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Cup Nationalism Commercialising National Identity: A Critical Examination of New Zealand’s America’s Cup Campaigns of 1987, 1992 and 1995. Bryn Evans. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Communication Studies). Auckland University of Technology 2004 Table of Contents Page Attestation of Authorship i Acknowledgements ii Abstract iii Introduction 1 Chapter One: Theoretical Framework 4 1.1 Critical Political Economy 4 1.2 A Critical Political Economy Approach to Nation-States and National Identity 7 1.3 Sport, Media and Nationalism 17 Chapter Two: Egalitarian Mythology 29 2.1 Political Economy and National Identity: Colonial Settlement 29 2.2 Political Economy and National Identity 1935-1970s: Egalitarian Myths 32 2.3 Political Economy and National Identity 1970s-1984: Cracks in the Façade 38 2.4 Constructing National Identity: Mass Media and Sport Pre-1984 42 Chapter Three: The Neo-Liberal Revolution 53 3.1 Neo-Liberal Political Philosophy and Neo-Classical Economics 53 3.2 The New Zealand Experience 55 3.2.1 Market Liberalisation 58 3.2.2 Commercialisation 60 3.3 The Share Market Boom and Ascendant Entrepreneurial Nationalism 62 3.4 The Erosion of the ‘National Interest’ 69 3.5 Egalitarianism Vs. ‘Naked Self-Interest’ 72 Chapter Four: Corporate Raiders and the America’s Cup 76 4.1 The Rise of Michael Fay and David Richwhite 76 4.2 The 1987 New Zealand America’s Cup Campaign 80 4.3 Promoting the BNZ Challenge 85 4.4 Public Relations and Media Coverage of the 1987 America’s Cup 88 4.5 Textual Analysis 91 4.6 Summary 101 Chapter Five: Relinquishing Economic Sovereignty 103 5.1 The Share Market Crash 103 Page 5.2 Privatisation and Foreign Investment 106 5.3 Transnational Corporations 111 5.4 The GATT and the WTO 115 Chapter Six: Commercialising National Identity 119 6.1 The Ascendant Consumer Culture and Corporate Branding Strategies 119 6.2 The Commercialisation of TVNZ 125 6.3 Sport, Media and Consumerism 131 Chapter Seven: From Challenge to Victory: the 1992 and 1995 America’s Cup Campaigns 135 7.1 The 1992 America’s Cup Challenge: Convergent Agendas 136 7.2 The 1995 America’s Cup: Sporting Victory or Free-Market Vindication? 141 7.3 Textual Analysis of the 1995 Campaign 146 7.4 Summary 155 Conclusion 157 Bibliography 163 Appendices I: Complete versions of texts analysed - 1987 II: Complete versions of texts analysed - 1995 Attestation of Authorship I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the qualification of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institution of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement is made in the acknowledgements. Bryn Evans i Acknowledgements I am deeply indebted to several people for their assistance over the period I spent producing this thesis. I have immense gratitude for their generosity, assistance and support and wish to acknowledge their invaluable contributions. I wish to thank my principal supervisor, Dr. Wayne Hope, for his remarkable vision in helping me understand exactly where my research was going. In addition, his dedication throughout my frenetic last two months was extraordinary. I really appreciate your help. In addition, my second supervisor, Brad Mercer, has my appreciation for his confidence in me, his willingness to listen to tales of my tribulations, and his encouragement. Thank you for everything. I would also like to thank my programme director, Dr. Alan Cocker, for his patience, understanding, and readiness to help me out at any opportunity. Your tirelessness is deeply appreciated. I must also express my gratitude to Donald Stewart for proofreading my drafts. Finally, I am eternally grateful to my family – Rhonda, Rob, Owen, Sylvia and Phoebe – for their emotional, intellectual and financial support. I certainly couldn’t have completed this without you, and would probably be destitute. Thank you so much. ii Abstract This thesis analyses forms of New Zealand national identity constructed in conjunction with successive America’s Cup campaigns in 1987, 1992 and 1995. It is argued that New Zealand national iconography was appropriated by government and corporate interests and utilised as a mechanism for corporate capital accumulation and legitimation. The first New Zealand challenge was set against a background of neo-liberal policy reform initiated by the fourth Labour government in 1984. The comprehensive economic and social policy implementation had multiple negative effects for New Zealand’s political economy. This thesis undertakes a comprehensive analysis of these effects and argues that the commitment to neo-liberalism resulted in both the means for a New Zealand America’s Cup syndicate and the necessity for an event which could obscure New Zealand’s economic decline. National identity was reformulated through America’s Cup nationalism to incorporate the values of neo-liberalism. As a result of the entrenchment of neo-liberal values, the needs of corporate interests and state enterprises to define citizens as consumers concluded in the commercialisation of culture. This thesis argues that the pursuit of effective corporate branding strategies led to the appropriation of symbols and images of national identity by corporate interests. The 1992 and 1995 America’s Cup challenges represent the convergence of the discourses of sport, media and capitalism under the shared agenda of capital accumulation and legitimation. This convergence was structured around a commercialised conception of national identity which bore little relation to the social and economic reality experienced by many New Zealanders. iii Introduction In 1987, off the coast of Fremantle, Western Australia, a New Zealand syndicate challenged for yachting’s biggest trophy, the America’s Cup. The New Zealand yacht, KZ7, won 37 of 38 races in the challenger rounds, losing to Dennis Conner’s Stars and Stripes in the challenger finals. Although campaign manager Michael Fay, skipper Chris Dickson and the returning New Zealand crew were not able to win the America’s Cup, they captured the imagination of many New Zealanders. This was illustrated by the ‘tumultuous welcome’ they received at the welcome-home parade down Auckland’s Queen Street (Unattributed 1987a: A1). The promotional campaign, which started long before the New Zealand boats were built, portrayed the challenge as a sporting embodiment of New Zealand national identity. The participants represented qualities allegedly possessed by New Zealanders. The boats were a technological embodiment of Kiwi know-how. The success of the syndicate would lead to economic benefits to be shared by all. However, the expressions of national identity articulated in the America’s Cup campaign were often incommensurate with traditional conceptions of New Zealand-ness. America’s Cup yachting was an elitist, essentially non-participatory sport, the preserve of millionaire entrepreneurs and industrialists. Greed, aggressiveness, and self-aggrandisement seemed to follow the America’s Cup wherever it went. New Zealand, with a long-standing self-image of egalitarianism, social democracy and rural practicality seemed ill suited for a multi- million dollar yachting endeavour. The timing of the KZ7 challenge, and the ideals it expressed, was no coincidence. The head of the syndicate, merchant banker Michael Fay, was part of a new breed of finance capitalists who were gaining economic power and political influence courtesy of the fourth Introduction Labour government elected in 1984. This thesis argues that the expressions of national identity which followed the New Right policy agenda reflected the transformation of New Zealand’s political economy. This argument does not criticize the new constructions of national identity in the light of a golden age when New Zealand-ness stood for authenticity. Instead, traditional conceptions of national identity are depicted as a contestable ideological mechanism. By contrast, the expressions of New Zealand-ness associated with the America’s Cup challenges emanated from the neo-liberal ideas which had gained ascendancy within government and business. At the same time, the application of these ideas was eroding New Zealand’s productive industries and economic sovereignty. Commercialising National Identity: A Critical Examination of New Zealand’s America’s Cup Campaigns of 1987, 1992 and 1995, draws upon critical political economy, historical narrative and textual analysis to examine America’s Cup nationalism. Chapter One delineates the theoretical approach which informs this investigation. More specifically, it looks at how national identity is constructed, culturally and ideologically. In this context, the intimate relationship between sport, mass media and national identity in late capitalist societies is discussed. Chapter Two outlines constructions of New Zealand national identity up until the 1984 election. Key developments include the transformation from settler colony to independent nation-state, the adoption of Keynesian macroeconomic policies and the establishment of the welfare state. It is argued that the political economy of the nation incorporated particular understandings of citizenship. The role of sport and mass media in constructing this sense of New Zealand-ness is also considered. In Chapter Three, the neo-liberal revolution which followed the election of the fourth
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