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"MEMORY IS A WEAPON": THE USES OF HISTORY AND MYTH IN SELECTED POST-1960 KENYAN, NIGERIAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN PLAYS. Yvette Hutchison PROMOTER: Prof. Temple Hauptfleisch CO-SUPERVISOR: Dr. Habil. Eckhard Breitinger November 1999 Drama Department University of Stellenbosch Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION: I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this dissertation is my own original work and I have not previously in its entirety, or in part, submitted it at any university for a degree. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za OPSOMMING In hierdie proefskrif word gekyk na die verwantskap tussen geskiedenis, mite, geheue en teater. Daar word ook gekyk na die mate waartoe historiese of mitiese toneelstukke gebruik kan word om die amptelike geheue en identiteite, soos deur bewindhebbers in post-koloniale Nigerie en Kenya geskep, terug kon wen of uit kon daag. Hierdie werke word dan vergelyk met die soort teater wat tydens die Apartheidbewind in Suid-Afrika geskep is, om verskille en ooreenkomste in die gebruik van historiese en mitiese gegewens te bekyk. Die slotsom is dat een van die belangrikste kenmerke van die teater in vandag se samelewing sy vermod is om alternatiewe historiese narratiewe te ontwikkel wat kan dien as teen-geheue ("counter-memory") vir die dominante narratief van amptelike geskiedenisse. Sodoende bevraagteken die teater dan ook 'n liniere en causale siening van die geskiedenis, maar interpreteer dit eerder as meervoudig en kompleks. ABSTRACT This thesis considers the relationship between history, myth, memory and theatre. The study explores the extent to which historic or mythic plays were used to either reclaim or challenge the official memories and identities created by those in power in the post- colonial Kenyan and Nigerian context. These are then compared to the South African theatre created during Apartheid, exploring the similarities and differences in the South Africans use of historic or mythic referents. The conclusion reached is that one of the most powerful aspects of theatre in society is its ability to create alternate historic narratives that become a counter-memory to the dominant narrative of official histories. It also challenges seeing history as linear and causal, and makes it more plural and complex. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this thesis to my family who have loved and supported me through my years of study. I have particularly appreciated this in the last two years when they were dealing with their own stresses and loss. I think specially of my father, who believed in me and who gave me the courage to complete the path I had set myself. I wish he had been here to share these experiences with me. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 INTRODUCTION 2 1. HISTORY, MYTH, MEMORY AND LITERATURE 9 1.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HISTORY AND MEMORY 1.2 THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF AFRICA AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO LITERATURE 1.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 1.4 THE ARTIST AND LITERARY CRITIC'S APPROACH TO HISTORY IN LITERATURE 1.5 CONCLUSION 2. KENYA: HISTORY AND MYTH IN THE POST-COLONIAL CONTEXT 45 2.1 THE LAND ISSUE IN KENYA 2.1.1 Kenneth Watene: Dedan Kimathi (1974) 2.1.2 Ngugi wa Thiong'o & Micere Mugo: The Trial of Dedan Kimathi (1976) 2.1.3 Hussein: Kinjeketile (1969/1970) 2.2 NEO-COLONIAL ISSUES 2.2.1 Ngugi wa Thiong'o and Ngugi wa Mini: /will marry when I want (1977) 2.2.2 Ngugi wa Thiong'o & the Kamiriithu Community and Education Centre: Maitu 1Vjugira (Mother, Sing for Me, 1982) 2.3 THE USE OF MYTH IN KENYAN DRAMA 2.3.1 Francis Imbuga: Betrayal in the City (1975) and Man of Kafird (1979) 2.4 CONCLUSION 3. NIGERIA: HISTORY AND MYTH IN THE POST-COLONIAL CONTEXT 118 3.1 JOHNSON'S THE HISTORY OF THE YORUBAS AS PRIMARY HISTORIC SOURCE 3.2 THE HISTORIC REFERENT AND THE ISSUE OF RULERSHIP 3.2.1 Obotunde Ijimere: Born with Fire on his Head (1965) 3.2.2 Ola Rotimi: Kurunmi (1971) 3.2.3 Zulu Sofola's King Emene (1974) and Tess Onwueme's The Reign of Wazobia (1988): women and rulership 3.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MYTH AND HISTORY IN NIGERIAN DRAMA Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 3.3.1 In Soyinka's drama 3.3.1a A Dance of the Forests (1960) 3.3.1b Death and the King's Horseman (1975) 3.4 The use of the Moremi legend in Ladipo's Moremi (1966) and Osofisan's Morountodun (1979) 3.5 CONCLUSION 4 SOUTH AFRICA: HISTORY AND MYTH - The stories we now CAN tell 177 4.1 FORCED REMOVALS AS AN HISTORIC ISSUE IN SOUTH AFRICA 4.1.1 Athol Fugard: Boesman and Lena (1969) 4.1.2 Junction Avenue Theatre Company: Sophiatown (1986) 4.1.3 David Kramer & Taliep Petersen: District Six (1987) 4.2 THE USE OF MYTH IN SA THEATRE: THE MESSIANIC FIGURE 4.2.1 Adam Small: Karma hy kó hystoe (Kanna comes home, 1965) 4.2.2 Percy Mtwa, Mbongeni Ngema and Barney Simon: Woza Albert (1980) 4.2.3 Bartho Smit: Christine (1971) 4.2.4 Opperman's Die Teken (The Sign, 1984) 4.3 CONCLUSION - CONFESSIONAL PLAYS: BREAKING THE SILENCES 5 CONCLUSION 248 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY 256 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the following institutions and people for their support in making this research possible: The financial assistance of the Centre for Science Development towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed in this thesis, or conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not to be attributed to the Centre for Science Development. The Deutscher Akademiescher Austauschdienst for generously providing the scholarship that made my research at the Institute for African Studies in Bayreuth possible. Again, the opinions expressed in the thesis are those of the author and are not to be attributed to the DAAD. I would like to thank my two supervisors for their help and guidance. Over the years Professor Hauptfleisch, Director of the Centre for Theatre and Performance Studies at Stellenbosch, has taught me much about research and encouraged me to progress in both the areas and scope of my research. For your faith, generosity and encouragement I thank you, Temple. I would also like to thank Professor Breitinger for drawing my attention to the DAAD scholarship and hosting me at his institute. Without the time at the institute and access to the unique resources housed there, this thesis would not have been completed. I would also like to thank Eckhard for his generosity and kindness during my stay in Germany. Then I would like to thank Kole Omotoso for encouraging me to move into this area of research years ago, often providing me with material unavailable in South Africa. I thank all my friends who kept me going through dark, cold or difficult months, my neighbours in Frankengutstrasse, also Adele, Theresa, Guy, Michael, Steffi, Dennis Walder, David Kerr, Colleen and Walter, Patti and Andrew. A special word of thanks must go to John, and Caroline who proofed and edited much of the thesis. And lastly I must thank my colleagues at King Alfred's College for their support, with special thanks to the Head of the School of Community and Performing Arts, Steve Hawes, who has encouraged and supported me through the last six months. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 31. Angelus Novus, 1920, by Paul Klee Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 2 Introduction A Klee painting named 'Angelus Novus', shows an angel looking as though he is about to move away from something he is fixedly contemplating. His eyes are staring, his mouth is open, his wings are spread. This is how one pictures the angel of history. His face is turned toward the past. Where we perceive a chain of events, he sees one single catastrophe which keeps piling wreckage upon wreckage and hurls it in front of his feet. The angel would like to stay, awaken the dead, and make whole what has been smashed. But a storm is blowing from Paradise; it has caught in his wings with such violence that the angel can no longer close them. The storm irresistibly propels him into the future to which his back is turned, while the pile of debris before him grows skyward The storm is what we call progress (Benjamin, 1968: 259-260). During the five years since the end of Apartheid in South Africa and the first democratic election in 1994, politicians have been engaged in revising the constitution, educationalists the curricula and the structure of education, and theorists have been re- evaluating the place, form and history of literature and theory in South Africa. A major focus in these processes has been the reviewing, recovering, and even rewriting of histories, for one cannot understand or engage with the present, less even plan for the future, without a clear sense of the past. Many warnings of the perils of ignoring history have been sounded: for example Opoku- Agyemang, has argued that "[Nistory that advances by denying itself is not history but a pain that perpetually begins anew" (1996:64), and Roland Barthes points out that "[n]ow it is when history is denied that it is most unmistakably at work" (1986:2). Both of these writers warn against the dangers of ignoring history or, worse still, not being conscious of the uses to which history may be applied. In this thesis I will argue that history is powerful in the way it constructs memory, and thus a conscious, informed approach to history is crucial if it is not to be misused.
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