crocodiles in the Nhulunbuy area. Small harmless notch­ The Eastern Whipbird es were cut in their tails to I (Psophodes olivaceus) ap­ make them readily recognis­ pears to be a discriminating Transient able as individuals, and 48 diner. One late spring morn­ were released at remote ing in a northern Queenland sites suitable for crocodiles rainforest, ornithologist but uninhabited by humans. Clifford Frith noticed an Release sites ranged adult whipbird feeding on between 17 and 282 kilomet­ fallen ripe fruit of Fagraea res from the township. Yet fagraeacea. The bird would 23 of the crocodiles, includ­ pick up the fruit in its bill ing those released at the then place it beneath its left most distant sites, returned foot and, while holding it to and were recaptured. Some the ground, cock its head individuals were caught at or before apparently making a near Nhulunbuy and relocat­ decision to either eat or ed up to eight times. leave it. The bird hopped Relocating the crocodiles from fruit to fruit repeating in river systems separate to the same ritual. those in which they were Frith initially thought the caught did not appear to bird had been turning its deter the animals' homing head to look at the fruit. But instincts. Most of the croco­ he changed his mind when diles that returned would he later discovered that ripe have had to pass several fruit often contained insect rivers and travel along larvae that produced a clear stretches of coastline with ticking sound. suitable crocodile habitat to Frith now believes that, GDRE·TEXOuter.iiear. complete their journeys. when the bird cocked its GuaranteedTo KeepYou Dry• Their determination to head, it was listening for the The Mountain Designs Transient is fully lined, return to Nhulunbuy may sound of the larvae, tearing have been influenced by the open those fruit that ticked the hood zips away into its recovery of crocodile popula­ to feed on the grubs within, high weatherproof collar. The outer fabric is tough tions since the animals and discarding the silent Taslite Gore-Tex - Waterproof, windproof and became protected under leg­ fruits that presumably con­ breathable. There are two waterproof internalpockets islation. Suitable crocodile tained no prey. It is also pos­ for note pads or passports and four externalcargo habitats in remote eastern sible, according to Frith, that Arnhem Land may be near­ when the bird held the fruit pockets with hand warmers as well. ing carrying capacity. beneath its foot, it may have Saltwater Crocodiles are been able to feel the larval Combine these features with the generous cut extremely territorial and vibrations. and you have those in residence at reloca­ -K.McG. the most comfortable, tion sites would be unlikely all weather jacket ou'll ever wear. to welcome interlopers if The Eastern Whipbird is a y there was no room for them. discriminating diner that likes to 1 -K.McG. listen to its food before eating it. Gear for placesyou d ratherbe ...

Heritage born of the mountains

Cottesloe Mon-,eU Hawthorn 31 Jarracl SL 20 Tarwin SL 654 Glcnferric Rei. (09)385 1689 (051) 343 411 (03) 818 1544 Adelaide 12 l Grenfell SL. Sydney Brisbane (08) 232 0690 499 Kent St. 105 Albert SL. (02) 267 3822 Canberra (07) 221 6756 71..onrlileSt. Braddc,1 (06) 247 74 88 Melbourne Katoomba Perth 377 Little BourkeSt. 190 Katoomba St. 862 Hay St. (03) 670 3354 (04 7) 82 5999 (09) 322 4774

ANH 17 Reptilia 13: 405-407.

Lepper, B.T., Frolking, T.A., Fisher, D.C., Goldstein, G., Sanger, J.E., Wymer, D.A., Ogden, J.G. Ill & Hooge, P.E., 1991. Intestinal con­ tents of a late Pleistocene mastodon from midcontinental North America. Quat. Res. 36: 120-125.

Lowenstein, J.M., 1991. Why are these hyenas laughing? Pacific DiscoverySummer 1991: 50-52.

Stevens, J.E., 1993. Hyenas' fatal fighting is nothing to laugh about. BioScience 43: 202-205.

Walsh, B. & Whitehead, P.J., 1993. Problem crocodiles, Crocodylus porosus, at Nhulunbuy, Northern Territory: an assessment of relocation as a management strategy. Wild/. Res. 20: 127-135.

Yoon, C.K., 1993. Botanical wit­ ness for the prosecution. Science 260: 894-895.

Young, R.W. & Bryant, E.A., 1992. Catastrophic wave erosion on the southeastern coast of Australia: impact of the Lanai tsunamis ea. Frogs Fake it When grasped lightly about the Further Reading 105ka? Geology 20: 199-202. for Freedom waist, this West African tree frog feigns death by opening its Alper, J., 1993. Ulcers as an infec­ QUICK QUIZ mouth, sticking out its tongue, tious disease. 260: f there were Academy Science and going limp. 159-160. I Awards for amphibians, 1. What type of bird laid the the West African tree frog giant fossilised egg found in when grasped around the Breitwisch, R., 1992. Tickling for Leptopelis macrotis would stomach. They would ar ch late 1992 by school children ticks. Nat. Hist. 3/92: 56-63. near Cervantes, Western surely top the list of nomi­ their back, open their mouth nees. This tropical rainforest Australia? wide and stick out their Bryant, E.A., Young, R.W. & Price, species has extraordinary tongue. When the hold was D.M., 1992. Evidence of tsunami 2. What is the name of the 'acting' abilities, as maintained, the frogs would sedimentation on the southeastem world's largest sandisland? researchers discovered dur­ eventually go limp with their coast of Australia. 100: ing an expedition in north­ J. Geol. mouth open and tongue 753-765. 3. In which year was Charles ern Liberia. lolling out as if dead. When Darwin's book On the origin Zoologists Christopher the collectors loosened their Dunbar, R., 1992. Why gossip is of species published? Kofron and Gregory grips, the frogs made what good for you. New Sci. 21 Nov. Schmitt, from Louisiana 4. What type of animal was seemed like miraculous '92: 28-31. State University, have recoveries and attempted to 'Alex', whose ability to talk reported that at least seven made headline news in the jump free. Tightening the Frith, C.B., 1992. Eastern adult West African tree frogs 1980s? grips again elicited more Whipbird Psophodes olivaceus feigned death, complete with fakedeath throes. (Orthonychidae) listens to fruits for melodramatic death throes, 5. What does ACF stand for? 'Passive' death feigning insect prey. Sunbird22: 32-33. (when the animal simply 6. Who is the new President for plays dead) is thought to be Carrie Bengston (a sci­ Gould, S.J., 1984. Hyena myths the Australian Museum a last-ditch attempt by prey and realities. Pp. 147-157 in Trust, appointed In ence communicator for to escape the hold of a Hen's teeth and horse's toes. W.W. December 1993? predator, and it has been Norton: New York. the CSIRO) and Karen reported in a wide variety of 7. What type of whale was animals, including other Groscolas, R. & Cherel, Y., 1992. Moby Dick? McGhee (a freelance sci­ frogs, lizards, snakes (see How to moult while fasting in the 8. For which island did the High ANH Autumn 199 1) and cold: the metabolic and hormonal ence writer living in mammals. However, the Court hand down its historic adaptations of Emperor and King Mabo decision? Newcastle, NSW) are report by Kofron and Penguins. Ornis Scandinavica 23: Schmitt is the firstof 'active' 328-334. 9. Name the largest living death feigning, that is com­ regular contributors to organism. plete with death throes, for a QQC. Kofron, C.P. & Schmitt, C.G., frog species. 1992. Death-feigning in a West 10. What is a polyclad? -K.McG. African tree frog. Amphibia-

18 ANH Management of Endangered Plants Simon Cropper, Dept of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria. Books A how-to-do book identifying and describing management skills and procedures necessary to increase the chances of species survival. Bridges the "gap" for rangers, planners, from scientific officers and botanists. 1993, 198pp, colour, paperback, ISBN O 643 05533 9 $49.95 CSIRO

Insects: A World of Diversity A multimedia CD-ROM for young people from10 onwards containing six mini-documentaries and quizzes featuring photographs, sound and text. Take an incredible voyage of discovery through the scanning electron microscope and the interactive garden activity game. Learn how to catch, preserve and display insects. CSI RO CD-ROM forMacintosh (due April 1994) ISBN O 643 05579 7 and 4llAUSTI\AllAllllt Windows (due July 1994) ISBN O 643 05597 5, colour, both $99

1 M.Ol'ICl\l HI\IN IOHl\1 IHII\

/

Australian Tropical Rain Fijian Medicinal Plants The Families of Flowering Plants The Austrosaginae, Forest Trees: An interactive RC Cambie and J Ash, L Watson and MJ Dallwitz Zaproehilinae and identification system. University of Auckland. Australian National University and Phasmodinae, Vol 2 in the CS/RO Division of Entomology BPM Hyland and T Whiffin, A comprehensive, up-to-date series Tettigoniidae of CS/RO Division of Plant Industry compilation covering the origin This CD-ROM package applies Australia. INTKEY(an interactive program and La Trobe Uniuersity. and dispersal of plants; DCF Rentz for idcntifiying biological A computer-based interactive literature in the field; medicinal CSIRO Division of Entomology specimens) to 560 descriptions of key for MS DOS and Macintosh. use of plants; Fijian diseases the Angiosperm families. The pro­ This volume covers three sub­ Allows trees to be identified and medicinal chemicals from gram is designed to detect taxonomic families, all three endemic to using features from the stem, plants. 450 plant species are pall.emsin botanical data, and t.o Australia. There are sections leaves, flowers, fruits, seedlings, described. selecL taxonomically balanced dealing with the zoogeography, family or geographic distribu­ April 1994, 420pp, colour, hard­ samples for experimental work. biology, habitat preferences, tion. cover, ISBN O 643 05404 9 $95 1994, CD-ROM for MS DOS, 565 preservation of specimens and 1993, 3 volumes plus software line drawings, colour and b&w collecting. ISBN O 643 05403 0 $195 photographs, colour manual, 1993, 400pp, illust, hardcover, ISBN O 643 05507 X $180 ISBN O 643 05424 3 $80

, a n 5 C e'l ce. Au stro 1 a s t- u t u r e

0 Please send me your catalogue. I enclose a cheque/money order. add 10% for postage. payable to CSIRO Bookshop for : Title No.of copies ISBN Price Total

Name...... Tille/Position ...... Institution...... Address...... Postcode ...... Fax...... Telephone...... Charge my 0 Bankcard 0 Mastercard O Visa with the sum of$...... Card No. ______Signature ...... Send your order to: CSIRO Bookshop, PO Box 89, East Melbourne, Vic 3002, Australia Tel: (03) 418 7217 Fax: (03) 419 0459 lnt +(613) 418 7217 lnt +(613) 419 0459 ANH24/9 I THE BACKYARD NATURALIST plying some of the overseas demand when it was discovered that the aquatic leech that infested its shallow lagoons Although we dismiss leeches and billabongs was perfectly behaved as symbols of quackery, when it came to doing whatever Parisians did with their leeches. they really did work. One Australian naturalist to observe professional leech-collecting along the Murray was Charles Barrett. 'The flat­ boards were flopped on the surface of SUCKING UP the water, while the natives stirred up the mud with bare feet. Leeches rudely disturbed, rose in a hurry and fastened TO THE HUMBLE upon the undersurface of the boards, which were then turned over. Quickly the little creatures were scraped offinto LEECH old stockings ringed at the top with wire. Nearly 1,000 leeches formed the BY STEVEVAN DYCK catch that morning." Like common garden earthworms, to Some leech-gatherers preferred to which they are closely related, leeches coat their boards with lard, while have partitioned segments (34) spaced others wrapped them in the skin of a along their muscular macaroni-like freshly killed sheep. Others wore thick bodies. But while both leeches and trousers tied at the ankles, or simply earthworms have a mouth at one end preferred to stand in the water and pick and an anus at the other, only leeches leeches off their bare bodies before boast a sucker on both ends. Working being bitten. (In some jawless aquatic these like alternating rubber drain leeches, a probing, sucking proboscis pumps, leeches are able to quickly inch up to a third of the leech's length is their way along when searching for jabbed into the host's flesh. Bites from prey. Depending on the type of leech, a these leeches can be positively painful.) potential meal may be bitten-and­ Regardless of the method of collection, sucked Gawed leeches), overpowered­ the live captives were then packed in HEN ALL MY OLD an d-swa I lowed (worm leeches) or moist clay and grass, and sent to school mates were speared-and-sucked Gawless leeches). Melbourne for local sale and export. impressing the girls with really high­ Land-living leeches, like the ones that Barrett noted that Victorian hospitals class sports injuries like broken legs tumble out of our socks after a walk needed 50,000-100,000 medicinal and knocked-out teeth, the best I could through rainforest, are found only in leeches every year, and that the leech­ come up with was a dose of ringworm South-East Asia and Australia. Set gatherers were paid 25 shillings per that cost me all my hair and married inside the front sucker of such leeches thousand. me to a woollen beanie for most of the are two or three jaws sporting sharp The praises heaped on the Murray football season. All I ever wanted was a microscopic teeth that tap the blood suckers were glowing. They bit into black eye or at least an excuse to wear when a suitable host is found. In the flesh quickly and sucked voraciously, a patch like the macho man on my medicinal aquatic leeches beloved by and the scar they left was considered dad's Pelaco shirt box. the Parisians, the mouth sports three not as unsightly as that resulting from In the fullness of time, an obliging jaws. In 1825 Parisians imported three goose with a nest of eggs and a lashing million into their fair city and, in that Leeches, like this species from northern bullseye peck provided the long-await­ same year, an estimated 20-30 million Queensland, are more commonly ed shiner. But the fantasy and the real­ were imported into France alone. In encountered around rainforest creeks than ity surrounding the black eye had time, Australia's Murray River was sup- among backyard foliage. nothing in common, and I was only too happy to cover it with a raw steak to try and reduce the swelling. Thirty years earlier I might have been reaching for leeches. Four of them, dis­ pensed by the local pharmacist or bar­ ber for between sixpence and a shilling each, would have been enough to deflate the puffed-upeye. Although we wince at the thought of it now, and dismiss leeches as symbols of quackeryi from1 ani age of misinfor- 1 ::1\ ��;h1;pi:h:� �u� fo d���iv���o� � ly on the tip of the tongue to cure the � body of headaches, mental illness and � syphilis. But, given the task of reducing i swelling and bruising in delicate ffi tissues, and stimulating blood circula­ � tion fol1owing reconstructive surgery. � leeches still have a place in modern . medicine. It's just a pity they are so � revolting.

20 ANH This jawed leech from Queensland uses sharp nation as my mate produced a jar of microscopic teeth to tap the blood of a white powder and began tipping the suitable host. During feeding, the leech may stuff generously inside his long socks undergo a five-fold increase in body size and and boots. On asking the obvious, I was just one meal can keep it well fed for an told it was leech repellent one of the entire year. Museum staffhad given him to try out. It was also purported to be effective the bite of some leeches from India and against Licks and scrub itch, to have no China. Blood being thicker than water, effects on the ozone layer, to shake out this should make us Aussies swell with of clothing and to biodegrade in 24 patriotic pride. hours. Leeches mostly appear dull brown to If it worked I would gladly dust black in colour, but some are beautiful­ myself in it to escape the mess and ly pin-striped in green or gold. revulsion of blood and burst leeches Australian leeches, of which there that fell out of our boots every night. may be well over 100 species, are gen­ But as this was just a test run I declined erally between 20 and 85 millimetres his offer to fill my socks. but promised long (unengorged), but one veritable to watch the progress of the experi­ dill pickle from Lightning Ridge can be ment with interest. At the end of the up to 20 centimetres long on the slack. night, true to his word. there were no Leeches are not just pretty faces leeches and no bites ... but a familiar though. Their bodies are dotted with This Sydney leech is fully outfitted with receptors that lock onto odours, light, heat breakfast odour coming off his legs. receptors that can pick up odours, The powder had dissolved in the rain to light, heat, cold and vibration. Should and vibration-all in the name of a blood meal. form a thick white paste that clung to a jawed leech detect a potential meal, his socks and bogged in his boots like a it finds a suitable drilling site, rocks viscous pikelet batter. gently from side to side and slices a the-clock work from a fleet of medicinal Alas, the danger of packing look­ small hole with its sharp teeth. While leeches, then a gentle squeeze after the alikes. It was powdered milk! We sat at cutting, it floods the wound with an meal or dunking in salty water would the table and laughed until the tears anticoagulant to keep the blood flow­ cause the leech to regurgitate its din­ ran down onto our unwashed breakfast ing. It may also bathe the bite site with ner and the whole process could be plates and begged the question... what an anaesthetic to keep its host oblivious repeated ad nauseam. did we have on our muesli that morn­ to the five-fold increase in body weight At the other end of the leech-appreci­ ing?• the leech may have just made at its ation spectrum, it is said that common expense. laundry soap lathered and left to dry on Further Reading When the feast is finished, and the the skin will prevent leech attack. Barrett, C., 1942. On the wallaby. Robertson & leech, like a shining stuffed black olive, Eucalyptus oil is also claimed as a Mullens: Melbourne. has fallen off replete. it sets about repellent and, if these fail, a slinky pair extracting and excreting all the water of pantyhose worn outside the socks Sims, G., 1989. Leech mania. Aust. Geog. 14: from its bloody dinner. Then, bacteria and long pants should make the tempt­ 34-47. begin slowly breaking the blood extract ing bits difficult to get at. ------� down into digestible bits. Such a meal One evening, when preparing to go Steve Van Dyck is a curator in the � might well last the leech a whole year. out spotlighting mammals in a northern Vertebrate Department of the Queensland � If, however, you wanted more round- patch of rainforest, I watched with fasci- Museum, where he has workedsince 1975. �

ANH 21 A N G E R E D Boodie Island off the north-west coast due to an over-enthusiastic attempt by the management authority to rid the Bettongsare about the size of a island of rats. wild rabbit, are stocky in build It is likely that bettongs were elimi­ nated from mainland Australia by a and pugnacious in disposition. combination of factors: the alteration of the vegetation understorey by intro­ duced grazers such as sheep and rab­ bits; direct competition for food and BURROWING shelter from rabbits; predation from introduced species such as foxes and cats; and changes in land-use practices BEi IONG to either intensive agriculture in the tong. These were characterised by wetter parts of their range or to grass­ BY JEFF SHORT dozens of entrances dug under breaks lands in central Australia dominated by in surface rock with extensive high natural fire regimes rather than mounds of soil around. Burke and Wills regimes imposed by Aborigines. encountered them in southern New In recent years the CSIRO Division South Wales on their south-north of Wildlife and Ecology have conducted crossing of Australia in 1860 as did surveys of Bernier, Dorre, Barrow and Giles when crossing the great unex­ Boodie Islands to establish the size and N 1817 THE FRENCH SHIP URAN!£ plored deserts of central Australia in stability of populations of endangered anchored off Dirk Hartog Island the 1870s. These warren systems, now mammals. Surveys in 1988 and 1989 in Shark Bay as part of its exploration occupied by rabbits, are still recognis­ revealed a population of some 5,000 of the west coast of Australia. Its crew able today in many parts of outback bettongs distributed between three collected, among other things, a speci­ Australia. islands. Barrow Island (240 square kilo­ men of a small kangaroo unknown to The Burrowing Bettong now sur­ metres) contained the greatest number science. It was subsequently described vives only as three remnant populations with some 3,500 animals. Subsequent and named after Charles Le Sueur, the on offshore islands: Bernier and Dorre surveys have revealed that these popu­ artist and naturalist on a previous Islands in Shark Bay, and Barrow lations fluctuate strongly in size, build­ French expedition to the islands in Island off the north-west coast of ing up steadily over several years of 1802. It became known as Lesueur's Western Australia; and a recently rein­ average to above average rainfall and Rat-kangaroo (Bettongia lesueur). troduced population on the southern then crashing in drought. Today it is more commonly known as shores of Shark Bay in Western In 1992, 50 years after the last the Burrowing Bettong. Australia. It is absent on Dirk Hartog European record of the species on the This species is unique among the Island, probably due to a combination mainland, bettongs were returned from kangaroos in that it lives underground of predation from feral cats and the these last island refuges to the main­ in large communal warren systems or grazing and trampling (of burrows) by land with the transfer of animals from burrows. Bettongs are about the size of sheep. It was also recently lost from Dorre Island to Heirisson Prong, a a wild rabbit, are stocky in build and peninsula that juts into Shark Bay. The pugnacious in disposition. They are project is a cooperative venture strictly nocturnal, sheltering during the between the local community of day in burrows and foraging widely at BURROWING Useless Loop, a mining company night in search of seeds, fruits, flowers, BETTONG (Shark Bay Salt Joint Venture Pty Ltd), tubers, roots and succulent forbs and Bettongia lesueur the CSIRO, and the Agricultural grasses. They will often climb into low Protection Board of Western Australia. shrubs to feed. Oasslflcatlon This group is attempting to create a Bettongs are capable of producing Family Potoroidae (potoroos, fox- and cat-free area of some 1,200 three young per year in captivity. They bettongs, rat-kangaroos). hectares on Heirisson Prong. This is have a gestation period of 21 days and Distribution maintained by a fox-proof fence that give birth to a tiny, hairless and unde­ In WA, currently on only three runs across the peninsula, a 2(}.kilomet­ veloped young weighing less than half offshore islands (Bernier, Dorre re-wide buffer zone of reduced fox den­ a gram. Females mate again on the day and Barrow) and a reintroduced sity to the south of the fence main­ after the birth and the resulting fer­ mainland population at Shark Bay. tained by poisoning, and the geography tilised egg remains in arrested develop­ of the peninsula (long and narrow) ment in the uterus of the mother until Behaviour which limits recolonisation. Within five the pouch young is weaned. Pouch life Nocturnal; live in large communal months after reintroduction, numbers burrows; harems of females is about 115 days (approximately four defended by dominant males; feed on of bettongs in the fledgling colony had months). Dominant males establish a grasses and herbs, seeds, fruits, increased by over 50 per cent. harem of females, which they defend flowers, tubers, roots and fungi. This reintroduction may be the first vigorously against other males. of many. Reintroductions to the Gibson At the time of the French expedition Threats and Causesof Demise Desert in Western Australia and a sanc­ the Burrowing Bettong had one of the Predation by cats and foxes; tuary in South Australia are either widest distributions of any species of competition for food and shelter planned or under way. If such reintro­ kangaroo. Its range extended from the by rabbits; grazing and trampling ductions succeed, then perhaps tomor­ western slopes of the Great Divide in of burrows by sheep; change of land­ row the Burrowing Bettong will be as eastern Australia to the west coast, and use practices. familiar to every Australian as the alien from Broome in the tropical north to Status bunny is today. • z Albany and Adelaide on the southern Endangered; occupies less than coast. Many of the first explorers I per cent of Its former range. Jeff Short is a Senior Research Scientist encountered and commented upon the with the CS/RO Division of Wildlife and ,..; distinctive warren systems of the bet- Ecologybased in Perth.

22 ANH

WILD FOODS

Queensland school children long ago used Red Ash or 'Soap Tree' to scrub ink stains from their finge-rs. BUSH SOAP BYTIM LOW

idea of dulling the pain. Aborigines at Weipa call the tree the 'Shampoo Tree', and use the leaves for washing. They can even be used in place of dishwash­ ing liquid. Soap-making plants contain abundant fter cutting up kangaroo saponins, natural detergents that prob­ meat or performing ably serve some defensive role in the other messy tasks, Kakadu Aborigines plant. If the leaves, and in some cases sometimes pluck the green pods of the seeds, pods or bark, are finely crushed silver-leaved 'Strap Wattle' (Acacia in water, they increase the water's sur­ holosericea) and rub them with water to face tension, creating a cleansing effect make a cleansing lather, called andjana, · just like that of conventional soaps. or bush soap. At the end of a long day Soap plants featured prominently in they may also reach for a cold refresh­ Aboriginal medicine. In northern ing can of "andjana", for this is a name Queensland, Red Ash leaves were they also give to beer, because it too frothed into a bath for headache suffer­ froths up. ers, or the leaves lain on sore eyes for In eastern and northern Australia relief. A more effective treatment was there are various leaves and pods that probably the green wash made from can be crushed in water to produce Strap Wattle leaves or Earpod Wattle Coastal Saltbush berries have been crushed to soapy lather. The Foam-bark (Jagera (Acacia auriculiformes). Said to be make ink, and the leaves burnt to make soap pseudorhus), a small tree of eastern cleansing, deodorant and mildly anti­ or boiled as a vegetable. rainforests, is said to ooze froth from its septic, it was a popular treatment for trunk after rain. During World War I a sores in the Top End. A lather from the Conventional cakes of soap are made Foam-bark extract was added to beer ripening pods of these wattles, and also by combining fat or oil with an alkali, and cordials to make them froth; about from Acacia pellita (called 'Soap Bush' in a very simple chemical process. nine tonnes of bark were gathered for on Groote Eylandt), relieved the allergy Nowadays chemical alkalis are used, this purpose. rashes caused by itchy caterpillars. but until the mid 19th century, lye The most famous Australian lather­ Aborigines also used soap plants to made from the burnt ash of soda-rich maker is the Red Ash or 'Soap Tree' poison and catch fish (see ANH Spring plants was used. Tallow from beef or (Alphitonia excelsa), a common tree of 1991). The saponins released by the mutton supplied the fat. Colonial house­ open forests and rainforest margins in crushed leaves or bark hurled into holds often made their own soap. The eastern Australia. Queensland school pools asphyxiated the fish, which could Hobart Town Almanac of 1819 suggest­ children long ago used Red Ash to then be gathered, cooked and eaten. ed making liquid soap "perfectly fit to scrub ink stains from their fingers, and Strap Wattle, Earpod Wattle, Red Ash communicate sufficient whiteness to rubbed the leaves on their hands and Cocky Apple (Planchonia careya) linen" from the well-burnt ashes of before being given the 'cuts', with the were used in this way. Black Wattle (Acacia mearnsii) or she­ oaks mixed with "greengum", lime, water and "any rancid grease or fat". Home hints author Mina Rawson, writing in 1894, gave four soap recipes, concluding that "in the bush every one should make their own soap". By that time chemical alkalis had replaced plant lye, and the main problem was obtaining the fat. Rawson recommend­ ed using an old kerosene tin as a fat tin, and filling it with kitchen fat scraps. Rawson even made soap from Dugong oil. But even in earlier times most soap was made in factories. Native plants Crushed Foam-bark leaves moistened with water produce a lather equal to that of most soaps.

24 ANH The Earpod Wattle has leaves and pods that Top End Aborigines crushed as 'bush soap'. were burnt to make the lye, and tallow was supplied by the booming sheep industry. Energetic local soap-makers supplied all the eastern Australian colonies, even exporting soap to England, New Zealand, California and South America. The best plants for soap are the soda­ rich plants of seashores. European soap-makers used kelps and the fleshy­ leaved Barilla plant (Salsola soda), which in Spain was even cultivated on the southern salt marshes. Australian soap-makers burned a variety of salt­ marsh plants for soap (and a few inland species), and some of these also came to be called barilla. On mainland Australia it was found that burnt wood of the Grey Mangrove (Avicennia marina) produced superior soap, and this formed the mainstay of the local industry. Grey Mangrove is the common mangrove with opposite leaves and spike-like aerial roots (pneu­ matophores) sprouting in mud around the tree. In the first half of the 19th century, soap factories using Grey Mangrove sprang up in Sydney, Port Phillip Bay and at Moreton Bay, where hapless convicts were forced to fell the trees. Barilla cutters waded barefoot into mosquito-infested swamps, dragging the barnacle-encrustedlogs to camps to be burnt. Geographer Juliet Bird believes the mangroves were grossly overexploited. In Westernport Bay near Melbourne, the trees have disappeared from mud­ flats where they were surveyed in 1842. Mangroves do not grow in Tasmania, and the industry there relied on fleshy seashore shrubs, mainly Grey Saltbush (A triplex cinerea), Coastal Saltbush (Rhagodia candolleana) and the sam­ phire Sclerostegia ·arbuscula. Coastal Saltbush and Grey Saltbush were also used by colonists as vegetables, and the latter was a staple food during the Tasmanian famine of 1806-1807. Tasmania's main soap-maker, Robert Roberts of Bruny Island, ordered in huge shipments of barilla plants from as far away as the Bass Strait islands. A correspondent to the Hobart Town Gazette in 1824 suggested the local bar­ ilia plants be cultivated and exported. They would bring a better return than wheat, he claimed. Another writer pro­ posed importing European barilla plants for settlers to grow on the sea soaps were displayed before the Royal Further Reading coasts. Nothing came of this. Society of Queensland in 1896. The Bird, J.F., 1978. The nineteenth-century soap industry In the late 19th century, botanists and soaps, for diseased skin, were made and its exploitation of intertidal vegetation in eastern chemists hoped eucalypts would find a from fat, soda, "vegetable slime", and Australia. Aust. Geographer 14: 38--41. place in soap-making. At the London water in which young eucalypt branch­ International Exhibition of 1862, aro­ es and twigs had been boiled. Rawson, Mrs. L. IMinal, 1984. Australian enquiry matic oils of peppermints (Eucalyptus book of household and general information. Facsimile The history of soap plants in Australia ed. Kangaroo Press: Sydney. species) were used to scent soap, shows that, in the quest for cleanliness, although the perfume was considered Australians were extremely inventive, Tim low is a Brisbane-based environmen­ by some to be "more peculiar than using a remarkable variety of plants in tal consultant and the author of four books agreeable". Therapeutic eucalyptus a range of different ways.• about edible and medicinal plants.

ANH 25 Spectacular filmfootage showed sharks and whales swimming through the two-kilometre-long school engulfing large mouthfuls offish.

FRO T OF ME, A SOLID WALL OF fish had appeared, anchovies stretching as far as I could see. The barrier parted as I pushed intoI the myriads of tiny fish, only to reform behind me like a silvery amoe­ ba engulfing its victim. I swam on, the wall of fish rolling slowly away on either side. A break suddenly appeared to reveal another interloper coming towards me, a whaler shark with a mouthful of fish. For a brief instant, we stared at each other and then it was gone. I surfaced to check my position. The dark green of the school was contrast­ FISH ed against the clear turquoise colour of the surrounding water. I could see that the school CAPERS stretched at least 50 metres on either side of me, and was about 25 metres at the widest point. It seemed to be trapped AT CAPE against the shoreline, although few predators were visible. I dived back through the school to the CUVIER sandy bottom; little light was getting through the BY BARRYHUTCHINS thick layer of fish above, making it quite dark. A school of Tailor (Pom­ many more predators feeding on a a tom us saltator ) swam much larger school than I had seen at around me, followed by another whaler Turtle Bay. shark; I was now convinced I had seen Other viewers of this television pro­ enough. gram rang the Western Australian My thoughts once again returned to Museum to say they had witnessed the present, the memory of this dive similar occurrences. The sightings fading just as the TVnews commenta­ ranged from as far south as Cervantes tor was concluding his report. It was Gust to the north of Perth) to Exmouth June 1993, and an exciting new phen­ Gulf at the north-western corner of the omenon had been discovered in State. The earliest reliable report con­ Western Australia: a huge school of cerned an observation in 1945, baitfish was trapped against the shore- although a lady in her eighties remem­ 1 i ne at Cape Cuvier, just below the bered seeing something similar when Tropic of Capricorn, and was being she was a young girl. Most mentioned devoured by numerous large predators. schools of baitfish being rounded up Spectacular filmfootage showed sharks and forced against the shoreline by and whales swimming through the two­ predators such as sharks, trevallies and kilometre-long school engulfing large tunas, during late autumn and winter. mouthfuls of fish. These images had Subsequently I received some speci­ reminded me of my earlier encounter mens from the Cape Cuvier school; with the school of anchovies. The latter these proved to be the same species I had taken place in Turtle Bay, a rather had seen at Turtle Bay, namely the remote location at the northern end of Australian Anchovy (Engraulis Dirk Hartog Island, which forms the australis). This species normally inhab­ western border of Shark Bay. Cape its inlets, embayments and estuaries of Cuvier is only about 150 kilometres to Australia's southern half. Adults are the north, o surely both sightings known to move out to sea in winter, involved the same phenomenon? where they form compact schools close However, judging by the television to the coast. Here they are constantly report, the Cape Cuvier event involved preyed upon by larger predators,

26 ANH including sharks, tunas, Surrounded by a sea of plenty, these sharks trevallies, mackerels, will gorge themselves on anchovies until the Tailor, dolphins, turtles and weather changes and the school disperses. seabirds. The depleted schools of anchovies even­ gested that the previous (1992-1993) tually return to the inlets in season was particularly productive. The spring, where spawning fish were noticeably fatter than in other probably commences with years, indicating they had had more to the approach of summer. eat. Obviously this was reflected by the It seems likely that the larger number of anchovies heading Cape Cuvier school of out to sea, which tended to form much anchovies originated from larger schools than before. These in Shark Bay, a large embay­ turn attracted a larger array of preda­ ment to the south of the tors. Combined with the favourable Cape. Furthermore, be­ weather conditions and the ready cause of the favourable accessibility of the Cape Cuvier area, winds that occur in this this had made the event a public spec­ area during May and June tacle. (winds are generally lighter and tend to Held by predators against the Cape Cuvier Will this phenomenon occur again blow offshore), schools of baitfish can shoreline, this massive school of anchovies this year? There seems little doubt that be easily pushed by predators into the turns the water black. the schools of anchovies must make an � shallow waters along the coastline. This annual migration out of the bay. � makes them easier to feed upon than in Last year (1993) an offshore easterly However, unless the schools are very � more offshore waters where the wind blew for much of June, thus large, and are subsequently pushed by g schools have a better chance of escape. enabling the predators to hold the the predators into an easily accessible However, the passing of the next cold anchovy school against the Cape location, then, as in past years, it wi 1 1 � - front with its accompanying south-west­ Cuvier shoreline for the whole month. probably not attract much attention. • I erly swells makes these inshore waters But why was the school so large? a dangerous place for both predator Research conducted by the Fisheries Dr Barry Hutchins is a curator in the i and prey, and the schools of anchovies Department of Western Australia on Department of Aquatic Vertebrates at the � then scatter to reform further offshore. the snapper that inhabit Shark Bay sug- Western Australian Museum. � ANH 27

Somewhere between 90 and 99 per cent of the matter in the universe is completely invisible. WHERE IS THE REST OF THE UNIVERSE? BY GEOFF McNAMARA

DARK MATIER PROBLEM IS " HE Treally one of the most press­ ing problems in physics and astronomy at the moment", remarked one of the astronomers. We were standing under the 1.2-metre Great Melbourne Telescope at Mt Stromlo Observatory near Canberra. The Great Melbourne Telescope was built in Dublin in 1868 for the Victorian Government, and was the first of Australia's 'big' telescopes. But the telescope was plagued with mechani­ cal and optical failures, and eventually sold to Mt Stromlo Observatory for scrap value in 1947. Now the Great Melbourne Telescope has been lov­ ingly refurbished and outfitted with state-of-the-art equipment for one of the most important searches of all time-the search for dark matter. Despite the fact that our skies appear to be full to overflowing, most of the universe is completely invisible. Above: Two of the scientists involved in trying to discover exactly what the rest of the universe is made of. Dark matter is the name given to the as yet undiscovered matter that makes up most of the universe. The issue is not so much about finding the dark matter: astronomers know the location of the dark matter from its influence on visible objects like stars and galax­ ies. It's more about discovering what it's made of. The astronomer went on: " ... this could be the beginning of the ultimate Copernican revolution in that we're not at the centre of the solar sys­ tem; we're not at the centre of the uni­ verse; in fact we may not be made of the same stuff as the rest of the uni­ verse".

UR AWARENESS OF THE NATURE OF the universe has come a long way sinceO the invention of the telescope. The world view that people held well Originally intended for scrap, the Great into the 17th century was based on Melbourne Telescope is now an integral Aristotle's idea* that the Earth was at player in one of the most important the centre of the universe. This geocen­ astrological searches of our time-the search tric model was based on the only obser­ for dark matter. vations available at the time: to the early astronomers, Earth stayed still The stars you see in the night sky are while everything in the night (and day­ simply other suns, and are part of a time) sky moved around it. Aristotle's disc-shaped collection of stars and gas idea was that the Sun, the Moon and called the Milky Way galaxy. The the stars were all attached to transpar­ Milky Way contains some 100 billion ent crystal spheres that were centred stars, and stretches for 100,000 light on Earth. years from sideto side. (A light year is The crystal spheres were shattered in the distance light travels in one year, 1609 when the Italian physicist Galileo about a billion kilometres.) Galilei first turned his telescope on the TheMilky Way can best be seen from heavens. There he saw things that just the country, where the night skies couldn't be explained by the old ideas haven't yet been polluted by the bright of Aristotle and Ptolemy. Galileo saw lights of cities and towns. From places now it was measured in millions. And, moons revolving around the planet like national parks, the Milky Way can with the development of larger tele­ Jupiter, and craters and mountains on be seen as a bright band that stretches scopes and more sensitive detectors, it our own Moon, proving that the Moon from horizon to horizon. We see the was soon measured in billions of light was just like Earth, and not some divine Milky Way as a band because we're years. celestial entity. Observations like these inside it. Like an ant in a dinner plate, Just as stars formgroups called galax­ convinced Galileo that the Sun, not the we don't see the circular shape of the ies, so the galaxies are in clusters of galaxies. The Milky Way is part of a cluster called the Local Group. The Local Group consists of two large arge bubbles of relatively few galaxies are galaxies-the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy-and two dozen or surrounded by giant sheets of thousands of galaxies. so smaller galaxies. In addition, there are two 'irregular' galaxies that orbit As one of my astronomy students once remarked, the Milky Way, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. "the universe is an aerobar". Clusters of galaxies tend to gather together into larger groups called superclusters containing millions of Earth, was the centre of the universe. Milky Way, just a band of stars com­ galaxies. Beyond the scale of superclus­ Since then, our ideas about the uni­ pletely encircling us. By the tum of ters, the universe takes on a foamy verse have been continually adjusted to the century, astronomers had seen appearance. Large bubbles of relatively fit newer, better observations. The pic­ other galaxies, or 'nebulae', but they few galaxies are surrounded by giant ture we now have is something like were thought to be part of our own sheets of thousands of galaxies. As one this. Earth is one of nine planets that Milky Way. Then, in the 1920s, the of my astronomy students once � o rbit a fairly con:mon star we call �he American astronomer Edwin Hubble remarked, "the universe is anaerobar". �_ Sun. Toget her wit h comets, astero1 d s showed that these 'nebulae' were, in While Hubble was revealing the scale � and other objects, the planets and the fact, galaxies just like the Milky Way. of the universe, another American � Sun are called the solar system. This single discovery magnified the astronomer, Fritz Zwicky, was looking � • Tire idea of a11 Earth-centred universe was size of the universe in the minds of at its motion. Astronomers had known !i: suggested by Parmenides (born about 514 BC), astronomers. Now the universe was since the time of Newton that gravity 5 developed by Eudoxus (408-355 BC), and matured more than just the Milky Way. Our was the dominant force in the universe. � into tire crystal spheres by Aristotle (384-322 BC). � Aristotle's model was further developed by Ptolemy galaxy had become one among thou­ The Earth orbits the Sun, for example, => (2nd century AD). whose ideas reig11ed for cen· sands of others. Instead of a universe because the Sun's gravity attracts the 8 turies. measured in thousands of light years, Earth, balancing the centrifugal force of

30 ANH Because we are in it, we see the Milky Way galaxy as a band rather than its true shape, which is similar to this spiral galaxy.

the Earth's motion around the Sun. This prevents Earth from flying offinto space. Galaxiesstay in clusters for the same reason: their mutual gravitational attraction counteracts the motion of the individual galaxies. But when Zwicky observed the motions of galaxies he found them moving too fast. At the speed the galaxies were travelling, the clusters should have dispersed long ago. What was keeping them together? There was only one solution to the puzzle: in order to keep the galaxies together, there had to be more gravity, and that meant more matter ...'dark mat­ ter' that neither Zwicky nor anyone else could see. galaxies: the stars in the outer regions Just as stars form groups known as galaxies, Astronomers began to encounter of the galaxies should be moving more galaxies form groups known as clusters. dark matter almost everywhere they slowly than those closer in. But We are part of a cluster known as the local looked. One of the most convincing astronomers found the outer stars Group and shown here is our nearest large pieces of evidence came from the study keeping up with the motion of the inner cluster neighbour, the Virgo cluster, which is of spiral galaxies like the Milky Way. stars. The only way to explain this moving away from us at a speed of 1,000 You can demonstrate the motion of a motion is to have large amounts of kilometres per second. spiral galaxy next time you have a cup mass in a halo surrounding the galaxy. of coffee. When you stir in the milk, a As astronomers looked at larger and spiral pattern often forms on the sur­ larger structures in the universe, the face. As the coffee rotates in the mug, conclusion was inescapable: some­ the inner parts of the spiral will rotate where between 90 and 99 per cent of faster than the outer edges. the matter in the universe is completely The same was expected of spiral invisible. 31 ANH The Pleiades star cluster is a spectacular O WHAT CAN THIS MATrER BE? DARK shafts around the world. example of the luminous matter that makes Smatter candidates fall into two Of the baryonic matter candidates, up the visible universe. The important classes. One is baryonic matter, the the most promising are MACHOs­ question is, however, what makes up the same type of matter that makes up the Massive Astrophysical Compact Halo invisible universe? magazine you're holding, and indeed Objects. The exact nature of these you. All baryonic matter contains the objects is unknown. They could be elementary particles known as nucleons planet-like objects about the size of and hyperons. The other is non-baryon­ Jupiter (about a hundredth of the mass ic, which is made of particles that of the Sun), or they could be 'dead' haven't been discovered yet. One of the stars, stars that have long ago used up favourite types of non-baryonic matter their nuclear fuel and stopped shining. is called a WIMP, which is short for MACHOs might even be black holes, Weakly Interacting Massive Particle. objects so dense that not even light can WIMPs are subatomic particles left escape from them. over from the Big Bang, the explosion How do you look for something that in which the universe began some 10 to can't be seen? You look for its effects 20 billion years ago. Because WIMPs on things you can see. Although the interact only feebly with matter, instru­ evidence for dark matter initially came ments designed to detect them need to from dynamical studies, gravity affects be very sensitive. To protect the detec­ more than just the movement of stars tors from interference, scientists con­ and galaxies; gravity also distorts their duct their experiments deep below the light. surface of the Earth. Experiments to The bending of light by gravity was detect WIMPs are currently being con­ one of the major triumphs of the ducted down kilometre-deep mine General Theory of Relativity put for- 32 ANH xperiments to detect WIMPs are currently being conducted down kilometre-deep mine shafts around the world.

to observe the total solar eclipse of MACHOs, dark matter should influ­ 1919, himself leading one of the teams ence the light of background objects. to the island of Principe, off the west What was needed was a background coast of Africa. The other expedition light source against which to search for was sent to northern Brazil. Two exped­ MACHOs. Astronomers found such a itions were mounted to improve the background source in the southern chances of seeing the eclipse: should skies, a nearby galaxy called the Large one team experience cloud during the Magellanic Cloud. eclipse, it was hoped that the other This is where the team of MACHO would have clear skies. As it turned astronomers comes in. The team out, both teams experienced clear is made up of 15 astronomers from weather. When the eclipse pho­ Mt Stromlo Observatory near tographs from the two teams were mea­ Canberra, and the Centre for Particle sured, the displacement of the star Astrophysics and the Lawrence images near the Sun was almost exactly Livermore National Laboratory, both in the same as predicted by Einstein. the United States. The MACHO And so it was shown that the gravity astronomers are searching for of a massive object would distort the MACHOs between Earth and the Large image of a background light Magellanic Cloud using the Great source ... whether the foreground object Melbourne Telescope at Mt Stromlo. is visible or not. This is the key to So what does the MACHO team searching for dark matter. Like the sil­ hope to see? When a MACHO passes houette of a dark object against a bright between us and a star in the Large background, dark matter by its very nature must influence the light of back­ Gravity of a massive object, whether visible ground objects. like the Sun or invisible like dark matter, can Astronomers know dark matter bend the light of nearby stars. The effect of exists in halos around galaxies, includ­ the Sun's gravity on the apparent position of ing the Milky Way. In the form of stars can be measured during a solar eclipse.

ward by Albert Einstein in 1916. This theory predicted that the gravity of a massive body would deviate light from a background source. When the British astronomer Arthur Eddington heard of the General Theory of Relativity, he immediately started making plans to test its predictions. Eddington decided to use the most massive object at hand-the Sun. According to Einstein, the light from the stars near the Sun would be bent, shifting their apparent position like a celestial image. Because of sunlight reflecting offour atmosphere, the stars are normally invisible in the daytime sky. But during a total solar eclipse, the Moon covers the Sun, and the stars become visible in the darkened sky. This allows astronomers to photograph the stars near the Sun, and then to compare these 'apparent' positions with their known fixedpositions. Eddington organised twoexpeditions 33 ANH Magellanic Cloud, the star's light will Mount Stromlo Observatory near Canberra be distorted for a short time. This has already sighted at least one probable 'gravitational lensing' makes the star MACHO event. appear temporarily brighter. By watch­ ing the stars in the Large Magellanic The MACHO program has been run­ Cloud, the MACHO team hopes to ning since mid 1992 and will run for catch a MACHO in the act of passing in four years. In the first year of the pro­ front of a star. ject, there was at least one probable There are millions of stars in the MACHO event, demonstrating that the­ Large Magellanic Cloud, so the experiment is working. "There is no

n a thousand years, our descendants may look back at our time and wonder how it must have felt not knowing what 90 per cent of the universe is made of. chances of a MACHO lining up question that this remarkable event between us and one of those stars occurred", comments Charles Alcock, should be, well, astronomical. So the leader of the MACHO team, "but now MACHO team had to develop an enor­ we have to keep working to find more mous detector (indeed the largest ever of them". At this stage, there's no way built) that was capable of looking at as of telling how many MACHOs are out many stars as possible during any one there or how much they account forthe Along with large galaxies such as the Milky night. Attached to the 1.2-metre tele­ galaxy's dark matter. Way and the Andromeda Galaxy there are scope, it receives the star images on 'Irregular' galaxies. These are galaxies that what is essentially electronic film. The 9THE DISCOVERY OF DARK MATIER WlLL have no ordered structure and this one, images are then recorded on video tape I tell us more than just the nature of known as the large Magellanlc Cloud, lies and a computer measures them for the universe. The amount of dark mat­ only 160,000 light years away. brightness. The recorded data is then ter will determine its fate. Theuniverse searched for any changes in the bright­ has been expanding since the Big visible matter only adds up to a few per ness of the individual stars. Bang, and so the question arises: will it cent of the critical density, but the The detector is capable of watching keep on expanding? Like a stretching addition of dark matter could tip the up to 500,000 stars at once, and a series rubber band, the gravity of the matter cosmic scale. of ten million stars is being observed in the universe is resisting its expan­ By themselves, MACHOs can't halt every clear night. It's important to sion. the expansion of the universe, but observe each star at least once a night The density of matter needed to stop astronomers expect the total mass of since some MACHO 'events' can last the universe from expanding forever is the universe will eventually add up to for less than a day. called the critical density. So far, the the critical density. This expectation is 34 ANH based not only on the best theories cur­ and wonder how it must have felt not Schramm, D., 1991. The origin of cosmic struc­ rently available, but also an aesthetic knowing what 90 per cent of the uni­ ture. Sky & Telescope 82(2): 140. desire to see nature display simple sym­ verse is made of. • metry: a delicate balance between the Trefil, J., 1988. The dark side of the universe. expansion of the universe, and the grav­ Further Reading Macmillan Publishing Company: New York. ity needed to one day halt that expan­ Geller, M. & Huchra, J., 1991. Mapping the sion. universe. Sky & Telescope 82(2): 134. GeoffMcNamara has been involved in pub­ Back in the days of Aristotle, lic education in astronomy for about ten astronomers wondered what held the Gouguenheim, L., 1987. Galaxi es and the years. He is a Contributing Editor to Sky stars and planets up in the sky. The intergalactic medium. In ed. by P. & Space magazine, and writes and pro­ Astronomy, duces a weekly radio segment called "The solution Aristotle came up with was a de la Cotardiere and M.R. Morris. Hamlyn: Sky This Week". He would like to extend set of crystal spheres. We look back on Middlesex. special thanks to MACHO astronomers this explanation with a much clearer Prof Ken Freeman, Dr Peter Quinn and understanding of the real nature of the Harrison, E., 1981. Cosmology: the science of Dr Chris Stubbs for an opportunity to see universe. In a thousand years, our the universe. Cambridge University Press: history being made. descendants may look back at our time Cambridge. 35 ANH

Approaching half a metre in length in the bill and using it as a rainwater col­ the larger species, the bill is equipped lector. When fully extended, it can with a formidable hook at the end of hold up to 13 litres! Despite this capac­ the upper mandible. The pelican's bill ity, the bill is a delicate construction is also sensitive and this helps to locate with the lower jaw, from which the fish in murky water. The pouch does pouch hangs, consisting of two thin not function as a place to hold food for and weakly articulated bones. any length of time; instead it serves as a Maintaining the flexibilityof the pouch short-term collecting organ. When a requires a series of bizarre contortions food item is caught, the pelican manip­ that stretch it in different directions. In ulates it in the bill until the prey is prop­ one, a bird opens its mouth wide and erly oriented, usually with the head literally turns itself inside out by bring­ pointing down the throat, and then ing the pouch down over the upper swallows it with a jerk of the head. The chest. In another manoeuvre, the bird pouch can also serve as a net to catch straightens its neck and pulls its head tossed handouts, and there are obser­ backwards, thus stretching the pouch vations of pelicans drinking by opening in the lengthwise direction.

In order to quench its thirst, this pelican uses its bill to collect rainwater.

The bill certainly contributes to the AUSIWUl''.N PE1..1CAN comical appearance of pelicans, yet this Pelecanus conspicillatus is contrasted by their grace on the water or in flight. The control and pre­ Distribution cision that pelicans possess are well Australia, Papua New Guinea and western Indonesia, accidentally reaching New Zealand illustrated when a bird lands on the and various western Pacific islands. In Australia it is widespread on both coastal and surface of calm water. Using its huge inland waters, avoiding the western deserts, and breeds at scattered localities on inland wings and broad webbed feet as air lakes, swamps and rivers, and coastal islands and shores. brakes, it ki to a gentle rest. And it is this juxtaposition of grace and mild Habitat ludicrousness, together with their large Wetlands and waterways; freshwater, estuarine and marine. size and confiding nature (when not Identification harassed), that have made pelicans Large gular pouch; mainly white with black on wings and tail; steel grey legs; body length popular cultural figures. 1.6-1.8 metres; wingspan 2.3-2.5 metres; bill length 40-50 centimetres; mass 4.0-6.8 kilograms; males larger than females, particularly in bill length; immature birds brown IKE MOSf LARGE BIRDS, PELICANS HAVE where the adult is black and with straw-coloured legs. Lundergone a worldwide decline, Food although most species are not globally Mainly fish, but other aquatic vertebrates taken, as well as a variety of handouts. threatened. The causes for these popu­ lation reductions are related to human Breeding activity. Several species have figured Nesting recorded at all months, depending on conditions; bill, pouch and skin of face o become more brightly coloured; colonies formed on islands or seduded shores; nests con­ heavily as local sources f r food, fat or sist of scrape on ground, often lined with vegetation or other debris; clutch size usually feathers, or have been destroyed by 1-2, rarely 3; eggs white when laid but soon become discoloured; incubation alternately fishermen who regard them as com­ by both sexes for 32-35 days; eggs held on feet of parent; chicks naked on hatching, petitors to their livelihood. Australia is soon covered in white down; young leave nests to form creches at about 25 days and stay fortunate that its native species, the until able to fly; adult size reached at about 2 months; first attempts to fly at about 3 Australian Pelican (Pelecanus conspicil­ months. latus), still exists in healthy numbers. Today, direct human predation is

38 ANH almost nonexistent and culling is rare. Although the absence of human perse­ cution is an obvious benefit to this species, the Australian Pelican has been very much a contributor to its own success. Foremost among the traits working for this species is its abil­ ity to react quickly to changing condi­ tions and to exploit some of these to its benefit. Australia, with its arid environ­ ment and often unpredictable climate, has placed a premium on the evolution of such opportunism. Conditions suit­ able to provide the birds' needs can be irregular, thus demanding a capacity to move rapidly from an area of insuffi­ They may look bizarre, but these exercises are serious business and enable the pelican to keep ciency to oneof plenty. Its pouch flexible. The large wings that bestow pelicans with both power and grace in flight are thermal to the next, pelicans can travel large, with one recorded feeding absolutely crucial for such rapid and long distances with a minimum of assemblage comprising over 1,900 often large-scale movements. So too is effort, reaching air speeds of up to 56 birds! A flock of pelicans works in uni- "' their extremely light skeleton. In a 13- kilometres per hour. son, herding schools of fish into shal- j kilogram bird, the skeleton may weigh This mobility permits pelicans to low water or surrounding them in an !;;;! less than one kilogram. Although not search out suitable areas of water and, ever-decreasing circle, driving them � capable of sustained flapping flight, pel­ as a consequence, an adequate supply into a concentrated mass with their "' icans can nonetheless remain aloft for of food. Fish are the primary prey bills and sometimes beating wings. I 24 hours, covering hundreds of kilo­ actively caught, but other aquatic ani­ Once the fish are concentrated, the pel- metres. They are excellent soarers and mals, such as crustaceans, tadpoles and icans plunge their bills into the water, � can use thermals to rise to considerable turtles, may be eaten. The Australian using the pouches as nets. Once some- g,�> altitudes. Flight at 1,000 metres is com­ Pelican may feed alone,but more com­ thing is caught, a pelican draws its � mon, and heights of 3,000 metres have monly feeds as a cooperative group. pouch to its breast. This evacuates the � been recorded. By moving from one Sometimes these groups may be quite water and allows the bird to manoeuvre o

ANH 39 the prey into a swallowing position. times. Both sexes perform pouch-rip­ throat region turns chrome yellow. It is in the acquisition of food that pel­ pling in which they clap their bills shut Parts of the top and base of the bill icans demonstrate one way in which several times a second and the pouch change to cobalt blue, and a black diag­ they can turna situation to their advan­ ripples like a flag in a strong breeze. As onal strip appears from the base to the tage. They are nothing if not oppor­ tllP courtship parade progresses, the tip. 111is colour change is of short dura­ tunistic in their feeding habits (see males drop out one by one. Finally. tion. the intensity usually subsiding by Pelican Lunch Box). In some areas, pel­ after pursuits on land, water or in the the time incubation starts. icans are able to exploit handouts from air, only a single male is left. The The pelicans waste little time once humans, deliberate or otherwise, as an female leads him to a potential nest they have chosen a nest site. The important component of their diet. site. The couple strut slowly, with bod­ female makes a scrape in the ground Unfortunately, this practice has also ies held upright. heads raised and bills with her bill and feet, and collects any led to claims of competition with fisher­ lowered, deliberately lifting their feet suitable material (vegetation scraps, men. Pelicans have been accused of high with eachstride. feathers etc.) within reach of the nest. having significant detrimental effects on the fish available to commercial operations. which has stimulated the occasional call for official control (see oth sexes perform pouch-rippling in which they clap Cull of the Wild box). their bills shut several times a second and the pouch ripples OL 'RTSHlPI� THE AL'STRAJ.lA.'\ PEI.ICA;--; IS an impressive sight. The sequence like a flag in a strong breeze. beginsC with the female leading poten­ tial suitors (two to eight or more) around the colony. As they follow her in these walks. the males threaten each During the courtship period. which Often this includes some or all of a other while also attempting to attract can take place in any month of the year neighbour's nest! Such attempts at her attention by swinging their open provided conditions are favourable, the thievery can lead to fights between bills from side to side. They may also bill and pouch of the birds change nesting pairs. Within three days egg­ pick up a small object. like a stick or colour dramatically. The forward half of laying begins, with both parents taking dry fish. toss it in the air and catch it the pouch becomes bright salmon pink. turns in the incubation. Between one again. repeating the sequence several while the skin of the pouch in the and three eggs are laid two to three

40 ANH leg or wing still in its mouth, the bird For pelicans, the greatest mortality collapses to the ground. lnese attacks occurs in the first year of life but, if a are not fatal and usually within a few bird survives, the chances of a long life minutes the young pelican recovers, are good. Captive birds, in the absence seemingly unaffected by the ordeal. of predators and environmental stress­ The function of this bizarre action is es. have been known to achieve an age not understood. Some scientists have of over 50 years. while wild birds may suggested it occurs because the chicks live between ten and pos ibly 25 years are unable to breathe properly while or more. eating; it may also be a means of retain­ ing the adult's attention. HERE ARE MANY REASO:'\S WIIY TIIE After about a month the chicks leave Tnormal sequence of breeding the nest to form creches of up to 100 events may fail. Predation and other birds. There they remain for about two forms of interference 0mman and oth­ months, by which time they have learnt erwise), destruction of eggs by display­ to fly and are fairly independent. The ing adult pelicans. and rises or fall in purpose of these creches is not under­ water level can all result in breeding stood. It is probably not for wam1th. as failure. pelican colonies always occur in The uncertainty of these various per­ exposed, often hot situations. and many ils makes the 1990 breeding success at of the chicks must pant to keep cool. an inland Australian colony remark­ Perhaps it is a safety device, granting able. In early 1990, South Australian protection against predators and keep­ ornithologists Max Waterman and John ing the stray chicks from wandering Read began banding chicks at an near incubating adults. which may exceptionally large colony on three attack and even kill them. islands in Lake Eyre South. The breed-

The bill is an important focus of aggressive encounters between adults. Displays include gaping and pointing.

days apart. The first-hatched chick is substantially larger than its siblings. It receives most of the food and may even attack and kill its nest mates. The striking appearance of the adult bird is not foreshadowed by the chicks. A newly hatched pelican must vie for the title of the ugliest young of any PELICAN LUNCH BOX bird: the bill is a grotesque protuber­ ance. the eyes bulge. and the skin has Although fish comprise the primary food of the Australian Pelican, these birds have the appearance of small-grained bubble been recorded eating a range of unusual items. During periods of starvation, they plastic. No two pelican chicks are exact­ have been reported capturing and eating Silver Gulls and ducklings. The gulls are ly alike. the skin around the face is mot­ held under water and drowned before being consumed head first. Other tales of tled with black to varying degrees and unusual prey items occasionally verge on being 'urban myths', with chihuahuas the colour of the eyes varies from white being among the most frequent victims of marauding birds. Nonetheless, some of to dark brown. This individual variation these reports appear genuine and must be taken seriously. helps the parents to recognise their The Australian Pelican is also known to rob other birds of their prey. Among the chick from hundreds of others. many unusual food items recorded being taken are pies, vegetable scraps, bird car­ When being fed. a chick literally casses and mushrooms, and in one case a pelican visited a house daily for its sticks its head down the parent's throat reward, which consisted of a loaf of bread and a pint of milk. to get the food. This transfer can take In one very peculiar incident, a Brown Pelican is known to have entered the water several minutes. ending with the parent where a small girl (age 3 or 4) was bathing, grabbed her on the arm and apparently drawing away with a toss of the head. tried to manipulate her into a swallowing position. The bird was quickly driven off by Then something peculiar happens. TI1e the girl's mother "who clouted the bird's head with a book". This tale would be easy chick goes into convulsions. during to dismiss if it had not come from the girl's father, the prominent ornithologist which it will bite anything within reach. Stephen Marchant. including its own appendages. With a

ANH 41 Substantially bigger than its sibling, the first­ hatched pelican chick will receive most of the food and may even attack and kill the other chick. ing population was estimated at 100,000 to 104,000 birds. By counting carcasses of young birds, Waterman and Read estimated that a maximum of 90,000 chicks had fledged,a success rate of up to 90 per cent! Most colonies, however, do not approach this level of success. The greatest mortality occurs when the water source that initially stimulated the breeding dries up before the last bout of nesting has been completed. With the major food source dying rapidly, the adults have little choice but to abandon any offspring that are still dependent. They, and any young from previous broods, vacate the natal area and disperse in search of more optimal conditions. This was very marked in 1974, when Lake Eyre filled for the first time in many years. Pelicans quickly took advantage of this sudden new resource, establishing a nesting colony and breeding prolifically. The condi­ tions were such that the colony thrived for several years before the inevitable drying up of the lake in 1978. At that time, vacating pelicans, many in advanced states of starvation, appeared throughout the country and beyond, turning up in parts of Indonesia, east to Like many seablrds, pelicans can drink salt water. A special gland situated above and behind Fiji and north across the equator to the eyes removes the excess salt from the body by discharging it through the nasal passages as Palau. Within Australia, they arrived on a highly concentrated saline solution. the east coast in far greater numbers

CULL OF THE WILD A call to cull pelicans in the become available with less effort. Forster-Tuncurry area of coastal New Another unintentional food source was South Wales, and even suggestions that provided by crab boats. As the traps were this was happening illegally, led David checked and rebaited, the old bait was Turner, Senior Ranger for the district, thrown overboard. It was not unusual to to investigate the evidence of competi­ see six or more birds following each crab tion. boat. Turner found that many of the peli­ Anywhere that fish are cleaned is a cans in the local area received their prime locality for scavenging pelicans. food through human agency, either They will loaf around cleaning tables, unintentionally or intentionally. often becoming so bold that they steal Displaying their ability to take advan­ fish from bags and other containers. tage of available opportunities, the pel­ Turner found that perhaps the biggest z icans learnt to recognise the timing and source of scraps for the Forster pelicans � appearance of potentially profitable was the local Fishermen's Co-op. Despite 2: z human activities. Netting of fish in the protestations of some fishermen, he shallow water was one such activity. noted that many others, both amateur The pelicans approached from the side and professional, enjoyed feeding the I� away from the humans and attempted birds. He concluded that there was no ...,"' u to pull the accumulating fish through reason to cull pelicans in the Forster­ z the net. This resulted in damaged fish, Tuncurry area. The biggest source of food which were unsaleable. On occasions, for the 'competing' pelicans was actually Pelicans soon come to learn the habits up to ten per cent of the fish were dam­ being provided by the fishermen in the of people, especially if It Involves a free aged in this manner. The fishermen form of intentional handouts. Indeed, the feed-Intentional or otherwise. This has threw back undersized fish, but the pel­ birds were doing the Co-op a service by sometimes caused problems, particularly icans made only half-hearted attempts deaning up the scraps that would other­ with fishermen who may see the birds as to catch them. They apparently had wise have to be disposed of in a more competition. expectations that fish would soon expensive manner.

42 ANH

For a successful breeding attempt, pelicans require three months of plentiful food, a PELICANS water supply and no disturbance. If the water IN A supply is permanent, then the colony can NUTSHELL become longstanding with hundreds of nests. There are seven species of pelicans (Pelecanus spp.) in the world, similar than usual. in shape and, with one exception, pri­ This dispersal process no doubt_ has marily white in colour. These fall into occurred each time Lake Eyre dnes up. three groups, based on their biology. On this occasion, however, instead of The first group comprises four eventually retreating back to colonies species: the Australian (P. conspicil­ in the drier parts of Australia, some of the pelicans remained on the east coast latus), Great White (P. onocrota�us), Dalmatian (P. crispus) and American and began to breed. One of _the ne:¥ White Pelicans (P. erythrorhynchos). breeding colonies was on an island m These are gregarious species, often Wallis Lake, on the central coast of forming large feeding flocks and nest­ New South Wales. At one time over 350 ing colonies, and they nest and roost nests were recorded. Unfortunately this on the ground. These are also the island was subject to flooding and other largest species, with the Dalmation disturbances. After ongoing destruction _ Pelican reaching a mass of 13 kilo­ of nests, the number of birds dropped grams and a wingspan of 3.5 metres. until in 1992 no birds attempted to The second group consists of two breed. Whether or not this or a new somewhat smaller species-the Pink­ colony will become successfully estab­ backed (P. rufescens) and Spot-billed lished in the area awaits to be seen. Pelicans (P. philippensis)-that differ Another breeding colony was estab­ from the previous group by being less lished on the Five Islands, off Port communal and often solitary, and by Kembla, just south of Wollong�ng. P,is nesting and roosting in trees. All these was notable because of its manne situa­ species feed from the water's surface. tion. Although coastal colonies are not The last group is made up only of unusual elsewhere in Australia, this the Brown Pelican (P. occidentalis) of was the first for the country's south­ the Americas. It differs by being east Two pairs nested in a large Silver smaller (four kilograms), brown rather Gull· (lanfs novaehollandiae) colony in than white, exclusively marine, and 1983. The colony is now occupied year diving for its food from a height. round. although the numbers of birds Nesting is mainly on the ground, but breeding at any time varies from a few may also be in trees. pairs to over 200 pairs �t �eak times, considered to be the limit that the island can support. The Silver Gulls,

44 ANH Although pelicans don't have a true voice Further Reading To support their opportunistic lifestyle, box, they still manage an array of unmusical Battam, H., Leishman, A.J. & Smith, L.E., 1986. pelicans are skilled long-distance travellers. sounds including bleats, whines and hisses, Nesting of the Australian Pelican on Martin Island, Using thermals to cover hundreds of which they augment with claps of the bill. Five Islands, New South Wales. Aust. Birds 20: kilometres at a stretch, they search for 61-62. suitable breeding sites and food. which had colonised the island some Campbell, J. & Sonier, C., 1985. Unusual food items years previously at the expense of the of pelicans. Aust. Birds 20: 1-3. former nesting species, were now dis­ placed over much of their original MacGillivray, W., 1923. The nesting of the Australian colony. Unlike that at Wallis Lake. this Pelican (Pelicanus {sic/ conspicillatus). Emu 22: area was much better protected from 162-174. disturbance, and the prospects for the colony's long-term continuance seem Marchant, S. & Higgins, P.J. (coordinators), 1990. good. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds. Vol. 1. Part B. Oxford University Press: Although the Australian Pelican is Melbourne. sometimes persecuted by humans, pro­ vided its breeding colonies remain Turner, D., 1993. Pelicans of the Forster-Tuncurry undisturbed, their ability to adapt to the area. Aust. Birds 27: 1-10. pressures of human interference and intrusions should allow these magnifi­ Vestjens, W.J.M., 1977. Breeding behaviour and ecol­ cent birds to remain relatively com­ ogy of the Australian Pelican, Pelecanus mon. Soon perhaps, pelicans will be conspicillatus, in New South Wales. Aust. Wild/. Res. known to most people not just from 4: 37-58. mythology, cartoons or collectable trin­ Waterman, M.H. & Read, J.l., 1992. Breeding suc­ kets, but from close encounters of a cess of the Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus real kind. • on Lake Eyre South in 1990. Corella 16: 123-126.

ANH 45 •

.-.,.._

- .-,,,: -�: -·- - - ...... ;..::::- -- -� i � --­·-· s. "'I"'- • 46 ...

How much litter is floating around at Anxious Bay is a relatively isolated, sea. and coming ashore on our coasts? well-ordered beach with regular foredunes, Just what does it consist ol? Where has a narrow tidal range and minimal seagrass it all come from? And who is using the accumulation. All this combines to make it a sea as a garbage tip. anyhow? One way perfect site on which to base an investigation to find some answers to these questions into ocean litter. This view is from the cliff is to go beachcombing on remote coasts top at the northern end. far away from industry. towns. rivers and tourists. where all the litter on the r Bay and Elliston schools. beach has come f om the sea. Although While most people feel pretty good Australia has huge lengths of such about cleaning up a beach. this feeling coastline. finding a good beach for mon­ presents difficulties for marine litter itoring ocean litter is not a simple mat­ monitoring, because enthusiastic beach­ ter. It must be inaccessible to vehicles cleaners generally ignore the distribu­ and defended from litterbugs by fea­ tion of natural sediment and flotsam, tures such as dunes. salt lakes or cliffs; and thus much of the evidence regard­ it should also face the prevailing winds ing the origin of the human litter and and currents. and have foredune acces­ the time it has spent floating at sea or sible from the beach itself. so that on the beach. There is a scientific side beachcombers can collect flotsam that to beachcombing for ocean litter. It is has blown inland. founded in the processes of coastal geo­ Western Eyre Peninsula in South morphology, but draws on marine and Australia provides one such place. -----, intertidal ecology, and on some under­ Facing the westerly winds and swells at standing of the rates and processes by the northern margin of the Antarctic With the aid of a 'pooper-scooper', the author which plastics, glass and metals are bro­ Circumpolar Current, it presents a bar­ collects samples of beach sand for analysis in ken down in the windy. sandy, ally rier to the uninterrupted fetch of the sea the laboratory to determine if small plastic environment on the beach. across the Indian and South Atlantic fragments remain in the sand. In the systematic surveying of ocean Oceans. as far away as the Patagonian litter at Anxious Bay, our first task was coast of South America. Most of the YSTE:\IATIC BEACHCOMB!;-.;c; INVOLVES to stake out the beach with kilometre coast is diffed, but north of Elliston the Sa lot of walking and carrying. To markers. We then collected all the litter spectacular rampart of limestone cliffs clear a 26-kilometre beach is beyond on the beach and in the foredunes, is broken at Anxious Bay by a 26-kilo­ the capacity of just a few people. So, in assembling it at the five-kilometre mark­ metre sandy beach. This is defended October 1991. I joined the South ers, and later retrieved it for sorting, from motor vehicles (and therefore Australian Scientific Expedition Group, weighing and recording before taking it from tourist trash) by soft sand and and with some 25 Adelaide school chil­ all off to the Elliston tip. It was hard rock bars at each end. and separated dren over a period of three days. collect­ work in the hot windy weather on both from the pastures and wheat fields ed and later cleared the beach of all its the open beach and in the dunes. We inland by high sand-dunes and the litter. The clearance was repeated the couldn't manage the heavy baulks of sticky saline muds of Lake Newland. As following two years, with the South driftwood; and some ropes and netting such. Anxious Bay is one of the best Australian Research and Development jammed between rocks were impossible sites for monitoring ocean litter on the Institute (SARDI)organising the sur­ to shift. Altogether, about 344 kilograms south coast of Australia. veys and help from students at Streaky of beach litter were collected in 1991, 48 ANH have all been carried out on the same in the sand. Often a plastic bucket or beach in the ame month (October), it similar-sized item, when picked up, is tempting to regard these litter yields would just disintegrate into fragments. as annual deposits. But we do not know Hence. collecting everything we could how much litter is buried in beach and see and then weighing it was the only dune sands, and we know nothing about way to get a reliable measure of the the rates at which light litter such as beach litter. plastic sheeting is blown inland and Results from the Anxious Bay surveys thus lost from the beach-dune system, to date indicate that fishing debris far or the rates at which different plastics outnumbers all the items whose pur­ break down on an open beach. The pose can be identified (see Litter Box). lower yield for 1993 may reflect smaller Craypots, fish boxes and crates, bait

How much litter is floating around at sea, and coming ashore on our coasts? Just what does it consist of? Where has it all come from?

deposits, or the clearance of accumulat­ baskets, buoys, ropes, strapping tape, ed litter in earlier years. This year's nets and cod ends (the bases of trawl yields will be interesting. But even if nets) formed the bulk of the Anxious only eight kilograms per kilometre was Bay litter, and could often be traced to typical of the amount of litter stranding particular fisheries. The discovery of 43 on the southern coast of Australia, the uncut strapping loops on the beach in total quantity of ocean litter floating 1992 and 21 in 1993 was disturbing ashore must amount to some hundreds because these loops, which are used to 391 kilograms in 1992. and 216 kilo­ of tonne a year. secure bait boxes. are known lo gar­ grams in 1993. 'fnis comes to between As mentioned previously. plastics rotte or strangle marine animals such as eight and 15 kilograms per kilometre. formed the bulk of the beach litter, with seals and sharks through entanglement The types of litter found at Anxious Bay about equal weights of hard (moulded) at sea. In Tasmania, the number of were much the same each year: about and soft plastic. The number of litter these uncut plastic loops coming ashore 60 per cent plastic and 30 per cent glass 'items' was impossible lo count because has been reduced through a well-sup­ by weight (see Litter Box). thousands of plastic fragments were ported educational campaign mounted Because the Anxious Bay clearances strewn around in the dunes and buried by the Parks,Wildlife and Heritage

West Australian Current

ctic Circumpolar Antar Current

Southern Ocean ______.r\\eS e west ______.

ANH 49 Service in Hobart. Anxious Bay beach­ standard polypropylene markers at lakes and other depositional sites combers on nearby Waldegrave Island Anxious Bay after the 1993 litter clear­ inland? in 1991 saw a young hair seal in distress ance. (The markers I used were actually In contrast to plastics, glass is heavier off the beach, entangled in plastic strap­ the foaming devices retrieved from than water; like sand it sinks. Glass that ping and box thorn, but couldn't get to inside tall Draught Guinness cans!) In floats ashore is always in the form of the animal to free it. this year's beachcombing survey closed containers (empty bottles with When plastics float at sea, they pro­ (October 1994), we will be looking for stoppers or caps, light globes, 'fluoro' vide an ideal surface for the growth of these markers to see where they have tubes etc.). Of the 233 glass bottles we marine bacteria, algae, or larger fouling got to and to assess their condition and found in 1992, all but five of the 70 with­ and encrusting organisms. At Anxious weight after a year on the beach. out stoppers came from the ends of the Bay, however, there was little obvious In the sand along the Anxious Bay beach, where shore drinkers must have marine fouling of the plastic litter, and tidelines, tiny bits of coloured plastic left them. Experiments with marked so no indication of how long the litter smaller than a finger nail are abundant. bottles left on the beach at the five- and had been afloat before stranding. Analyses of the surface beach sands ten-kilometre markers, and retrieved However, plastic containers were often have so far yielded no plastic fragments near the same places a year later, sug­ pierced by shark teeth or nibbled by smaller than the sand grains them­ gest that unstoppered glass bottles do fish. Most plastics degrade more slowly selves except for tiny twisted bits of not move far from where they were at sea than on an open beach where coloured plastic fibres from disintegrat­ dropped, despite the action of the they are exposed to ultraviolet light and ing rope and netting. This suggests waves. become brittle, breaking into pieces. that, as the plastic on the beach breaks Few of the hundreds of bottles at However, very little is known about the up, bits smaller or lighter than the sand Anxious Bay have been 'echoes', which dynamics of abandoned plastics in grains are blown away to the dunes. If suggests that the refundable bottle either marine or terrestrial environ­ fragments of plastic are thus 'deflated' deposit scheme in South Australia is ments. To test for movement and break­ by the wind, are we building up a new working. Two beer bottles were clearly down of plastics on the beach, I left 50 kind of wind-borne sediment in our salt marked with the statement 'This bottle

Marine plants (seaweed and seagrass remains) 1991 1992 1993 Plant resins ('dammar' from dipterocarp trees) Total Total Total Animal remains of dead birds (scavenged by foxes?) Dead fish Dead insects Bitumen, tarballs Pumice

HARD (MOULDED) PLASTIC 122kg 121kg 56kg Liquid containers (bottles, tops, fragments) Drums, buckets (and fragments) Crates, boxes (and fragments) Bait baskets (especially Burley baskets) Red craypots (and fragments) Buoys, floats (and fragments) Fisheries drift-cards and fish-tags Syringes FOAMED & SOFT (FLEXIBLE) PLASTIC 119kg 127kg 64kg Rope (mostly yellow and orange fragments) Nets (mostly thick trawl fragments, orange) Trawl-net cod ends Monofilament fishing line (mostly tangles at beach ends) Bags and polythene sheeting (mostly tattered fragments) Buoys and floats Polystyrene fragments Strapping tape (12mm wide, mostly blue) Beer can yokes GLASS (weight includes unstoppered bottles etc.) 103kg 123kg 49kg Bottles with stoppers Jars (mostly with plastic lids) Light globes (including large floodlights) Fluorescent tubes METAL not weighed 20.5kg 47kg Drums (mostly engine lubricants) and rusty fragments Fishing floats and buoys Aerosol cans

Unstoppered glass bottles and jars (mostly at beach ends) Metal cans (beer, soft drink and food, mostly at beach ends) Food wrappers and packaging (windblown, mostly at north end of beach) Newspapers, cardboard cartons (mostly at north end of beach) Motor vehicle parts

50 ANH � ANXIOUS BAY Od. ]1'11. B« ac '- l,itrv - -....,. .,

" remains the property of One they come from Indonesian rainforest Volunteers sort the mixed ocean andland belonged to the Swan Brewery trees, and from Sumatran oil seeps. litter collected at the north end of Anxious Company and the other to the NSW Such incursions from the tropics would Bay. Loops of blue strapping tape, black bait Bottle Company. I wonder what the be by way of the warm Leeuwin baskets, plastic pipe and containers, and legal standing is of interstate manufac­ Current, flowing south along the coast orange netting were found in abundance. turers whose bottles, over which they of Western Australia and round Cape claim perpetual ownership, now litter a Leeuwin into the Great Australian beach within a South Australian Bight. So far, no coconuts have been Conservation Park, where it is an found in the Anxious Bay surveys (it is offence to leave such rubbish? But doubtful they float for more than four whatever their origins, most bottles months), but other tropical drift seeds were anonymous, and it would be diffi­ have been found on beaches in the cult to find out where they came from. south-west of Western Australia. Interestingly, whisky and gin bottles Pumice on the east coast of Australia were the most abundant. Light globes usually originates from submarine erup­ (including spotlights, and large flood­ tions near Tonga in the south-west lights used in squid fishing) and 'fluoro' Pacific, carried south in the East tubes were also anonymous but had Australian Current. At Anxious Bay, and probably been jettisoned from vessels at elsewhere along the south coast of the sea. continent, analyses of the pumice sug­ Among the bottles and plastic and gest it comes from as far away as the other human litter on the beach is the South Sandwich Islands in the South natural flotsam such as pumice, tarballs Atlantic. Other items that probably trav­ and bitumen; plant resins, drift seeds, elled long distances to Anxious Bay seaweed and seagrass; and animal were Argentine and Uruguyan liquor remains such as cuttlebones, dead fish, bottles, a battered plastic milk crate insects and seabirds. Tar and bitumen belonging to Creamline Dairies of on beaches may come from tanker Durban, and a South African drift-card spills, but alsofrom natural seepages on jettisoned just south of the Cape in the sea-floor. Natural flotsam reaches 1982. the beach entrained in the same cur­ rents as the human litter, and may tHESE INCURSIONS OF NATURAL FLOT­ therefore help in tracing its origins. I sam and human artefacts from afar Analyses of the plant resins and the may be of geographical interest, but bitumens from Anxious Bay suggest they generally fom, a tiny proportion of ANH 51 all the stranded material on the beach. The Scientific Expeditions Group from going. Systematic beachcombing in Analysis of the litter at Anxious Bay Adelaide quickly became expert beachcombers places far removed from land-based lit­ shows that we are mainly fouling this and collected 100 kilograms of litter between ter is one way of finding out what we remote coast with the litter generated the five- and 12-kilometre marks at Anxious are doing to our oceans, and thus help­ by fishing and shipping activities on the Bay in 1991. ing to protect a vital part of our planet's nearby continental shelf. In 1990 life support system. • Australia signed the International around Australia. Convention for the Prevention of We live on land, but more than two Further Reading Pollution by Ships at Sea, more com­ thirds of the surface of the Earth is Kenneally, K.F., 1977. Tropical seeds and fruits monly known as MARPOL. This con­ occupied by sea. Does it matter if we washed up on the south-west coast of Western vention prohibits the jettisoning of all use the world's oceans as a huge tip for Australia. W. Aust. Natur. 12: 73-80. plastics al sea, however no assessments the free disposal of our global garbage? O'Callaghan, P., 1993. Sources of coastal shoreline have been made to see whether its pro­ Perhaps not, provided the materials we litter near three Australian cities. Report tothe Plastics visions are having any effect. Judging discard do not damage us or other ani­ Institute of Australia. Victorian Institute of Marine by the composition of the ocean litter mals or plants, and provided they can Science: Queenscliffe, Victoria. we have collected in three years of sys­ be recycled within natural systems, or tematic beachcombing at Anxious Bay, hidden away in the Earth's crust for Short, A.D., Fotheringham, D.G. & Buckley, R.C., commercial fishermen working in the gradual processing like coal, oil and nat­ 1986. Coastal morphodynamics and Holocene evolu­ Great Australian Bight do not seem to ural gas. But nowadays there are so tion of the Eyre Peninsula coast, South Australia. be aware of MARPOL. As such, estab­ many of us processing more and more Coastal Studies Unit, Geography Department, lishing a baseline for ocean litter strand­ of the natural world into human and University of Sydney: Sydney. ing al Anxious Bay is a firststep in mon­ industrial wastes that we can no longer Wace, N.M., 1994. Ocean litter stranded on Australian itoring the pollution of our seas with expect natural systems to absorb all our coasts. In State of the marine environment (SOMER) floating litter and garbage. More sites rubbish. For this reason we need to report, written for the Ocean Rescue 2000 program. will be needed in order to monitor litter monitor our wastes, find out how much Federal Department of the Environment: Canberra. in the other seas and coastal regions there is and work out where it is all Ward, R.G. & Brookfield, M., 1992. The dispersal of the coconut: did it float or was it carriedto Panama? /. BOTTLES ON THE BEACH Biogeog. 19: 467-480. Dr Nigel Wace is a botanist, interested in Glass bottles on a beach are not only removed and the bottles filled with water weeds and plant dispersal. He is a Visiting unpleasant, but a menace to bathers and and hurled as far as possible out into the Fellow in the Department of Biogeography other barefoots when smashed. If, for surl. and Geomorphology at the Australian some reason, glass bottles cannot be car­ Under MARPOL, ships within 12 nauti­ National University, Canberra. The beach­ ried away from a beach and disposed of cal miles (about 22 kilometres) of land are combing at Anxious Bay would have been for recycling, the best thing to do is put required to break glass up in a grinder impossible without the help ofschool chil­ them back in the natural mill from which before disposal at sea. A simple way to dren and their teachers from Adelaide in they came. Smash them on inaccessible reduce the number of glass bottles ending 1991 (Scientific Expeditions Group), from exposed rocks among the waves, where up on our beaches would be to persuade Streaky Bay and Elliston in 1992 and neither scuba divers, swimmers nor rock mariners not to replace the caps when 1993, and from the South Australian scramblers venture. The pounding surt will they have finished drinking the contents. Research and Development institute soon grind the sharp fragments smooth to An unstoppered glass bottle will soon sink (SARDI). Financial support was kindly join the pebbles and other quartz grains at sea and, although perhaps a problem provided through the Federal Government's that make up the sand on the beach and for some inhabitants of the sea-floor, it is Ocean Rescue 2000 program. For informa­ the sea-floor. If there is nowhere safe to less objectionable in marine sediments tion on futurelitter surveys at Anxious Bay, smash them, their stoppers should be than lying on a beach. contact SARDI (Aquatic Sciences) in Adelaide. 52 ANH We' re tnaking sure Eric doesn't becotne bone idle.

Having Our latest been around for introduction has 110 million years more than one it would seem great connt>ction only fair to let with Eric. The Eric take it easy. very aptly named However, before Coober Pedy hat. this takes place It is quite suitable we do feel that for either town or everyone should the country and have a chance to features an opal see him. That's in pride of place why at Akubra on the band. It is we are extremely also a very fitting proud to be the tribute to the spon-..or� of hb adoption of tht' nationwide tour. famous Opal as So who and what is Eric? and probably unique specimen in the National stone of Australia. The Eric i5 a Pliosaur, a long extinct Australia, we were delighted to be Coober Pedy and our many other marine reptile predator that lived able to assist the Museum financially Akubra hats are available from during the Age of Dinosaurs, 110 to together with the many thousands leading department stores, hat shops 120 million years ago. This who responded to the recent and saddleries nationwide. magnificent specimen was found by Quantum appeal, to save Eric from So instead of idling hi!> time a miner, Joe Vida, in Coober Pedy in possible sale overseas. away, Eric began his national tour in 1987. Interestingly all the original Over the years of course, late September in Perth and from bone!> in Eric's skeleton had become our truly Australian family owned there will travel around Australia for opali�ed with white opal, a Company, that is now in its fourth about two years. Details will be preservation unique to Australia. generation, have proudly sponsored advised in your local press. The many fragments that many Australians well known to us went to make up this fascinating all. Also since 1956 we have been skeleton were carefully put together supplying hats for our with over 450 hours of patient work. Olympians and from well AKUBRA This reconstruction was entrusted to before that, the famous the Paleontology department of the Slouch Hat that clearly Australian Museum under the identifies our Army. It's no supervision of Dr. Alex Ritchie. wonder Akubra is known as To keep this wonderful Australia's most famous hat.

ncient scorpions were more diverse and much bigger than today. Some were giants a metre long, compared with 30 centimetres for the longest alive today.

Scorpions are ancient animals that there is a pair of small jaw-like pincers have survived with little structural (chelicerae) in front of the mouth with change since Silurian times, some 360 which food can be torn to pieces. Like million years ago (that's 170 million their fellow arachnid relatives, the spi­ years before dinosaurs began!). All have ders, they have four pairs of legs and a pair of claws at the front and a sting slits under the body leading into special on the tail, which can strike forwards breathing organs called book lungs. over the scorpion's back at an intruder Although they have shared the same or at prey held in its claws. Scorpions basic body plan, ancient scorpions were do not have true jaws (mandibles) but more diverse and much bigger than today. Some were giants a metre long, compared with 30 centimetres for the longest alive today. They were also AUSTRALIAN marine, Prominent in legends of early SCORPIONS Mediterranean civilisations, scorpions have always had an evil reputation, but Worldwide there are nine scorpion do they deserve it? Certainly in some families occurring in warm and tem­ parts of the world they do; in Africa, the perate climates. Four families (listed below), containing at least 30 and Middle East, Central and South America perhaps up to 80 species (depending and parts of Asia deadly species threat­ on taxonomic viewpoint), are repre­ en humans and animals alike. In sented in Australia. Australia, however, none is known to be particularly dangerous. There has only Buthldae been one recorded fatality in Australia, Includes all the dangerous scorpions in the world. Large in some countries, but we do not know what scorpion but small (less than five centimetres) caused it as the toddler's father under­ and harmless in Australia. Most have standably stamped on it. Night training small claws and stout tail. Includes during World War 2 brought soldiers the Little Marbled Scorpion (Lychas crawling through bush into close con­ spiders, occasionally small lizards and marmoreus), the Alexandrine tact with the Inland Robust Scorpion particularly other scorpions fall prey to Scorpion (L. alexandrinus), and the (Urodacus yaschenkoi), whose painful them. They seldom eat ants, and some endemic Spider-hunting Scorpion sting kept them off duty for a day or so, slaters and millipedes are rejected. (lsometroides vescus) and Dry Lake but most scorpion stings are no worse Scorpion (Australobuthus xerolimnio­ Often scorpions subdue their prey rum). than that of a bee. Although rightly using claws alone, but struggling prey feared in parts of the world where they can be stung as well. Once secured, the Scorplonldae are dangerous, scorpions do not seem prey is tom up with the 'jaws' and predi­ Includes some very large examples, to induce the instinctive horror that gested outside the body by drooling e.g. the Emperor Scorpion (Pandinus many people feel towards spiders, saliva onto it. The resulting soup is imperatot, from Africa, 20 centime­ snakes or sharks. tres long. Represented in Australia by sucked in through the narrow gullet, the endemic genus Urodacus, includ­ Scorpion venom is a cocktail of nerve and absorbed into the same gland (the ing the Inland Robust Scorpion (U. toxins. It is particularly useful in the hepatopancreas) that produced the sali­ yaschenko1) and Yellow Sand study of human and other nervous sys­ va, a storage organ as well as gland. A Scorpion (U. armatus) that dig bur­ tems because the different toxins can scorpion's metabolism is so slow that rows, and the Black Rock Scorpion block specific chemical pathways. the stored food from one meal lasts for (U. manicatus) and Flinders Ranges However, it is largely by chance that the months. Its food provides almost all the Scorpion (U. elongatus) that live venom of certain species may be dan­ water it needs, and scorpion cuticle is under stones. gerous to humans, since the scorpions so waterproof that many never need to lschnurldae were around long before we were, and drink. Water is also conserved by Represented in warm, wet areas of their venom is adapted to their usual excreting dry nitrogenous waste prod­ Queensland, Northern Territory and prey, not to us. The scorpion's sting is ucts, as spiders and some reptiles do. countries to the north of Australia. smooth, unlike that of a bee, so can be Scorpions have several prey-catching Includes the Smooth-clawed Scorpion used repeatedly without harm to its strategies. Some walk about on the sur­ (Liocheles waigiensis). Live under owner. The venom, made in a pair of face at night, catching whatever they bark, in crevices under stones, in leaf venom glands in the base of the stinger, litter and in rotten logs. bump into. Others, such as certain is replenished when used, and in coun­ sand-dwelling scorpions of western Bothrlurldae tries where scorpions are a health prob­ orth America, can pick up ground Occur in temperate parts of South lem serum institutes keep thousands of vibrations from prey on the surface, America and Africa. Represented in scorpions that they 'milk' for the pro­ which they then catch by a swift rush Australia by the endemic genus duction of antivenoms. and a grab with the claws. They can Cercophonius, which includes Tasmania's only scorpion, the even detect burrowing cockroaches Southern Scorpion (C. squama). LL SCORPIONS ARE CARNIVORES AND beneath the sand, plunging their claws Small and harmless, litter-dwellers. Awill eat practically anything that is down to catch the insect. Australian alive and the right size. How big that is sand-dwelling scorpions like the Inland depends on the scorpion, but insects, Robust Scorpion can probably do this 56 ANH Deadly to humans in other parts of the world, most of Australia's scorpions are relatively harmless with their sting no worse than a bee's. too; they certainly startle at a footstep, but may not be as sensitive as their American relatives. Many scorpions, including the Inland Robust Scorpion, are expert diggers in sandy soil and sit in the mouth of their burrow waiting for prey to come by. These burrows can be up to a metre deep, and are used to avoid extremes of heat and drought, as well as a retreat from predators and as a brood chamber. The Inland Robust Scorpion's burrow has a characteristic entrance, with a crescentic mouth and a lip over the top. Outside is a spoil heap from the original excavation and from frequent cleaning out of fallen or blown sand, done at nightfall. This habit can be used to catch the inhabitant; a tin dug in at the looks simple, underground things are Scorpions will eat practically anything, burrow mouth will collect the scorpion different; the scorpion spirals as it digs. including other scorpions. This Yellow Sand as it emerges. Give one a bucket of firm The spirals may be very tight, and do Scorpion has captured a dung beetle. sand and you can watch it burrow, at not always twist the same way. least until it disappears below the sur­ Sometimes the twist changes part way face. 111e 'jaws' are used alternately to down (possibly because a root or rock loosen the soil, which is then gathered is in the way), but always the burrow up by the front two pairs of legs. Using ends in a chamber where there is room these as a basket, the scorpion backs to tum round. out, finally sweeping the sand aside The Spider-hunting Scorpion with its tail. This technique is very effec­ (Jsometroides vescus), which is unique to tive, and a burrow half a metre deep can Australia, is a dry-country wanderer that easily be dug overnight. has a special prey-catching technique. It Although the mouth of the burrow invades the burrows of trapdoor and ANH 57 Helpless, pale and soft-skinned, these hatchling scorpions (Urodacus sp.) will remain with their mother until their first moult, when their claws and sting will harden. as well, as its tail is weak and so short that it looks as if it could not reach any­ thing in front of the body, although in fact it can. Other scorpions from rainfor­ est and drier wooded places live in leaf litter or under loose bark on large trees, although they do not get into the foliage as their relatives overseas sometimes do. The Little Marbled Scorpion (Lychas marmoreus) lives both under stones on Unlike most scorpions, which favour a solitary but the spider had got a bite in too and, the ground and also under bark; the lat­ way of life, the Little Marbled Scorpion can in less than a minute, both spider and ter particularly in winter, when a dozen often be found aggregating together under scorpion were dead. or more may be found close together. bark during winter. ot all scorpions live in burrows. This tendency to aggregate is unusual; Many kinds live under stones, where most scorpions are solitary, although in wolf spiders, where it kills and eats the they excavate a small scrape to live in. western North America the Bark owner. remaining in the burrow after­ Even quite large scorpions do this. Scorpion ( Centruroides exilicauda), a wards. Particularly effective venom including the Flinders Ranges Scorpion dangerous relative of the Little Marbled accounts for the Spider-hunter's suc­ (Urodacus elongatus), which grows to Scorpion, aggregates in the hollow cess against these large, fierce, spiders, about ten centimetres. The Smooth­ remains of dead cacti. although they do not always get their clawed Scorpion (Liocheles waigiensis) The Dry Lake Scorpion (Austra­ own way. Once I fed a Fiddleback from northern Australia is well adapted lobuthus xerolimniorum) is a small, pale Spider (Loxosceles rufescens) to a Spider­ for living in rock crevices. Its claws are scorpion that occupies a most inhos­ hunting Scorpion, which attacked and large and heavily armoured. and form a pitable habitat-the surface of dry salt stung it immediately. Within ten sec­ semicircular defensive shield when lakes. Unlike other members of its fami­ onds the spider's legs were curling up: backed into its lair. This is perhaps just ly (see box), it burrows, digging into 58 ANH the salty mud under bits of debris. reserves in their digestive gland, and so by building, farmingor other land clear­ Retreating down the burrow from the do not need to feed until they are sever­ ing the scorpions have gone. This, heat of the day, the scorpion emerges at al weeks old. At this stage they moult, together with their secretive, nocturnal night to hunt on the surface rather than leave their mother and start to fend for habits, probably explains why they are using sit-and-wait tactics. themselves. Young scorpions are small so seldom seen; where we now live and and many do not survive, partly due to work, they don't. So does that mean HE MAT! G DANCE OF SCORPIONS IS cannibalism by other larger scorpions Australia's scorpions are threatened? I Twell known; indeed Walt Disney set of the same or different species. Those don't think so: they have managed well it to a square dance in his film "The that do survive may live for years; the by having a sound life strategy, being Living Desert". The male takes the Inland Robust Scorpion does not reach relatively large, tolerant of harsh condi­ female by the claws, and there may be maturity until it is six years old, and tions and keeping out of harm's way. 'fencing' with the tails, although without may well live another ten. With ants and cockroaches, scorpions dangerous intent. The male walks back­ With claws and sting and relatively are among the world's great survivors, wards until he finds a suitable piece of large size scorpions are well protected, and will probably be walking the nights ground where he deposits a double but even they have their predators. long after humans are gone. • packet of sperm. He leads the female Apart from other scorpions, of their own over this and she takes it up into her or other species, scorpions fall prey Further Reading genital tract where fertilisation of the mainly to nocturnal predators, including Brownell, P.H., 1984. Prey detection by the sand scor­ eggs later takes place. The young devel­ goannas and owls. Carnivorous marsu­ pion. Sci. Amer. 251: 94-105. op slowly, and may not be born for pials like quolls will certainly tackle Koch, LE., 1977. The taxonomy, geographic distribu­ almost a year after mating, which takes them and feral cats have been found tion and evolutionary radiation of Australo-Papuan place in the summer months. with their stomachs full of scorpions-a scorpions. Ree. W. Aust. Mus. 5: 83-267. All scorpions give birth to live young, plus or a minus in the cat debate? rather than lay eggs, and as they are Although humans do not catch scorpi­ Polis, G.A. (ed.), 1990. The biology of scorpions. born the hatchlings, up to about 40 of ons to eat, they may be more destruc­ Stanford University Press: Stanford. them, clamber onto the mother's back. tive-unintentionally-than any natural Dr Adam locket teaches in the Anatomy At first they are helpless, pale and soft­ predator. Like all animals from jaguars Deparlment at Adelaide University. He has skinned and don't have the hardened to jellyfish, scorpions depend on their studied scorpions since coming to Australia claws and sting they acquire at first particular habitat, varied as that may be, from the UK 14 years ago. He also works on moult. But they do have plenty of food and where habitat has been destroyed vision in deep-sea fishes. ANH 59 A basket star, Conoc/adus australis, wraps its arms around a gorgonian in Bass Strait.

60 ANH PHOT OART

Detail from the caudal fin of a male Shaw's Cowfish (Aracana aurita).

UNDERWATER ABSTRACTS BY JON BRYAN

e variety of life in the sea is stagger­ ng. Glowing rainbow colours and a multitude of structures and shapes are living advertisements for the wonderful diversity of nature. Opportunities for photog­ raphy seem endless. While interesting subjects are common in the ocean, it is often difficult to find one that can be isolated from its surroundings to form a useful image on film, particularly if you want more than just a simple record shot. Close-up photography is a great way to pick out the essential features of many sub­ jects. Magnifications of between half and twice life size often provide views of com­ mon marine organisms that reveal delightful patterns formed by colours, shapes and tex­ tures. The range of possible abstract images under water is intriguing and limited only by imagination. Abstract images of marine life don't just produce pretty patterns-they can transport us into an enchanting part of the natural world that is normally hidden from These bubble-like vesicles actually our experience. make up the outer body wall of Phlyctenactis tuberculosa, a large anemone that is common In the waters of temperate Australia.

ANH 61 P H O T O A R T

Stony coral from the Maldives.

Tentacles and body wall of a tropical anemone from the Maldives.

UNDERWATER ABSTRACTS

62 ANH Colonial ascidian or seasquirt. ANH 63 Like many other starfish, Tosia australis is armoured with a patchwork of multicoloured plates.

64 ANH PHOTO AR r'

A tiny section of a fan-shaped gorgonian coral produces an image that reveals feeding polyps less than a millimetre across.

UNDERWATER ABSTRACTS

Porcelain crab (Petrolisthes elongatus). Tasmania. ANH 65 Northern Australia may dolphins. Irrawaddies prefer coastal harbour the largest and estuarine habitats or the muddy, protected waters of rivers and lakes. concentration ofthis dolphin, They rarely show much of the body yet it remains largely unknown when rising to the surface to breathe and live their lives largely hidden from to most Australians. the prying eyes of humans. Incredibly, not a single photograph of Irrawaddy N 1868, ZOOLOGIST JOHN ANDERSON Dolphins in the wild has been pub­ was sailing up the Irrawaddy River lished (most are shots of a group of in Burma (now Myanmar) when captives at the Jaya Ancol Aquarium in he noticed what looked like a Jakarta, Indonesia). Further mystery smallI school of dolphins behaving in a surrounds the ancestry of the bizarre manner. In his monograph of Irrawaddy Dolphin. While superficially 1879 he wrote "They swam with a the species has features common to all rolling motion near the surface, with true dolphins (family Delphinidae), their heads half out of water ... they internal characteristics such as the ejected great volumes of water out of structure of their earbones and their their mouths, generally straight before neck mobility more closely resemble them, but sometimes nearly vertical...". that of the Arctic Belugas or White On closer inspection, Anderson Wales (Delphinapterus leucas, family noticed the dolphins lacked a beak Monodontidae). So, are Irrawaddy Dolphins really the "equatorial equivalent" of Belugas as suggested by Dr Edward Mitchell of the Canadian Department of the THE Environment, Fisheries and Marine Service? It's definitely a possibility. A fossil monodontid whale (similar to the Beluga) discovered in Mexico suggests IRRAWADDY these whales once had quite a wide dis­ tribution, existing not only in the Arctic but also in warmer areas. Thus it is pos­ sible that the common ancestor of Irrawaddy Dolphins and Belugas could DOLPHIN also have been widespread and, as the BY ALEX BORTOLI climate changed over time, one group of animals may have become restricted to the Arctic while the other group adapted to tropical conditions, resulting in the two completely separate ranges of the species that we see today. (their head was almost rounded in But not everyone agrees with this the­ appearance) and had a distinct, func­ ory. Research in progress by Ors tional neck. More unusual still, officials George Heinsohn (James Cook and fishermen in the area told how University of orth Queensland) and each village along the river had its own Peter Arnold (Museum of Tropical 'guardian dolphin' that would apparent­ Queensland) suggest that Irrawaddies ly herd fishes into the fishermens' nets. swim firmly in the dolphin camp. Believing the animals to be a new They have been comparing the skele­ species, Anderson christened them ton and other features of various dol­ Irrawaddy Dolphins (Orcaella flumin­ phins, porpoises (family Phocoenidae), alis) after the river in which they were Belugas, Narwhals (also known as first found. It is now generally recog­ Unicorn Whales, Monodon monoceros) nised that the animals Anderson and the primitive river dolphins, such observed belonged to an earlier as Platanista spp. Using the computer described species, Orcaella brevirostris, program 'Hennig', they can compare a but the common name Irrawaddy wide range of anatomical features Dolphin has been retained. (such as skull, earbones, post-cranial We now know Irrawaddies range skeleton, nasal sacs, cranial sinuses) from the Bay of Bengal in India, down rather than treating only one or two of through the Indo-Malay Archipelago these features on their own. Although and into the northern reaches of results are still preliminary, all analyses Australia as well as Papua New Guinea. carried out so far closely link Belugas Irrawaddy Dolphins (also called and Narwhals and separate them clear­ Snubfin Dolphins because of the small ly from Irrawaddy Dolphins. The latter dorsal fin) occur as far south as consistently link with the true dolphins Yeppoon, Queensland. Recent surveys and porpoises. suggest that northern Australia har­ This view has received recent support bours the largest concentrations of this from studies on DNA by Ors S. dolphin, yet it remains largely unknown Gretarsdottir and U. Amason from the to most Australians. University of Lund in Sweden. They Part of the explanation for this lies showed that the repeat length of DNA with the habitat and behaviour of these base pairs (that is, the matching bases 66 ANH tie creature. In Kalimantan, Borneo, for example, it is strongly suspected that logging along the lower parts of the Mahakam River may have caused their disappearance there. While some mys­ teries about the Irrawaddy Dolphin are being resolved, much work remains to be done. Field work will lead to a more accurate count of Irrawaddy Dolphins left in the wild, especially in northern Queensland and the NorthernTerritory where large populations are thought to exist. In this way, specific areas can be identified and possibly protected so that the species remains free to live in its natural environment. •

Further Reading Anderson, J., 1879. Anatomical and zoological researches: comprising an account of the zoological results of the two expeditions to Western Yunnan in 1868 and 1875; and a monograph of the two cetacean genera, Platanista and Orcella {sic/. Bernard Quaritich: London.

Freeland, W.J. & Bayliss, P., 1989. The lrrawaddy River dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) in coastal waters of the Northern Territory, Australia: distribution, abun­ dance and seasonal changes. Mammalia 53: 49-57.

Gretarsdottir, S. & Amason, U., 1992. Evolution of the common cetacean highly repetitive DNA compo­ nent and the systematic position of Orcaella brevi­ rostris. J. Molec. Evol. 34: 201-208.

Marsh, H., Lloze, R., Heinsohn, G.E. & Kasuya, T., 1989. lrrawaddyDolphin Orcael/a brevirostris (Gray, 1866). Pp. 101-118 in Handbook of marine mam­ mals. Vol. 4, ed. by S.H. Ridgway and R.J. Harrison. lrrawaddy Dolphins remain largely unknown For the Irrawaddy Dolphin though, Academic Press: New York. to most people. The shots were taken at time may be running out. The IUCN Jaya Ancol Oceanarlum In Jakarta, Indonesia, Red Book of endangered species cur­ Mitchell, E.D., 1975. Porpoise, dolphin and small where a number of the dolphins are housed rently lists its status as "Insufficiently whale fisheries of the world. IUCN: Morges, In a freshwater pool. Known". Within northern Australia, an Switzerland. unknown number of animals is killed in Alex Bartoli is a freelance science journal­ within nucleotides that make up a DNA net fisheriesand they have been caught ist based in the Whitsunday region, north­ strand) in most toothed whales (includ­ in shark nets set off northern beaches. ern Queensland. He would like to thank Dr ing Belugas and Narwhals) was around Elsewhere along the Irrawaddy Peter Arnold (Museum of Tr opical 1,750 pairs. In the true dolphins of the Dolphin's range, development is Queensland, Townsville) for his help in family Delphinidae, however, the putting increasing pressure on this gen- compiling this article. length was approximately 1,580 pairs. When they examined the DNA of an Irrawaddy Dolphin from Australia, the repeat length of base pairs was 1,583- IRRAWADDY DOLPHIN an almost identical match-up to all Orcaella brevirostris other delphinids examined. Thus the classic idea that Irrawaddies Identification Diet belong to the dolphin family seems Average 2.1 metres long, although 2.75- Bottom fishes, squid and shrimp. secure. How then can we explain the metre adults have been measured. Unlike outward similarity of Irrawaddy most dolphins, lrrawaddy Dolphins range in Reproduction Dolphins to Belugas? Is it, as some peo­ colour from pale to dark bluish grey, lack a Little known. Lifespan estimated to be ple think, simply a case of convergent distinct beak, have a blunt head and a dis­ about 30 years, with age of maturity about evolution, where two species have tinct and functional neck. Their dorsal fin is 4 or 5. One captive female gave birth to an evolved to look like one another under small and rounded at the tip. In the 85-centimetre-long baby after a gestation similar conditions (for example a lrrawaddy River (but not Australia) they period of 14 months. coastal habitat)? Or does it lie much have been seen squirting water out of their mouths in a high, cylindrical arc. Status further back in evolutionary time? Dr Little known. Preliminary surveys in Borneo Arnold believes it is the latter. The Habitat and Distribution indicate lrrawaddies are still fairly common studies on morphology suggest that Tropical rivers and estuarine and coastal in major river systems. In Australia, they Irrawaddies are one of, if not the most habitats, from as far south as Yeppoon, are thought to be widespread in the tropi­ primitive of, the living dolphins. This Queensland, to as far north as India, ca I north, but no systematic survey has would explain the similarity in looks­ Bangladesh and Burma (now Myanmar). been conducted. Irrawaddies have simply retained cer­ lrrawaddies have been reported over 1,400 tain primitive features shared with river kilometres upstream in fresh water. dolphins, Belugas and porpoises. ANH 67 she refreshed her grip on the Good VIEWS FROM THE FOURTH DIMENSION Book and launched into the rest of her well-rehearsed litany. My response to her question was not going to be dis­ Clearly, whatever these creatures cussed. are, they are neither simple worms The fossil record abounds with evolu­ tionary links like australopithecines nor simple arthropods. (linking humans to other apes). Most are intermediate species that link other species through time but some link high-level groups. Archaeopteryx, for example, flies across the gap between VELVET WORMS: reptiles and birds, mammal-like reptiles pulverise the gap between reptiles and mammals (ANH Winter 1991) and NON-MISSING archaic Eocene whales with small but functional limbs link the limbless and fully aquatic whales to land-dwelling MISSING LINKS mammals. In contrast to evolutionary links, 'liv­ BY MICHAEL ARCHER ing fossils' are organisms that have maintained the basic form of their own ancient ancestors-biological exem­ plars of the adage 'When you're on a weakening of resolve in her intended good thing, stick to it!' An example is prey, she fixed me through the screen the modern Platypus, which has with a predatory eye and challenged, "If Australian ancestors up to 110 million the 'apemen' were so superior to apes, years in age and a 63-million-year-old how come they died out but apes are Argentinian cousin, all with incredibly still here?" similar teeth despite the vast spans of I sighed as I looked into those nar­ time separating each from the other rowed peepers wondering where to (ANH Summer 1990-91). Another is LTHOUGH ANXIOUS TO begin. "The 'apemen'-australop­ the Coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae), snatch another soul ithecines-did not die out. We are a lobe-finned fish belonging to a group from Satan, the woman was having those apemen, just as living apes are thought to have become extinct 80 mil­ trouble getting her Bible inside my members of the group from which they lion years ago-until 1938 when a 1.5- screen door. If she was unnerved by descended. In the same way, dinosaurs metre golden-eyed fish with fleshy my confession that I was a palaeontolo­ didn't die out-they're still alive and limb-like fins nearly bit offthe hand of gist it was not apparent. Without miss­ kicking as modern birds. All that's the South African fisherman who tried ing a beat she launched into her anti­ happened is an evolutionary change evolutionary diatribe from the front through time in the shape of the crea­ An unnamed peripatus collected from the step. It began with the joyful news of tures in these long-lasting lineages." forests near Macquarie Harbour on the west the Good Book before quickly moving Although the word 'dinosaur' caused an coast of Tasmania. This location is where onto the ungodly concept of evolution eyebrow to flicker, the rest appeared to Michael Archer saw his first specimen and it and the non-existence of links between produce a sour taste in her mouth. is just one of the many newly discovered the basic created kinds. Seeing no After a moment of awkward silence, species from Australia.

68 ANH to pull it out of his net. African peripatus, make it clear that Among 'living fossils', some have the this group is indeed extraordinary! additional distinction of being descen­ Some males, for example, mate with I BUSHWALKING dants of groups that were also 'missing their heads, dropping or ramming a links'. Living peripatus or 'velvet spermatophore onto the female's skin. HOLIDAYS worms' (onychophorans) are just such She dissolves a hole in her body under a doubly significant group. My first the offering, sucks it in and then mix­ A challenge with a difference. encounter with some of these extraor­ matches its genetic contents with her Leave the crowds and stress of the city dinary creatures was on a cliff face at own. In some forms, the unborn young behind. Enjoy a wonderful wilderness Macquarie Harbour, Tasmania. We are nourished by means of a placenta experience with only your own small were searching early Tertiary rocks, similar to that which nourishes unborn group for company. Swim in beautiful mammals. Then, again depending on desperately trying to find fossil mam­ pools by day, relax around a camp fireat mals that would link Australia's living the species, some are popped into the kinds to those that wiggled whiskers at world as an egg that can take an incred­ night and wake up to the call of the birds. the moonlight of a united Gondwana. ible 17 months to hatch, while others With my nose only centimetres from are squeezed out live like pale little bits KAKADU the cliff struggling to determine the of legged string. Clearly, whatever A tropical paradise where the water identity of a tiny enamelled tooth frag­ these creatures are, they are neither is always warm enough for a swim, ment, a diminutive brown sausage simple worms nor simple arthropods. where countless rock art sites tell mounted on two rows of stubby little In view of the 530-million-year-old Aysheaia, the story of the world's oldest legs 'flow-walked' right in front of my no-one has challenged the living culture. eyes before vanishing into the vegeta­ 'living fossil' status of peripatus. But tion overhead. Although the most their role as a 'missing link' between graceful 'worm' I had ever seen, it annelids and arthropods has been ques­ looked like something that belonged in tioned. For example, it was suggested Alice in Wonderland. on the basis of molecular studies using I was to learn later that it was a peri­ mitochondrial DNA that onycho­ patu s, one of perhaps 100 species phorans might be a specialised group thought to exist in Australia (only ten of arthropods that became secondarily of which have been formally des­ annelid-like. cribed). Because these creatures seem But most recently Ward Wheeler to be half-worm (many-segmented (American Museum of Natural History) THE KIMBERLEY worm-like body, soft skin and excretory and his colleagues have flattened all A wilderness larger than Victoria, tubules in most body segments) and prior scepticism. With new and far where flying is often the only means half-arthropod (walking legs, antennae more detailed molecular data, and a and a tracheal system for gas critical review of previous arguments, exchange), they have long been regard­ they conclude that onychophorans are ed as an interphyletic link between unmistakably between annelids on the annelids (earthworms, leeches, marine one hand and arthropods on the worms) and arthropods (insects, other-so they are, on the best evi­ spiders and other joint-legged inverte­ dence available, non-missing 'missing brates), two groups otherwise separat­ links' after all. The irony of this is that it ed by a gulf, rather than a gap, of has taken some of modern science's THE RED CENTRE morphology. most sophisticated techniques to redis­ Rugged mountain ranges, beautiful As descendants of an ancient inter­ cover the same conclusion reached oases and a surprising amount of phyletic link, peripatus should have a over 50 years ago by Robert Snodgrass wildlifefor those who take the time very old fossil record. Consequently, (US Department of Agriculture) on the to look carefully. few were surprised when palaeontolo­ basis of good 'old-fashioned' anatomical gists working on the Cambrian studies. Science lurches ahead. Burgess Shale deposit (now secured in As my would-be saviour at the Yoho National Park in Canada) discov­ kitchen door droned on about the non­ ered Aysheaia, a 530-million-year-old sense of missing links, I couldn't help marine onychophoran. In this ancient wondering what she would have done if community, it coexisted with familiar she saw a little velvet worm gliding It's easier than you might think. For a creatures like jellyfish and sponges, towards her across the open pages of free 16 page brochure, contact and totally unfamiliar beasts like the her Good Book, bringing her the Good incredible predator Anomalocaris, the News about missing links. • vacuum-cleaner-nosed, five-eyed Opabinia and the weird 'whatsit' Further Reading Hallucigenia. This was a period in Gould, S.J., 1989. Wonderful life. Hutchinson Radius: Earth's history when phyletic biodiver­ London. sity was at its highest. By comparison, Earth's species-rich modem oceans are Snodgrass, R.E., 1938. Evolution of the Annelida, an embarrassment of phyletic poverty. Onychophora and Arthropoda. Smith. MiSl. Coll. 97: Fortunately, descendants of Aysheaia 1-59. hung on, made the crossing to damp Wheeler, W.C., Cartwright, P. & Hayashi, C.Y., 1993. forests on land and now maintain a rub­ Arthropodphylogeny: a combined approach. C/adistics bery leg-hold in the shadowy places of 9: 1-39. the modern world. Noel Tait, Dave Briscoe and Mandy Reid from Professor Michael Archer lectures in biolo­ Macquarie University have been study­ gy and geology at the University of New ing these midget carnivores for eight South Wales. Most of his non-teaching years (ANH Autumn 1989). Their dis­ hours are devoted to the study of the fossil coveries, combined with studies of faunas of Riversleigh.

ANH 69 tographs that has no equal is also acknowledged. as a pictorial record of Second, detailed recommen­ REVIEWS Australia's vertebrate hist­ dations are given for moni­ ory. toring and active manage­ Pat Vickers-Rich and Tom ment within the Park to Rich are to be congratulated indefinitely maintain its cur­ on their efforts in bringing rent complement of verte­ this impressive work to pub­ brate species. Management lication. It deserves to have a is essential to mitigate the wide reception. It is obvious effectsof feral species and of that I am not the only one tourism in areas such as who likes this book. The Yulara Village, Kata Tjuta authors received the Eureka (the Olgas) and Uluru itself. Award for Wildlife of Finally, and perhaps most geological history of Gondwana as best book for importantly, extensive infor­ Gondwana is explained, after 1993. And a worthy winner it mation has been contributed WILDLIFEOF which the reader is taken on is too. to the survey by Anangu, the a quick trip through the -Walter Boles traditional owners of the GONDWANA major evolutionary events of Australian Museum Land. This information each time period until the includes detailed knowledge present. The second part, of the biology of many verte­ "The Search for Begin­ ULU�U FAUNA brate species, their Anangu nings", is a brief history of names, and insight into the Australian vertebrate palae­ practices that Anangu use to ontology, introducing the "look after country". Some major events and workers knowledge is intriguing and until the present. should surely stimulate fur­ The third part constitutes ther investigation. For exam­ the major section of the ple, novel insight is provided PATRICIA VICKERS-RICH THOMAS HEWITT RICH book. "Fossil Vertebrates of into the food-hoarding Australia" moves chronologi­ behaviour of the Spinifex cally from the appearance of Hopping Mouse (Notomys Gondwana's first verte­ alexis), vocalisations are doc­ Wildlife brates, over 500 million umented in reptiles such as of Gondwana years ago, passing through the Sand Python (Aspidites By Patricia Vickers-Rich and such notable events as the ramsayi) and Burton's Thomas Hewitt Rich. Reed Age of Fishes, the emer­ Snake-Liza rd (Lia/i s Books, NSW, 1993, 2 76pp. gence of the first land verte­ Kowari 4: b u rtonis), and nurturing of $59.95rrp. brates, the appearance of the Uluru Fauna young is described in others dinosaurs. and the rise and By J.R.W. Reid, J.A. Kerle such as the skink Menetia After years of having to fall of the megafauna. The and S.R. Morton. Australian greyii and goanna Varanus subsist on Northern Hem­ specimens are presented in National Parks & Wildlife eremius. Linking Anangu isphere books presenting high-quality colour pho­ Service, Canberra, 1993, knowledge with the conven­ Northern Hemisphere fos­ tographs, most of which 152pp. $30.00rrp. tional scientific approach, sils, Australia has in the past were taken especially for the Uluru fauna produces rec­ decade or so finally acquired book by Francesco Coffa Uluru fauna reports the ommendations for manage­ a suite of good, home-grown and Steven Morton. These results of the most detailed ment of Uluru ational Park publications dealing with its are complemented by good ecological survey of verte­ that are more extensive and home-grown fossil record. text illustrations and some brate animals that has been better informed than for any One of the prominent pub­ excellent reconstructions by carried out in arid Australia. other reserve area in arid lishing events of that period artist Peter Trusler that Working at eight sites in Australia. was Mary White's Greening make the reader wish that Uluru ational Park, Fourth in a series of book- of Gondwana. This book more had been included. Northern Territory, the 1 ength publications pro­ details the evolution of The book concludes with a authors took a census of ver­ duced by the Australian Australia's plant life, putting quick look at "Gondwanan tebrates on seven occasions Nature Conservation Agency it into a global context and Faunas in Global Context". a between September 1987 (formerly Australian at­ bringing it to life with a lav­ photographic survey of sig­ and March 1990, and ional Parks and Wildlife ish array of colour pho­ nificant vertebrate fossils obtained records of three Service), under the Kowari tographs of the fossils them­ from other southern con­ frog, 70 reptile, 117 bird and title, Uluru fauna maintains selves. tinents once connected to 25 mammal species. the same unusual spiral­ It has taken until now for a Australia. This is followed by Valuable though this survey bound format, high-quality complementary volume on a glossary of terms. information is. the real presentation of scientific the vertebrate animal life to Wildlife of Go11dwa11a importance of Uluru fauna information, and tradi_ tion of appear. and Wildlife of should appeal to a varied lies in three furtheraspects. superb colour illustrations. Gondwana follows a similar audience. For the secondary First. an attempt is made My only (minor) quibbles general format to Greening or tertiary student it pro­ to identify the functional with this book are that two of Gondwana. vides good background processes that produce pat­ components of the Uluru The preliminary part. material introducing the his­ terns in the distribution and fauna-frogs and bats-are "Gondwana in Perspective". tory of vertebrates and abundance of species within dealt with very briefly and provides a framework of palaeontology in Australia. the Park. Rainfall and fire that the quality of several ideas to support the illustrat­ For the fossil enthusiast. and are most obviously impor­ computer-generated figures ed fossil record that forms even the casual browser, it tant. but the probable impact is rather poor. There is also the bulk of the book. In the contains an invaluable com­ of feral species such as rab­ some tendency for repetition introductory section. the pilation of excellent pho- bits. foxes. cats and camels between sections (for exam- 70 ANH pie, much earlier material is er of a bizarre egg sac being where are Ocean Perch be with us. restated in Chapter 8), per­ finally revealed (upon hatch­ caught? Where do our other Australian fisheries re­ haps inevitable in a multi­ ing of the sac) as a land fish and invertebrates come sources is available through authored book. Nonetheless, leech. Pedantics like me will from and how are they the Bureau of Resource Uluru fauna is an important, find it difficult to pick errors caught? Much of this infor­ Sciences, Can-berra, and pioneering work and, at or discrepancies. The copy I mation has languished in fil­ Patricia Kailola c/- Fisheries $30.00, represents excellent saw was a hard cover and ing cabinets and unpub­ R. & D. Corp-oration, PO value. It is essential reading reasonably priced. It runs 32 lished theses or fisheries Box 9025, Deakin, ACT for anyone concerned with pages including the index. pamphlets for years. Patricia 2600. the biology of arid Australia. All in all, an excellent book Kailola and fellow editors -lain Suthers -Chris Dickman for the budding naturalist. have now assembled this University of NS W University of Sydney -Martyn Robinson disparate information into Australian Museum one solid and high-quality reference on 101 species of (.qRO / '1 db, ECONOMIC PLANTS fish and 45 species of inver­ / AUSTRALIA tebrates (with another 172 less common species noted in brief). To do this, they acknowledge nearly 500 experts from around Aust­ ralia who provided informa­ tion and reviewed the text. In the first chapter, Australia's fishery is placed into an international context. It ranks 55th in the world with only 200,000 tonnes caught annually, and yet has the third largest fishing zone CSIRO Handbook in the world. The reasons of Economic Life in a are found in the next chap­ Plants of Rotten Log Australian ter, describing the pivotal Australia By Kathie Atkinson. Allen & Fisheries role of Australia's nutrient­ Ed. by M. Lazarides and B. Unwin Press, NSW, 1993, Resources starved oceans, and the rela­ Hince. CS/RO, Melbourne, 32pp. $16.95rrp. Ed. by Patricia Kaila/a et al. tively small continental 1993, 330pp. $50.00rrp. Bureau of Resource Sciences, shelves. Fish habitats such For children who are inter­ ACT, 1993, 422pp. as coral reefs, coastal envir­ This is a disappointing ested in natural history the $120.00rrp. onments, estuaries and book. It claims to be an title alone should make this rivers are reviewed, and the "authoritative collation of book a prized possession. At last! Fellow fishers, stu­ environmental threats are information on important Life in a rotten log takes the dents, gourmets and bud­ highlighted. Next we are economic plants found in reader on a trip through the ding economists take note. introduced to the main types Australia", and one of its steady march of decay from Here is an entertaining ency­ of fishing gear, marketing, major objectives is to pro­ the initial collapse of a tree clopedia of Australia's com­ fishquality and taste. vide preferred common in a forest to its final scatter­ mercial fish and fisheries. The central chapter is names for these plants. ing amongst the litter and Even to a teacher of fish biol­ the gem. It is a goldmine of Unfortunately, it falls far humus on the forest floor. It ogy, Australia's fisheries are fisheries information on dis­ short of these aims. even points to new begin­ bewilderingly diverse. Over tribution, price, reproductive Most of the book is an nings with the start of a new 200 species of fish, 60 and feeding habits-all annotated index of plants, tree in the ruins of the old. species of crustaceans and gleaned from many sources listing each plant's scientific This book shows that, far 30 species of molluscs pass and documented in a consis­ name, preferred common from being an uninteresting through our nation's mar­ tent fashion for each species. name (where available), and unpleasant process, the kets, making our fisheries Did you know bream and growth form and references. rotting of a tree provides one of the most complex in Barramundi can change sex Native, cultivated and natur­ food and lodging fora whole the world. And, the last during their lives (as do alised plants are included succession of organisms. overview of Australia's fish­ many other species)? It is where these are significant This is amply illustrated by eries was a map and explana­ hard to fault this book (other as fodder plants, weeds, Kathie's excellent colour tory booklet published in than the unfortunate price foods, medicines, timber photos that make even 1965! Since then the Gulf of and a list of corrections that trees, poisons, crops or orna­ leeches appear attractive Carpentaria prawn fishery seems excessive). Perhaps a mentals. camera subjects. developed and stabilised, the few more photographs with The many shortcomings of The text is concise without gemfish and Southern Blue more extensive captions, the book fall into three main being dull or unreadable and Fin Tuna catch bloomed and and a section on basic fish­ categories: omissions, poor boxes appear on various collapsed, aquaculture eries management. Fish name choices and errors. pages with additional "did increased to almost a fifth of must be left in the ocean to First the omissions. I was you know"-type information. total fisheries production, spawn at least once, yet our amazed to find no mention It should be readily assimi­ the 200-nautical-mile Aust­ ability to do this with highly of the very first plants I lated by young readers or ralian Fishing Zone was advanced fishing techniques looked up, Powderpuff easily interpreted by parents declared and, most recently, is difficult to achieve. When Lillypilly (Syzygium wilsonii) for even younger listeners. we have witnessed the the next version comes out and Cherry Alder (S. lueh­ Accuracy seems excellent Orange Roughy gold rush. (on CD ROM the editors manii). Both are very popu­ and there is even some How can anyone keep tabs propose), let us hope that lar native garden plants, and ground-breaking information on all these species? How our main money makers in the latter is a mainstay of the with the unidentified produc- often is one asked how and Australian fisheries will still bush foods restaurant trade 71 A N H (marketed as "Riberry"). incorrect reference. Incor­ that preying mantises have stand. Each topic is covered Other remarkable omissions rect references were also only one ear and it's in a few hundred words, so include Coast Pandanus noted for Piper and Pipturus. between their wings? it's a great book for dipping (Pandanus tectorius) and Solanum aviculare is wrong­ In the book's introduction, into at bedtime. Brown Pine (P odocarpus ela­ ly listed as an introduced Richard says discovering the Finally. I couldn't agree tus). It is also odd that no plant. I didn't go looking for diversity and richness of life more with Richard when he common names are given errors and there are no in the wild is like "having a says he can't help feeling for Jpomoea pescaprae doubt many more. huge box of intriguing that the more people findout (Goats-foot Convolvulus), This book obviously suf­ chocolates to keep sampling. about our remarkable and Billardiera scandens (Com­ fered major problems during Go on, try another," he says. unusual creatures, the more mon Appleberry), Tac ea production. Too few refer­ "It's a natural selection". they will be concerned about leontopetaloides (Polynesian ences were consulted. too lit­ This book is divided into them. This is why the vener­ Arrowroot), Ficus benjamina tle consideration was given six chapters on topics such able institution of ANH is (Weeping Fig). Mallotus to choice of common names. as what's good for dinner. such a great concept! philippensis (Red Kamala), and too little care was taken raising babies, how animals' Oh yes, and Richard, can I Jagera pseudorhus (Foam­ in compilation. The CSIRO bodies work and, of course, borrow one of your iguanas bark) and many others, should act swiftly to produce good old sex. The latter next Saturday night? although the plants them­ a corrected edition. To their unsealed section begins with -John Dengate selves are listed under their credit, the editors invite a few basic evolutionary The Environment scientific names. 'Polynesian comment on common lessons. It points out that Protection Authority Arrowroot' is well known names, errors and omis­ males need to pass their overseas and in Australia by sions. But where to begin? genes on to as many females Tiu this common name and its -Tim low as possible, but that females HUMAN omission from the book. like need only the best genes for NATURE many others. seems inex­ their offspring. Thisexplains of BIRDS plicable. a lot of animal (and other) Some of the recommended behaviour. common names also seem The bodyworks chapter

poor choices. Unbelievably, has some gems. The book .A Stlsntlfle 'Snotty-gobble' is proposed discusses the unusual Uraba VittlP#.r1 ·' as a common name for the lugens caterpillars, which •••• s,ar,Ha, genus Cassytha. Three keep their old head capsules ,.,,,,.,,. .. THEODORE Cassytha species are listed in stuck onto their new heads. X ENO P ll O 1'. the book, yet (fortunately) Richard has wisely used BARBER, !'!!}?:_- none is given this common Densey Clyne's wonderful name or variants of it. common name of "hatterpil­ The Human However. one of the three. lars" for these nifty critters. Nature of Birds: C. filiformis. is listed as This chapter also contains A Scientific 'Dodder·. thereby ensuring the extraordinary tale of the Discovery confusion with true dodders shrimp-like stomatopods. with Startling (Cuscuta species). which are These charming creatures Implications entirely unrelated plants. either smash or impale their By Theodore Xenophon Barber. The same common names A Natural prey by flicking out their Bookman Press, Melbourne, are also shared by other Selection front claws like futuristic 1993, 226pp. $29.95rrp. groups of plants, for exam­ By Richard Morecroft. Simon & boxing gladiators in a termi­ ple 'White Mahogany' for Schuster, NSW, 1993, 1 OBpp. nator movie. It is claimed T.X. Barber has not con­ Eucalyptus acmenoides and $19.95rrp. they have the power of a .22 ducted research on birds but E. umbra. The compilers bullet in their claws. Hard to he has read a lot about their have not heeded the preface People tell me that some believe isn't it? behaviour and concludes of this book, which slates: "It women have fantasies about that "birds are fundamental­ is essential that the common Richard Morecroft, but I ly as aware, intelligent, names we apply to these could never see it myself. mindful, emotional and indi­ plants do not cause confu­ That is, until I saw the pic­ Did you know vidualistic as ordinary peo­ sion". ture of him with an iguana ple". He believes this fact to There are many other on his head. ow I realise that snails are have been hidden by an "offi­ common names that may the secret of his magnetic cial taboo" on the part of prove unpopular, for exam­ effect on the opposite sex. munching their "orthodox scientists" who ple 'Furze' for Gorse (Ulex Although iguanas don't "will strive to remove it from europaeus). 'Common Sida' feature in Richard's new way through the scientific consideration by for Sida Retusa (Sida rhomb­ book, lots of other interest­ ridicule and direct and indi­ ifolia), and 'Leichhardt Pine' ing things do. Richard has rocks of the rect attacks". Against such for Nauclea orientalis, which teamed up with the expert extravagant claims and is not a conifer. The CSIRO writers and photographers Negev Desert? defence, one does not need should lake a cue from the that contribute to Australian to employ ridicule but there Royal Australasian Ornith­ Natural History magazine is room in this brief review ologists Union. and explain (ANH) to produce a fascinat­ for some direct attacks. how its more contentious ing pot pourri of internation­ This book is lavishly sprin­ First, Barber's central common names were cho­ al wildlife facts. kled with many of the great claim is false; few, if any, sen. For instance, did you photographs that accompa­ workers in the field of bird Of errors noted in passing, know that tiny snails are nied the original item in behaviour treat these crea­ the most extraordinary was slowly munching their way ANH. And. it is full of fasci­ tures as nothing but instinc­ the listing of the Pistachio through the rocks of Israel's nating information written in tual automata. Time and (Pistachio vera) as an egev Desert, or that frogs an interesting style and at a again, apparently purposive Aboriginal food. with an swallow with their eyes, or level that is easy to under- behaviour is discovered to

72 ANH be instinctive, but every cal. A large section of the investigator recognises that book is devoted to accounts A U S T R A L I A N 1\1 U S E U 1\1 there is an element of indi­ of the behaviour of parrots vidual learning in the fine­ that have been trained, or tuning and expression of have learned, to associate such inherited patterns. certain behaviours with "Orthodox" zoologists recog­ rewards. These birds nise flexibility in bird behav­ undoubtedly display a high iour but, unlike Barber, we level of learningand discrim­ do not call this "intelli­ i nation but, as the long gence". debate on the use of sign Second, Barber is culpably language by apes has been selective. Among some 500 demonstrated, it is very diffi­ The Australian Museum Shop citations there is not a single cult to distinguish between is full of surprises. Like the reference to such outstand­ elaborate conditioning and exact replica stone age fertility ing authorities on bird the rational use of symbols. symbols from30,000 BC. behaviour as Tinbergen and Extending his argument to Lorenz. He refers to the other animals, including fish­ Perhaps you prefera replica "intelligence" of cuckoos es and ants, Barber dwells Pharoah's head fromthe without mentioning what for a while on apes and is Ptolemaic dynasty. Or a bronze might. in contrast, be called sufficiently impressed to cite resin sculpture reflecting the "stupidity" of their hosts. an instance when, using sign 'Darwin's theory of Evolution'. Inflexible aspects of bird language, a Gorilla suppos­ behaviour are largely disre­ edly discussed its views on And we have the best books garded. death and what happens to forfertile minds. So, for items Third, in his effort to Gorillas when they die. that are unique and equate the behaviour of Barber undoubtedly inspirational, visit the birds and humans, Barber means well but, having Australian Museum Shop, or exaggerates the part played rediscovered the wheel, he call us on (02) 339 8150. by instinct in the latter. In has interpreted it as a jug­ making a case for birds, he gernaut. This is a confused is led to such meaningless and confusing book that will statements as birds are supe­ probably be well received by rior to humans in being animal liberationists and "able to earn a living and New Age devotees who raise a family without special share the author's fuzzy sen­ aids or tools". timents. -Ronald Strahan Fourth, he is sadly uncriti- Australian Museum

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y ANIMAL Contact: Michelle Rice. MUSEUMS Linnean Societ of NSW WELFARE Development Manager TAMS, The Australian PO Box 457. Milsons Point. ANZFAS, Aust & New Zealand Everyone interested in birds Museum Society NSW 2061. Federation of Animal Societies welcome to join: receive colour Australian Museum. Phone: (02) 929 0253 37 O'Connell St. newslet1er, join social and PO Box A285, Contact: Mrs. B.J. Stoddard. 1 th Melbourne, Vic 3051. educational activities, support bird Sydney South, NSW 2000. Secretary Phone: (03) 329 6333 conservationprojects, visit Phone: (02) 339 8225 The Linnean Society aims to Contact: Glenys Oogjes, Director observatories. discounted Contact: Susan Bridie. promote research in natural optical equipment. Executive Secretary An umbrella body for 40 animal history with research grants. a fellowship. publication of welfare/rights groups. Joining EDUCATION Society members enjoy free fee $30. A quarterly magazine admission to the Museum. research papers, lectures. CSIRO's Double Helix receive ANH magazine as part of field trips and newsletters. A11imals Today covers Australian. Science Club New Zealand and overseas animal PO Box 225. their membership. and also enjoy welfare issues. an exciting and diverse program Royal Society of SA Inc Dickson, ACT 2602. of activities. Phone: (06) 276 6643 c/- SA Museum. BIRDS , orth TerTace. Australian Bird Study Contact: Lynn Pulford. Friends of the Adelaide. SA 5000. Association Membership Secretary Queensland Museum Phone: (08) 223 5360 PO Box A313. South Sydney. Double Helix offers young c/o Queensland Museum Contact: Mr. J.F. Wallman. NS\V 2000. Australians a fascinating and fun Association. Hon. Secretary Phone: (02) 688 0861 link with scientific research - PO Box 3300, The Society promotes knowledge Contact: Graham Cam, President a bimonthly magazine, national South Brisbane, Qld 4 IOI. experiments, competitions and Phone: (07) 840 7555 in the various fields of the Natural Join us and promote Australian Sciences by means of regular many local events. Contact: Sandra Mann, bird studies: receive 5 readable Over 20,000 members. meetings and a broad range of issues on researching Australian Executive Oflicer publications. birds: newsletters provide current Gould League The Queensland Museum trends and events: participate in ofVictoria Inc Association provides a program of SCIENTIFIC bird banding. PO Box 446. education and recreational events RESEARCH which encourage greater ASSAB, Australasian Society v Prahran, Vic 3181. BOCA, Bird Obser ers Phone: (03) 510 1493 understanding of the natural for the Study of Animal Club of Australia Fax: (03) 521 1217 resources and history of Behaviour PO Box 185, Queensland. Contact: Gayle Seddon, c/- Dept of Zoology. ;--;unawading, Vic 3131. University of Queensland, Phone: (03) 877 5342 Environmental The Waterhouse Club Education Officer St Lucia, Qld 4072. Contact: Zoe Wilson. Manager South Australian Phone: (07) 365 2491 Provides resources for environ­ Museum, Australia-wide network of bird­ mental education and waste Norih Terrace, Contact: Dr Kevin Warburton. watchers. Members receive Adelaide, SA 5000. Secretary 711e Bird Observer. minimisation programs. Annual a monthly membership ($20) including Phone: (08) 207 7389 Open to all interested in the study birdwatching magazine. Birdsong 6 issues of the newsletter of animal behaviour. research on catalogue available. Participants Contact: Mary Lou Erskine. Greenpri11t; Platypus Creek Club Secretary a wide range of vertebrate and welcome in conservation for young people ($5). invertebrate species, newsletter, program and current "Birds The Club offers members directory, annual conference. and WattlesSurvey". INSECTS stimulating involvement with the The Australian Museum through activities such ZOOLOGICAL Cumberland Bird Entomological Society Inc as the annual September ASZK. Australasian Society Observers Club Inc c/- Dept of Crop Protection Flinders Ranges Expedition led of Zoo Keeping PO Box 550. Waite Campus, by three curators. and 'behind PO Box 248. Baulkham Hills, NS\V 2153. University of Adelaide. the scenes' tours. Healesville. Vic 3777. Phone: (02) 872 4185 PO Glen Osmond. SA 5064. Phone: (059) 62 4022 (answering machine) NATURAL Phone: (08) 370 2987 Contact: Carla Srb, Membership Contact: Frances Czwalinna. Contact: Dr Paul Madge, HISTORY Officer Hon Secretary The Biological Society Hon Secretary Join the ASZK and you will dis­ Monthly meetings at Community Botany Dept. Society aims to advance and University of New England, cover more about wildlife, zoos Hall. cnr Old Northern Road and disseminate entomological and conservationthrough our Old Castle Hill Road, Castle Hill. Armidale. NSW 2350. knowledge. Quarterly journal Phone: (067) 73 3006 journal. newsletters. conferences Field outings for adults and and news bulletin are produced: and discounted entry to zoos. children. campouts. Newsletters. annual scientific conference held Contact: John T. Hunter. All welcome. on 24-28 September in Adelaide. President NSW Field For anyone interested in natural Ornithologists Club MOLLUSCS history. Members enjoy social PO Box C436. PO Clarence St. Malacological Society interchange, reduced costs at ARE YOU Sydney. NSW 2000. of Australasia functions. BBQs. field trips Phone: (02) 960 1552 A CLUB cl- Australian Museum, etc .. and receive a quarterly SECRETARY? Contact: Robyn Hill. Division of Invertebrate Zoology, newsletter. Hon Secretary 6 College St. Sydney. NSW 2000. ANH's Associate Society Phone: (02) 339 8275 Field aturalists' Society Monthly meetings at the Aus­ Scheme is designed to help tralian Museum, field outings, of SA Contact: Alison Miller. Assistant GPO Box 1594. Pelagic trips. newsleuers & jour­ Secretary your club or society with nals. Birdline 267 8961. ew Adelaide. SA 5001. Society fosters the study of Phone: (08) 272 9368 Year's campoul. Occasional molluscs and environmentally free publicity, funds and coach, camping and o/s trips. Contact: Mrs G. Briggs. President responsible shell collecting in member benefits. Contact Australia. Branches throughout Actively promotes the study of RAOU, Royal Australasian Australia, regular meetings, talks, nature and its protection: offers Mary Pollinger at ANH for Ornithologists Union discussions and excursions. monthly bus excursions. field 21 Gladstone St. Quarterly newslelter and trips by private car and lectures more details. Moonee Ponds, Vic 3039. annual journal. by knowledgeable leaders. Phone: (03) 370 1422 Popular Palms? : Are the orange fruits of the Royal Palm (which is plQanted in many of the gardens Q of the north coast) edible? If so, do they require any special preparation? I've seen many bees and Rainbow Lorikeets & enjoying the pollen from the flowers, but are there any birds or mammals that eat the fruits? -T. Mihe A Sawtell, NSW A: I think the palm you �re inquiring about is the Queen Palm, not the Royal Palm. Both are fre­ quently used on the north coast but the Queen Palm is by far the most common. Cat Napping The Queen Palm (Syagrus lying under the thousands of A wingless female Blue Ant. : As I am a great cat lover, romanzoffi,anum) has orange plants being grown in resorts QI would like to know how fruit in large bunches, while and private gardens of the A : I would be very inter­ many hours a day a cat would the Royal Palm (Roystonea subtropics. �sted in seeing any spi­ ders from the Lawn Hill area spend asleep? regia) has small purplish -John Wrigley -S. Josephi-Taylor Horticultural Consultant suspected of being funnel­ Mount Lawley, WA fruits. There are reports of the fruits of the Queen Palm Coifs Harbour, NSW web spiders. That area is A: Domestic cats have being eaten by children in outside the current under­ A Case of standing of funnel-web distri­ �een known to sleep for the USA and they are said to Mistaken Identity? about 17 hours per 24-hour have a "fibrous pulp rich in bution (currently believed to day. However, this behav­ mucilaginous sweetness". : The article on funnel-web be confined to the wetter iour by no means applies to o special preparation is Qspiders by Mike Gray (ANH east coast and highlands of all cats. Age, sex and food apparently required. A Summer 1992-93) prompts me Australia). There are several Mike resources can determine starchy food is made from to inquire if is aware of other spiders in the area that how active a cat is. Most of the pith of the trunks in its which species of funnel-web could be mistaken for fun­ the time they are, of course, native Brazil and the young inhabits the north-western region nel-webs-many genera of engaging in 'cat napping' buds are eaten locally in oil of Queensland in which I live (the the ground-dwelling spiders rather than the continuous or vinegar. On the north Lawn Hill area on the eastern have the same general period of deep sleep we are coast of New South Wales, edge of the Barkly Tableland appearance (various trap­ familiar with. bats have been seen to eat some 350 kilometres north of Mt door spiders, for example). -Linda Gibson the fruit. I would suggest Isa) and, if so, how its toxicity However, one never Australian Museum that the fruit is not toxic but compares with the Sydney knows-send a specimen to on the other hand not partic­ Funnel-web (Atraxrobustus). me at the Australian Museum! Just how many hours do cats u I a rly palatable or there -B. Kubala Adels Grove, Qld -Mike Gray spend sleeping? would not be as many fruits Australian Museum

78 ANH The Ant and and immediately immob­ the Mole Cricket ilised by a single sting. Each : I photographed a large, female stocks her own tun­ ant-like insect that is nel, which she has previous­ calledQ a 'bluebottle' here in ly excavated, with a cricket southern Victoria. Its body is a and lays an egg on the limp deep, shining blue and it has but still living body. The orange legs. I took the photo­ wasp larva feeds and devel­ graph just after watching the ops on the paralysed cricket, insect paralyse (or kill?) a mole which remains alive cricket. I have always assumed throughout much of this that it is some kind of wingless ordeal. wasp. Can you tell me anything -Mu Moulds about its life cycle? Australian Museum -Nkk Romanowski Colac, Vic.

The metallic blue ant­ Answers to Quiz In Quips, ike insect you describe Ais actua lly a wingless female Quotes & Curios (page 18) wasp of the species Diamma bicolor (family 1. An elephant bird p C T E A s E R Tiphiidae). They are popu­ 2. Fraser Island larly known as Blue Ants. 3. 1859 Do you recognise this? If you think you know what It Is, Although most female tiphi­ id wasps are wingless, the 4. An African Grey Parrot then send your answer to Pie Teaser, ANH Magazine. Please 5. Australian Conservation males are of normal appear­ don't forget to Include your name and address. The first ance with fully developed Foundation wings. The males are, how­ 6. Patricia Watson correct entry will win a $20 gift voucher from the Museum ever, much smaller and 7. A Great Sperm Whale black in colour, except for catalogue. Autumn's Pie Teaser was a closeup of the chest some small yellow abdom­ 8. Murray Island (Mer) inal markings. The wingless 9. An underground fungus feathers of a bird-the African sunblrd Nectarinia sene­ female wasps hunt mole 10. A type of flatworm galens/s. crickets. The crickets are dragged from their tunnels

ANH 79 We have little choice but to act as a THE LAST WORD swift and efficient predator if we want to lessen the suffering of the arid lands and its animals. Prior to the extinction Braised kid goat and smoked of the Thylacine, local extermination of the Dingo and development of stock wild boar are just as tasty, lean water, the arid lands took care of them­ and free of contaminants as any selves. Populations of kangaroos would other product coming offthe have built up during years of average rainfall, plummeted in drought years rangelands. due to rapid death (by dehydration), and the predators would have ensured that numbers remained low until the land had a chance to recover. Today, BEYOND THE only malnutrition and starvation reduce the multitude of free-ranging animals. Without human predation, overgrazing KANGAROO is chronic, grasses rarely have a chance BY DAVID FREUDENBERGER to recover, and the land degrades. What predators remain are the wrong ones: foxes and cats. They do little to reduce the overabundance of the domi­ nant grazing animals. Yet they are responsible for the extinction and endangerment of too many birds and small mammals. For the moment the same solution should apply; shoot 'em and wear 'em. The animal liberation movement has a lot to answer for. Few dare to wear a fox skin coat. There is E'VE HEARD THE no demand to shoot foxes, and so their argument that numbers go unchecked. Feral cats kangaroos should be shot for human belong around our necks as wonderful­ consumption. Eating premium-quality ly soft shawls or hats. but who has the kangaroo products should raise its nerve these days? Although commer­ value to the point that pastoralists can cial harvesting for skins will not elimi­ make money out of kangaroos and nate the threat imposed by these exotic afford to run fewer sheep, thus giving predators, it will at least give some of the land a break. Through the persis­ the smaller native species a better tent efforts of Professor Gordon Grigg chance of survival. (University of Queensland) and others, But it's not just our pest species that kangaroo is now on the restaurant need to be culled. I must insist that menu in all States and is appearing in sheep are shot too. It is cruel to allow the supermarkets. Kangaroo marketing sheep to starve, and the land suffers as is currently a $62-million dollar busi­ well. It is wrong that 3.5 million sheep ness with the potential for a five- or six.­ Eat 'em or wear 'em: what's good for starved during the recent drought in times increase. It's now mainly a matter kangaroos is good for the rest of the mob. western New South Wales. Pastoralists of time to see whether Gordon's hope widely advocate shooting kangaroos of better land management through smoked wild boar are just as tasty, lean and ferals, but sheep need to be better use of kangaroos is fulfilled. and free of contaminants as any other reduced for the same reason; their In the meantime, commercial harvest­ product coming off the rangelands. numbers build up due to plenty of stock ing ought to pay for the huge kangaroo Harvesting free-range rabbits won't waters and few predators. The extra management programs. Millions of dol­ make a dent in their population but sheep that can be carried during lars are spent each year monitoring the returns from harvesting can at least unusually wet years must be seen as a conservation status of 30 million kanga­ help pay for the fuel to bulldoze war­ bonus. When normal dry conditions roos. Yet the large kangaroos are rens-an effective rabbit control mea­ return, they should be sold or placed secure in their vast numbers; there are sure. on agistment. If this is not possible, more of them than sheep in the range­ It would be great to exterminate then they must be shot. land s! Far more attention and these pests, but who is going to pay for Harvesting is only a tool of sustain­ resources should be given to the the monumental cost to do so? It took able land management. Without indi­ Rufous Hare-wallaby, the Northern hundreds of hours over six months to vidual and community motivation to act Hairy-nosed Wombat, the Bilby and so exterminate the last few feral goats on wisely, the land and its resources will many other species on the brink of Woody Island (26 square kilometres) in continue to degrade. A desire to care is extinction. Hervey Bay, Queensland. Yet, goats are the well-spring for sustained motiva­ Kangaroos are not the only free-rang­ running across 35 per cent of the conti­ tion. Let us show we care by expanding i ng animals on the land.There are nent. The only solution is to create our palates and our wardrobes and, in uncontrolled millions of feral goats, enough demand for their meat or hide so doing, help reduce the plethora of rabbits, pigs, donkeys, camels and to pay for sustained and indefinite animals driving the land to dust. • horses out there. Combined with control. Dr David Freudenberger is a research ecol­ domestic stock, these multitudes of ani- Some argue that shooting these ani­ ogist with the National Rangelands 0 mals are eating the heart out of the con­ mals is cruel and unnatural; I argue Program, CSIRO Division of Wildlife and � tinent. What's good for kangaroos, the that to do otherwise is wrong. The Ecology. This essay is based on a paper pre­ � land and us is appropriate for the rest alternative to instant death in the pad­ sented at a Horizons for Science Forum at e of the mob. Braised kid goat and dock from a bullet is slow starvation. the Universityof Technology, Sydney.

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