Transportation Through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles in India

APPENDIX - VII

REPORT ON TRANSPORTATION THROUGH HYDROGEN FUELLED VEHICLES IN INDIA

Prepared by Sub-Committee on Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles of the Steering Committee on Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India, New Delhi June, 2016

PREFACE

In the present scenario, transportation sector is the lifeline of any economy but it is a major contributor to air pollution and greenhouse gas effect, causing health hazardous to living beings and increases earth’s atmospheric temperature (which result melting of glaciers and rise of water level in seas / ocean) respectively. The reserves of conventional sources of energy like coal and petroleum will rapidly be depleted due to continuous increasing energy demand. The transportation sector can alternatively be managed with hydrogen as fuel, which emits only water vapours and conventional sources of energy may be utilized for non-energy purpose.

The hydrogen fueled vehicles based on internal combustion and fuel cell based technology (known as Zero Emission Vehicles) have been developed decades ago and are under demonstration in many countries. However, the industry experienced ups and downs in the interest of these vehicles due to various international reasons. In view of the climate change, it is becoming compulsive to promote carbon based to carbon neutral technologies.

India is also concerned about its contribution to climate change and therefore has been giving significant impetus to generation & usage of new and renewable energy e.g. solar and wind. Hydrogen energy has also been a focus of attention for quite some time. Unfortunately, required emphasis could not be given primarily due to resource crunch and therefore the progress is lagging far behind in the global race. Under this premises, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India constituted a high power Steering Committee to prepare a status report and way forward for hydrogen energy and fuel cell technology in this country. One of the five sub- committees was entrusted under my chairmanship with the responsibility of preparing this particular document concerning Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles in India.

I am indebted to the members of the Sub-Committee, Special Invitees for their contribution, Dr. M. R. Nouni, Scientist ‘G’, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, the officials of the Project Management Unit – Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells at the Ministry, Dr. Jugal Kishor and Dr. S. K. Sharma in particular for their active role in organizing the meetings and for coordination amongst different sub-committees. I also extend my compliments to Mr. Alok Sharma and Mr. Sachin Chugh from Indian Oil R&D Centre for assisting the committee in preparing this document.

….June, 2016

(Dr. R. K. Malhotra), Chairman, Sub-Committee on Transportation through Hydrogen fuelled Vehicles

CONTENTS

S. No. Subject Page No.

I Composition of Sub-Committee on Transportation through i Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles

II Terms of Reference iii

III Meetings of Sub-Committees on Transportation through iv Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles

1 Executive Summary 1

2 Introduction 19

3 Hydrogen fuelled Internal Combustion Engines 29

4 Hydrogen fuelled Vehicles based on Fuel Cell Technology 101

5 Testing, Standards, Codes and Regulations for Hydrogen 127 Vehicles

6 Gap Identification & Analysis 147

7 Action Plan and Financial Projections Time Schedule 153

8 Institutions involved in the development of the products / 173 processes and infrastructure to be created

9 Conclusion and Recommendations 181

10 Bibliography 197

I. Composition of Sub-Committee for Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles

1. Dr. R. K. Malhotra, Director, IOCL R&D, Faridabad, Harayana (Retired on 30.06.2014) and currently, Director General, Petroleum Federation of India, New Delhi – Chairman 2. Ms. Varsha Joshi, Joint Secretary / Shri A. K. Dhussa, Adviser (December, 2013 to March, 2015) / Dr. Bibek Bandyopadhyay, Adviser (upto December, 2013), MNRE 3. Shri K. K. Gandhi, Society of Indian Automotive Manufacturers (SIAM), New Delhi 4. Dr. R K Malhotra, Director IOCL R&D, Faridabad also as Representative of Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, New Delhi 5. Dr. S. Aravamuthan, Sci. Engr. ‘H’ & Deputy Director, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (Indian Space Research Organization), Thiruvanthapuram 6. Dr. S. S. Thipse, Deputy Director, Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI), Pune 7. Dr. Mathew Abraham, Senior General Manager, Alternative Fuel Technology Mahindra & Mahindra, Chennai 8. Dr. Raja Munusamy, Assistant General Manager, Engineering Research Centre, Tata Motors Ltd., Mumbai 9. Prof. A. Ramesh, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 10. Shri D. K. Gupta / Shri P. C. Srivastava (Retired on 30.06.2015), Joint Chief Controller of Explosives Petroleum Explosives & Safety Organization (PESO), Nagpur 11. Dr. R.S. Hastak, Outstanding Scientist and Director, Naval Materials Research Laboratory (Defence Research & Development Organization), Ambarnath, Maharastra 12. Shri Sanjay Bandyopadhyay, National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRIP), New Delhi / Shri Neeraj Kumar, Deputy Secretary, Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Enterprises, (Repatriated to

Parent Department in January, 2015) / Shri Nitin R. Gokarn, NATRIP, New Delhi (Repatriated in June, 2014 to Parent Cadre) 13. Shri PPG Sarma, Chief Executive Officer, GSPC Gas Company Limited, Gandhinagar 14. Dr. Hari Om Yadav, Scientist, Department of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi 15. Representatives of Toyota Kirloskar Motor Pvt. Ltd. and Ashok Leyland

Special Invitees 16. Prof. L. M. Das, (Retired on 30.06.2014) and currently Emeritus Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 17. Dr. K. S. Dhathathreyan, Head, Centre for Fuel Cell Technology, Chennai (Retired on 31.01.2016) 18. Shri N. K. Sharma, Scientist ‘F’, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi 19. Dr Bala Raghupathy, Renault – Nissan India 20. Mr. Ravi Subramaniam / Mr. Piyush Katakwar Air Products, Pune

II. Terms of Reference

1. To assess national and international technological status in the area of internal combustion engine and fuel cell based transport applications. 2. To specify the technologies to be developed within the country for niche transport applications and strategy to be adopted for the same. 3. To identify gaps and suggest strategy to fill-up the gaps and quickly develop in-house technologies with involvement of industries or acquiring technologies from abroad. 4. To suggest demonstration projects to be taken up with industry and infrastructure development required to be created for such projects. 5. To identify different stakeholders for implementation of such projects. 6. To examine regulatory issues related to transport sector such as notifying hydrogen / hydrogen blended fuel as automotive fuels, on-board storage of such fuels, use of composite cylinders for storage of fuels as per international practices, type approval of vehicles using such fuels, setting-up of refueling stations of such fuels etc. 7. To identify institutes to be supported for augmenting infrastructure for development and testing of hydrogen / hydrogen blends fuelled vehicles including setting-up of Centre(s) of Excellence and suggest specific support to be provided. 8. To suggest strategy for undertaking collaborative projects among leading Indian academic institutions, research organizations and industry in the area of hydrogen fuelled vehicles. 9. To re-visit National Hydrogen Energy Road Map with reference to transport sector.

Note: In the 5th meeting of the Steering Committee on Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells held on 11.08.2015 in the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, it was decided that in order to fill the gap between international and national state of art technologies, the projects may be identified in three categories viz. Mission

iii

Mode, Research and Development and Basic / Fundamental Research instead of re-visiting of National Hydrogen Energy Road Map.

III. Details of the Meetings of Sub-Committee on Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles

The Sub-Committee on Transportation through Hydrogen fuelled Vehicles met first time on 26.08.2013 to have presentations by expert members / special invitees and discussions. Since all the members could not make it to attend this meeting, second meeting was organized on 13.09.2013 to have remaining presentations and discussions. The report was drafted based on the input received from the members / special invitees of the Sub-Committee and presented before the Steering Committee on Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells in its 3rd meeting held on 26.03.2015. The Steering Committee made some suggestions. To incorporate these suggestions in the draft report, Sub- Committee on Transportation (through Hydrogen fuelled Vehicles) met on 24.09.2014. The Steering Committee further requested the Chairpersons of all the five Sub-Committees to meet and discuss uniformity of the reports and alignment of outcome of the reports. Accordingly, the report was again modified based on the suggestions given / decisions taken in the meetings of the Chairpersons of the Sub-Committees held on 11.09.2015, 16.12.2015 and 18.01.2016.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.0 Executive Summary

1.1 Emerging Electric-mobility Options

In the quest to move away from an ever-depleting reserve of fossil fuels, efforts are required to investigate alternative solutions for achieving sustainable growth. The transport sector is the lifeline of any economy. The global mobility sector is heavily skewed towards the energy produced from fossil sources. Although, the facts, figures and projected estimates related to the petroleum reserves have a wide degree of variability, but the conclusion drawn by all studies/research is more or less similar, i.e. ‘the fossil sources are finite and green & clean alternatives are required to be developed urgently’. While the Energy companies are realigning their strategies to supply green and clean fuels by overhauling the existing production & supply chain, the automotive manufacturers are in process of transiting towards “Electric-mobility”. The transition from a mechanical drive train system to electric drive train is driving the development of hydrogen based fuel cell technology.

This upcoming hydrogen application sector using fuel cells as the principle energy converter has given a new dimension to the entire hydrogen value chain. The hydrogen production / consumption pattern or the demand / supply cycle for all applications other than automobiles and power generation had never witnessed any comparison with the fossil fuel based value chain because of their divergence and indirect linkage. However, with the gamut of opportunities emerging due to an economic viability of hydrogen based fuel cell systems for transport applications, the direct comparison of hydrogen value chain with the fossil fuel based energy system is inevitable.

1.2 Fuel Cell Vehicles

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (FCV) technologies have been in the history books for long. However, the industry experienced a surge of interest in the early 2000s due to their potential to provide significant reductions in greenhouse gas

3 and criteria air pollution, quick acceleration, fast refill, long range and ability to use a fuel (hydrogen) derived from diverse domestic energy resources. However, public interest waned by the late 2000s as FCVs did not materialize in the showrooms and plug-in battery vehicles began entering the commercial market. The perception of some stakeholders was that hydrogen was too difficult, and would not appear for several decades, if at all. However, in the past few years important factors have emerged that are re-accelerating the commercialization of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. These include sustained automaker development of FCVs resulting in lower component and vehicle costs and better performance and durability, sophisticated new infrastructure strategies, the rise of public private partnerships for FCV rollout, increase in public support, low-cost natural gas, Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) and carbon policies and interest in hydrogen for storing renewable electricity.

The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel cells have been considered for the deployment in transportation. Low Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (LT-PEM) fuel cells (LT- PEMFC) operate at around 800C. These can easily be started-up and stopped and respond well to dynamic loads. LT-PEM fuel cells technology is currently leading technology for deployment in the light duty vehicles like 2-, 3- & 4- wheelers, small boats, heavy duty vehicles like buses, trucks, trains, trams, ferries and materials handling vehicles like forklift trucks. Presently, the fuel cell buses, which are under development in the country, have imported LT-PEMFC stacks. The cost of the fuel cell system is presently dominated by the stack cost. The other major cost component is the Balance of System (BoS), which in most cases is to be imported and needs to develop indigenously. Large scale demonstration / commercialization of PEMFC could not be taken up due to high cost. The other issues like durability of the stack need to be addressed to through further R&D. Infrastructure for testing stacks / systems is to be created and local vendors for supply of components / stacks for indigenous manufacture of fuel cell systems in India are to be developed. For more details, a report prepared by a Sub-Committee on “Fuel Cell Development” may be referred. 4

1.3 Hydrogen in Internal Combustion Engines

Hydrogen can be used in different configurations of Internal Combustion (IC) engine such as spark ignition (SI) engine, compression ignition (CI) engine / dual fuel engine, CNG dual fuel engine and HCCI engine. High power outputs and low NOx emissions can be achieved by direct injection of hydrogen in SI engine.

Hydrogen may also be used with biogas or other low grade gaseous fuels in this mode for the applications in locomotives and in stationary power generation. Hydrogen can be a good additive in the case of biogas diesel HCCI operation, as it raises the efficiency and extends the load range. Engine control units for dual fuel, HCCI and direct hydrogen injection engines with effective control strategies, in some cases to switch between modes have to be developed.

There is need to develop after treatment device for NOx reduction (Lean

NOX trap, SCR etc.), which will be helpful in improving power output while engine operates at a higher equivalence ratio. This is very relevant for heavy duty engines operating on hydrogen. The application of hydrogen blends with various fuels like CNG, LPG, Diesel etc. also need to be studied.

1.4 Hydrogen Production Infrastructure

The infrastructure for production and supply of hydrogen for the industrial use exists in the country, but it is not sufficient to support widespread use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Additionally development of hydrogen IC engine / fuel cell technology for different applications are taking place in the country. Subsequently developed systems are being taken up for the field demonstration. There is growing demand of hydrogen for these systems. Earlier it was envisaged that hydrogen would be available from Chlor-Alkali industries. As per data available from the Chlor-Alkali Industry Association, availability of hydrogen 5

is decreasing with the growing demand of hydrogen for various other applications like in downstream units / chemical industries, as fuel, etc. Therefore, infrastructure for hydrogen production and its supply / delivery to the sites is required to be developed for smooth development, demonstration and commercialization of hydrogen vehicles.

Hydrogen as a relatively low volumetric energy density, its transportation, storage and delivery to the point of use comprise a significant cost. Hydrogen may be produced in the central, semi-central or distributed mode from different resources and through different processes depending upon long term cost economics of the systems including transportation and delivery at the point of usage. Large central hydrogen production facilities (500-750 TPD) that take advantage of economies of scale will be needed in the long term to meet the expected large hydrogen demand. Compared with distributed production, centralized production will require more capital investment as well as a substantial hydrogen transport and delivery infrastructure. Intermediate-size hydrogen production facilities (5–50 TPD) located in close proximity (50–150 kms) to the point of use may play an important role in the transition to a hydrogen economy and in the long-term use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. For example, larger, centralized facilities can produce hydrogen at relatively low costs due to economies of scale, but the delivery costs for centrally produced hydrogen are higher than the delivery costs for semi-central or distributed production options (because the point of use is farther away). Three major modes of delivery of hydrogen are compressed gas trucks, cryogenic liquid hydrogen trucks and pipelines. For more details on hydrogen production & storage, the reports prepared by a Sub-Committees on “Hydrogen Production” & “Hydrogen Storage” may be referred.

1.5 Regulations & Standards

Hydrogen requires safe handling, while being produces, stored, transported delivered / dispensed, since it is flammable in nature in the range

6 from 4% to 75% vol of hydrogen in air and has very low ignition energy, i.e. about 0.02 mill joules. It is lightest gas with its molecular weight of 2.016 and its density 0.08376 kg/m3 at standard temperature and pressure (about 14 times lighter than air) and susceptible to leak from the joints or weak points. Leak detection is crucial to maintain safe handling. Odorizing hydrogen gas (as is done with natural gas) is particularly challenging, since its molecules diffuse faster than any known odorant. Suitable odorant technology is required to be developed for hydrogen based applications. Alternatively, cost-effective sensors for leak detection would be needed. It has tendency to diffuse in the structures of other materials and make containers (even made of steel) brittle. Therefore, various tests are required for the vehicles and their components from time to time for safe operations. Thus, regulations and standards become key requirements for commercialization of hydrogen-fuelled vehicles and facilitate manufacturers to invest in this area. Standards related to the hydrogen purity for fuel cell applications, pressure regulators, safety valves, Pressure relief valves, solenoid valves are needed to be prepared and adopted. ISO TC 197 is a Technical Committee of International Organization for Standards (ISO) that deals with standards related to Hydrogen (systems and devices for the production, storage, transport, measurement and use of hydrogen). India is a member of ISO. This committee has published 16 standards. The Petroleum Explosives Safety Organization (PESO) is entrusted to ensure safety and security of public and property from fire and explosion by administering Explosives Act, 1884, 2008, Gas Cylinder Rules, 2004, Static & Mobile Pressure Vessels (Unfired) Rules, 1981 and other concerned acts. It is the agency to grant permission to deploy refueling stations and hydrogen storage containers of Type III and Type IV for fuel cell vehicles and other related equipment for usage of explosive corrosive, toxic and permanent flammable gases. The committee observed that Indian specific regulation and standards are needed to ensure safety and also to facilitate public acceptance by providing a systematic and accurate means of assessing and communicating the risk associated with the use of hydrogen vehicles, be it to the general public, consumer, emergency response personnel or the insurance industry. 7

1.6 Hydrogen Vehicle Testing

Vehicle testing is performed to observe the roadworthiness of the vehicles. It evaluates hydrogen and HCNG internal combustion engine vehicles in closed- track and laboratory environments, as well as in field applications. Emission testing is also conducted as per Euro norms. Testing facilities include vehicle fuel cylinder testing (including gunfire, environmental chamber, hydrogen cycling, bonfire and burst testing), sensor testing, virtual testing, and vehicle emission using chassis dynamometer, engine dynamometer, noise and vibration testing.

1.6.1 Testing of Hydrogen IC Engine based vehicles

Regulation for Type Approval of Hydrogen Vehicles in India is similar to European regulation EEC 79 / 2009. According to this regulation hydrogen system installation must be away from heat sources, container should not be installed in engine compartment and be protected against corrosion, measures to prevent mis-fuelling of vehicle and leakage, the refueling connector should be protected and should have a non-return valve, hydrogen container should be mounted and fixed properly, hydrogen fuel system should contain an automatic shut off valve mounted on the cylinder, in case of accidents, the shut off valve should interrupt fuel flow, hydrogen components should not project beyond outline of the vehicle and installation must be safe from damage, components must not be located near vehicular exhaust, ventilation system for hydrogen leakage should be provided, in case of accidents, the pressure relief device should function normally, passenger compartment must be isolated from hydrogen, hydrogen components should be enclosed by gas tight housing, Electrical devices should be isolated and hydrogen fuel system should be grounded, labels should be provided to identify the hydrogen vehicle.

1.6.2 Testing of Fuel Cell vehicles

These vehicles have fuel cell, which produce an electric current that runs a motor, which drives the vehicle. IEC/TC 105 is the international committee on fuel cells. IEC 62282 is a globally accepted standard for fuel cell vehicles. It consists of 7 parts terminology, fuel cell modules, stationary fuel cell power plants (Sub-Parts on safety, test methods for performance and installation), fuel cell system for propulsion and auxiliary power units, portable fuel cell appliances (Sub-Parts on Safety and performance requirements), micro fuel cell power systems (Sub-Parts on Safety 1, Performance1, Inter changeability 1) and Single Cell Test Method for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell.

1.7 Hydrogen Refuelling Stations

The hydrogen refuelling stations are to be conceptualized and designed considering the risk of fire and explosion. The degree of risk influences the type of electrical installation. This must be in accordance with the Regulations, Standards and Codes of Practice of each country. The European Union, regarding the hazard caused by a potentially explosive atmosphere, has adopted two harmonized directives on health and safety, known as ATEX (Atmospheric Explosion) 94/9/EC and ATEX 99/92/EC. The ATEX Directive 94/9/EC sets out the essential safety requirements for products and protective systems. The ATEX Directive 99/92/EC, defines minimum health and safety requirements for work places.

1.8 Hydrogen Storage Cylinders

Compressed hydrogen can be shipped in tube trailers at pressures up to 3,000 psi (about 250 bars). In India it is allowed upto 2500 psi. This method is expensive, and it is cost-prohibitive for distances greater than about 250 kms. The system includes a stationary compressor at the central plant to fill tube trailers. The hydrogen delivery costs include capital costs of tube trailers, the driving distance, the driver labor cost, diesel fuel cost, and operations and maintenance (O&M) costs. These costs make about 60-70 % of the supply chain

9 for hydrogen. Tube trailers operating at higher pressures (up to 10,000 psi), would reduce costs and extend the utility of this delivery option.

Moderate quantities of hydrogen can be delivered to long distances in liquid form, but energy requirements and capital costs for liquefaction are much higher than for compression. However, cryogenic liquid trucks can transport approximately 10 times more hydrogen than compressed gas trucks. Although liquid hydrogen tank trailers cost more than tube trailers, the trucking cost per unit of hydrogen delivered is lower, which can lead to a lower overall hydrogen delivery cost.

Pipelines are used for large flows of hydrogen. The cost of hydrogen pipelines delivery depends upon installed capital cost of the pipelines as well as the cost of compression and storage at production site. Currently delivering of large volume of hydrogen through pipelines is the lowest cost option. One possibility for rapidly expanding the hydrogen delivery infrastructure is to adapt part of the natural gas delivery infrastructure to accommodate hydrogen. Steel pipelines can be used for transporting hydrogen at low pressures but these pipelines at high pressure may be prone to hydrogen embrittlement, since hydrogen being smallest in atomic size penetrates into metallic structure or accumulates near dislocation sites or micro voids. Studies are going on to develop new materials for pipelines or coatings that would minimize hydrogen permeation in the pipelines.

The Committee observed that under Indian conditions, the hydrogen compressed in high pressure cylinder is the most feasible option. The Gas Cylinders Rules, 2004 as well as Central Motor Vehicle Rules are required to be amended to incorporate hydrogen as automotive fuel. Type 1 and Type 3 cylinders conforming to any nationally / internationally recognized standard approved by the Chief Controller of Explosives are permitted for hydrogen service. Type 2 & 4 cylinders are not permitted. Type 3 cylinders manufactured by have been permitted for Hydrogen applications on trial basis for some 10 projects. However, the connecting equipment, valves including Hydrogen dispensing stations shall be designed and constructed so as to be compatible with the working pressure of such cylinders and should be as per ISO: 11114-1 & ISO: 11114-2 to ensure suitability of material. The quality of hydrogen is a critical issue to combat the hydrogen embrittlement and should conform to IS: 14687 or as appropriate. Suitable material of construction may be selected as per test methods specified in ISO: 11114-4. Internationally, manufacturers of repute are considered only under Schedule III for approval after following the procedure. The design, drawing and design calculation of the cylinders and valves manufactured as per recognized international standards duly endorsed by reputed third party inspection agency along with type test reports are required to be furnished.

The international standard ISO: 20012 - Gaseous Hydrogen – Fuelling Station may be useful for establishment of fuelling stations in the country on trial basis. At present ISO: 15869 is in the draft stage for Gaseous Hydrogen and Hydrogen blend-Land Vehicle Fuel Tanks. The same may be followed in India being ‘P’ Member of the ISO/TC-197 Committee. IS:15490 & IS:7285 (Part 2) are also required to be suitably amended for to incorporate Hydrogen-CNG blend and Hydrogen as automotive cylinders. The other ISO standards may be followed for hydrogen storage and dispensing systems.

1.9 Centre of Excellence(s)

It is proposed by the Committee that MNRE may drive the initiative for setting up a Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen & Fuel Cells near Delhi and the following institutions must provide support by augmenting infrastructure / setting up Satellite Centres for development and testing of hydrogen / hydrogen blends fuelled vehicles:

(a) Petroleum and Safety Organization for certification of hydrogen storage containers and valves (b) Bureau of Indian standards for making standards available for pressure regulators / solenoid valves / hydrogen purity / pressure relief valves / hydrogen material compatibility (c) Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) for creation of facility for qualification of various components of the vehicles based on IC engine / fuel cell technology (d) National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRIP) (e) IOC R&D’s new Centre of Alternative & Renewable Energy (iCARE) for sub system / stack / hydrogen cylinder / hydrogen IC engine or fuel cell based stationary / vehicle testing (f) Vehicle Research & Development Establishment

While the automotive OEMs and the fuel cell manufacturing companies are in process of commercializing the technology and continuously making efforts towards the reduction of cost, the technological breakthroughs are required at various steps of hydrogen production and supply chain model.

In India lot of efforts are being made in the area of hydrogen energy. The Committee observed that there is a need to consolidate these efforts and bring the projects under one umbrella. Hence, application oriented Mission mode projects covering various facets of hydrogen supply chain and usage have been recommended for promoting the fuel cell technology in India leading to indigenous manufacturing and commercialization. Also, the Committee has recommended new assessment studies to be undertaken for assessing the future potential of hydrogen based economy alongwith the development of other technologies which although can be termed as interim options but hold huge potential in curbing the increasing emission levels in many cities.

1.10 Recommendations

The following initiatives are recommended by the Committee:

12 a. Design, development & demonstration of a fleet comprising of 10 passenger cars, 10 two-wheelers, 10 three-wheelers, 10 SUVs/LCVs and 10 buses operating on fuel cell technology by 2020

Phase 1: Under this phase; the fuel cell stack may be sourced from outside and the entire integration and control strategy shall be developed by the technology developers. This may also include selection of battery pack, Battery Management system (BMS) and drive train design including motor selection. The developed FC vehicles shall be subjected to field trials for a period of 2 years (at least 3,000 hours of Fuel Cell operation) to understand the durability, fuel economy, drivability, safety and environmental impact assessment.

Based on the outcome of the study, Fuel Cell mobility plan may be recommended for strategizing the phasing / commercialization of fuel cell vehicles in the selected zones.

Phase 2 of the study can go in parallel to the durability studies of Phase 1 under which MNRE may seek proposals for development of indigenous stacks, BoP components and their integration with electrical drive-train. This Phase shall be aligned with the outcome of Fuel Cell stack developmental projects as recommended by the “Sub-committee on Fuel Cell Development”. b. Design, development & demonstration of a fleet comprising of 5 passenger cars, 5 three-wheelers, 5 SUVs/LCVs and 5 buses operating on hydrogen IC engine by 2020

In parallel to the above project, the development and demonstration of IC engines based vehicles operating on Hydrogen Direct injection technology shall also be pursued. Control strategy to be optimized for curbing NOx emissions, improving the power output and fuel economy. The field trials to be initiated for 20,000 kms for technology demonstration and in identifying the long term durability impact on engine components & after-treatment devices and fuel economy benefits from hydrogen based engines. c. Setting up of 10 hydrogen dispensing stations by 2020 13

Govt. of India may support this initiative under which the Oil / Gas companies may set up the 10 hydrogen dispensing stations for fuelling the hydrogen engine / fuel cell vehicles. The proposed location of the stations is given below:

Baroda Gandhinagar Chennai Pondicherry Pune

Mumbai Agra Mathura Panipat Chandigarh

The above locations have been selected upon considering the availability of potential sources of hydrogen either from refineries and Chlor-Alkali plants. Two stations at Agra and Chandigarh respectively shall be based on hydrogen produced through renewable energy. Oil Marketing Companies may support by supplying hydrogen from refineries in the required quantity.

Initiatives would be required for permitting the co-existence of hydrogen and liquid/gas dispensing stations, to increase the on-board storage pressure limit upto 700 bar and to allow high pressure hydrogen transportation through tube trailers. d. Setting up of Centre of Excellence(s) for testing & certification of fuel cell stack / fuel cell and hydrogen engine based vehicle / hydrogen storage cylinders by 2020

MNRE may set-up a Centre of Excellence (CoE) for certification of fuel cell stacks, fuel cell & hydrogen engine based vehicles, hydrogen storage cylinders and dispensing infrastructure. This centre shall be the nodal agency for development of codes & standards, standardization of testing procedures, recommending the material quality standards, undertaking the safety & awareness programs etc. in coordination with the other stakeholders. The centre once established may support the creation of satellite facilities for component and vehicle testing.

14 e. Initiatives in other Technologies

While the development of the dedicated fuel cell vehicles would be a case of disruptive innovation, Govt. of India may also encourage the following initiatives of incremental innovation:

 Upon the success of the HCNG studies on different categories of vehicles, Govt. of India may support the setting up of 5 nos. of Compact Reformers based on technology developed by IOC R&D. Proposals may be invited from different State Transport Undertakings for running 20 buses on HCNG fuel for 20,000 kms to assess the operational costs and fuel economy benefits and mass emissions.  Fuel cell based range extended battery electric vehicles may be encouraged for city driving conditions especially in the 13 most polluted cities of the country identified by WHO. Proposals may be invited for development of 20 nos. of fuel cell range extended vehicles for Delhi to understand the technological challenges, durability issues, re-fuelling issues & cost of operation etc associated with these vehicles.  The retrofitment devices for on-hydrogen generation & usage in diesel engines may be encouraged in order to achieve cleaner environment. The proposals may be sought and supported by MNRE to develop on-board hydrogen generation technologies for IC engines & demonstrate the same on 10 vehicles for improving the exhaust emissions and the fuel economy from the conventional engines which are already on the road. f. New Assessment Studies

Lack of data in the area of new emerging sectors like Hydrogen & Fuel Cells is a constraint in development of concrete roadmap. Following studies may be initiated for assessing the future potential of hydrogen based economy:

 Well to Wheel analyses of fuel cell & hydrogen IC engine based vehicles using hydrogen produced from different sources

 Direct economic costs (both capital and operation for new fuel cell electric vehicles and conversion cost for on-road vehicles)  Environmental, safety, and health effects of hydrogen based IC engine / fuel cell vehicles vis-à-vis conventional IC engine based vehicles  Mapping / techno-economic assessment of hydrogen retail outlets for setting of supply & distribution infrastructure in metro cities.  Other aspects, such as safety, drivability, customer convenience and societal impacts  Detailed studies to be executed for establishing the compatibility of existing CNG cylinders for storing upto 20% v/v HCNG blends.

1.11 Financial Projections

It is apparent from the recommendations that activities considered under sub heads a, b & c are mutually inclusive in nature and shall be executed under one umbrella. Hence, the project titled Hydrogen for Transportation through Research & Innovation driven Program – ‘HyTRIP’ has been recommended by the Committee. This project shall be executed with support from different stakeholders including the Govt. Ministries, Oil Companies, Automotive OEMS, and Regulatory bodies etc.

The other projects mentioned under sub heads ‘d’, ‘e’ and ‘f’ of the recommendations can be executed separately as these are mutually exclusive. The activities under sub heads ‘d’ and ’f’ need may be taken up by MNRE under joint R&D programs. The cost estimated for executing the above projects are given as under:

Year 1 2 3 4 5 Total

Cost (Crore)

Project HyTRIP 12 88 165 110 15 390

a. Design of fuel cell 5 45 75 65 7.5 197.5 drivetrains for each 16

category of vehicle and Development of 50 fuel cell vehicles by OEMs including field trials of fuel cell vehicles for 3,000 hours of fuel cell operation b. Design of hydrogen DI 2 23 30 15 7.5 77.5 engine based vehicles and Development of 20 vehicles for long term durability studies for 30,000 kms c. Design & Deployment of 10 5 20 60 30 115 Dispensing station for fuelling vehicles on hydrogen fuel at 350 bar

Centre of Excellence 200

d. Setting up of Centre of 50 20 30 50 50 200 Excellence (CoE) for testing & certification of fuel cell stack / fuel cell and hydrogen engine based vehicle / hydrogen storage cylinders

Other Activities ‘e’ & ‘f’ 80

e. Initiatives in other 70 Technologies

 HCNG activities  Fuel cell range extenders  Hydrogen based Retrofitment solutions for IC engines f. New Assessment Studies 10

Grand Total 680 crores

The Committee on “Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles in India” has concluded that the recent technological advances witnessed in this sector are indicative enough that many countries are concentrating on hydrogen as a future fuel. Programs are underway to develop the complete eco-system related to hydrogen supply chain and also to reduce the cost of production of fuel cells while increasing the system durability. In India, the above mentioned projects are required to be executed to bridge the technology gap, enhance public awareness and generate key data to plan the pathways for hydrogen economy.

INTRODUCTION

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Hydrogen as Energy Carrier

Hydrogen is attracting considerable research globally as a possible longer term, renewable energy carrier. Its particular appeal is as a clean energy source, when derived from renewable sources, for fuel cell systems. When fuelled by pure hydrogen and oxygen/air, these produce electric power with water as the chemical by-product and no carbon-based greenhouse gas emissions. There are a number of hydrogen fuel cell prototypes in test and field-trial operations for both stationary and vehicle applications, but considerable scientific, technical and economic challenges have to be addressed before hydrogen could become a widespread energy alternative in the next decade. The challenges include:

 hydrogen to be obtained economically from renewable sources;

 infrastructure for hydrogen delivery and filling stations;

 improved hydrogen storage technologies;

 fuel cells with improved reliability and lower costs; and

 codes for safe handling of hydrogen and addressing public safety concerns

The different national priorities for hydrogen energy R&D depend on each country’s relative dependence on other energy sources, especially fossil fuels, and strategies to ensure security of supply and to combat climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

On the application front, hydrogen can be utilized in IC engines and in fuel cells (both for stationary and mobility applications). While the fuel cell systems are far more energy efficient as compared to IC engine based systems, their deployment needs a complete overhauling of the production, supply and dispensing infrastructure. In view of this, few automotive manufacturers like BMW in the past decade concentrated on engines rather than fuel cells. But other

21 leading OEMS like Toyota, General motors, Hyundai, Mercedes Benz etc. have shown greater affinity towards the fuel cell technology.

Several demonstration projects initiated by the leading companies in both automotive and stationary segment are evident across the globe and enormous research and development resources are directed towards improving the technology in order to push it into the market. As would be expected in any technology’s R&D phase, most fuel cell projects are relatively small, ranging from 1kW up to 250kW. There is no indication that these represent size limitations for fuel cells, which can be compensated by modularity. Numerous commercialized fuel cell projects are apparent and it would not be premature to say that FC market is growing.

2.2 Fuel Cell

Although there are several different types of fuel cells, they all operate on the same basic concept of electrochemical reaction of fuel and oxygen to produce water, direct current electricity, and heat. Fuel cells (essentially) contain 2 sub-systems called as Stack which consists of an anode, cathode, electrolyte and external electrical circuit, while the Balance of Plant (BoP) includes fuel/air supply system, fuel and air pre-heaters, filters, afterburners, recycling route, reformer (if present), control system, power electronics including DC-AC inverter. Fuel is delivered to the anode, and an oxygen-rich mixture is delivered to the cathode. Ions migrate through the electrolyte, and electrons flow through the external circuit, creating the electrical current. A simplified cell is displayed in Figure 2.1. Fuel cell “stacks”, which are an assembly of a number of “cells”, are incorporated into fuel cell “systems” broadly consisting of one or more stacks.

Figure 2.1: Generic type of Fuel Cell

The fuel cell differs from conventional heat engine technology (such as the internal combustion engine or the gas turbine), in that it does not rely on raising the temperature of a working fluid such as air in a combustion process. The maximum efficiency of a heat engine is subject to the Carnot efficiency limitation, which defines the maximum efficiency that any heat engine can have if its temperature extremes are known. In contrast, the theoretical efficiency of a fuel cell is related to the ratio of two energies (i.e. Gibbs free energy and Enthalpy) associated with the fuel. Typically, the I.C engines operating on Carnot cycle have efficiency of 25% - 33%, while the system efficiency of fuel cells ranges between 45% - 65% depending upon the technology in use and the end application.

In addition, other factors play a role in determining the actual efficiency of an operating fuel cell. For example, losses associated with the kinetics of the fuel cell reactions fall with increasing temperature, while it is often possible to use a wider range of fuels at higher temperatures. Equally, if a fuel cell is to be combined with a heat engine, for example in a fuel cell/gas turbine combined cycle, then high fuel cell operating temperatures are required to maximize system efficiency. All these factors mean that there is considerable interest in both low temperature and high temperature fuel cells, depending upon the application.

2.3 Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells are classified according to the type of electrolyte utilized, geometry of construction, and temperature of operation (which relates back to electrolyte type). Five primary types of fuel cells include; Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM), Solid Oxide (SOFC), Alkaline (AFC), Phosphoric Acid (PAFC) and Molten Carbonate (MCFC). Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) is considered to be a variant of PEM technology. Most of these technologies are considered to be pre-commercial / large scale demonstration stage, and therefore reported characteristics often represent a range of possible values from what has been achieved in practice so far, upto to what is theoretically possible. The comparison of different types of fuel cells in terms of electrolyte material, operating temperatures, efficiencies and power ranges is given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Comparison of various fuel cells (Source: FCT Industry Review)

PEMFC HT PEMFC DMFC MCFC PAFC SOFC AFC

Electrolyte Ion Ion Polymer Immobilized Immobilized Ceramic Potassium Exchange Exchange membrane Liquid Liquid hydroxide Membrane Membrane Molten Phosphoric (water- (acid-based) carbonate acid based) Operating 80◦C 120-200◦C 60-130◦C 650◦C 200◦C 1,000◦C 60-90◦C Temp. Electrical 40-60% 60% 40% 45-60% 35-40% 50-65% 45-60% Efficiency Typical <250KW <100KW <1KW >200KW >50KW >200KW >20KW Power Rating

It may be mentioned here that above table represents the generic operational and performance parameters under standard conditions. The performance of the fuel cell may vary with working conditions, environmental impact and maintenance schedule. The envisaged market portfolio for each fuel cell is

24 described below:

Table 2.2 Application of various fuel cell technologies

Fuel Cell Type SOFC PEMFC DMFC AFC PAFC MCFC Application

Transport -    - -

Domestic   -  - - Power/Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) Combined Heat & Power      

Large Scale  - - - -  Power Battery    - - - Replacement

2.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from different fuel cells:

The comparison of Greenhouse gas emissions discharged while producing 1 unit (kW-hr) of electricity from different types of fuel cells is given in Figure 2.2. It is worth noting that carbon dioxide emission rates are based on natural gas as the fuel source, with or without pre-reforming technology depending on the fuel cell type. CO2 emissions are strongly dependent on the type of fuel employed. The fuel cells have been compared for only electricity production (i.e. no credit has been allotted for waste heat utilization).

CO2 CO2 (g/kWh)

Figure 2.2: Carbon Dioxide Emissions from different Fuel Cells (Source: US-EPA, 2002)

2.5 Polarization Curve and System Losses

It can be seen from the following graph (Figure 2.3) that the operating losses of PEM type fuel cells are very less as compared to the other fuel cells. Also, form the polarization curve it can be concluded that for achieving higher current density, PEM fuel cells would experience the lowest voltage drop.

Figure 2.3 : Polarisation Curve and losses for different Fuel Cells

These characteristics make this fuel cell an obvious choice for the transport application where the low start-up times coupled with fast response for 26 transient applications and durability are of prime importance. Moreover, low losses means that the size of the PEMFC would be very small as compared to other fuel cells.

2.6 Global Projections of Fuel Cell Market

According to report published by Pike Research, USA, during the year 2009, the global commercial sales of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) will reach the key milestone of 1 million vehicles by 2020, with a cumulative 1.2 million vehicles sold by the end of that year generating $16.9 billion in annual revenue. The fuel cell car market is now in the ramp-up phase to commercialization, anticipated by automakers to happen around 2015.

Pike Research’s analysis indicates that, during the pre-commercialization period from 2010 to 2014, approximately 10,000 FCVs will be deployed. Following that phase, the firm forecasts that 57,000 FCVs will be sold in 2015, with sales volumes ramping to 390,000 vehicles annually by 2020. The growth trends in Asia-Pacific region are going to outcast the North America and the Western European regions. This heavy demand is expected in the countries like Japan, Korea, China and India.

Figure 2.4: Fuel Cell Market Projections

The study conducted by Freedonia Group (US based Consultancy) estimates projections of total fuel cell spending and commercial demand for the overall sector and the various sub-segments out until 2018. The total fuel cell spending is expected to grow from $1.6 billion in 1998 to $18.2 billion in 2018. In 2018, commercial fuel cell demand is expected to account for 35.6% of overall fuel cell spending. The other 64.4% of total spending expected in 2018 will be attributed to revenues associated with prototyping, demonstrating and test marketing activity as well as R&D investment in fuel cell enterprises (including grants, venture capital, and outside equity).

Further, the consultancy estimates that the global revenues in the fuel cell sector are projected to grow at the rate of 26% per annum over the next decade as compared to 12% for solar power, 10% for biofuels and 6% for wind power, as indicated in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Growth of Clean Energy Technologies. (Source: Freedonia Group, USA)

The overall scenario and projections pertaining to the use of fuel cells in both stationary and mobility market seems attractive. Ongoing research, development & demonstration programs across the globe are indicative of the fact that hydrogen fuel cell technology is going to emerge as one of the most promising alternative technologies in the coming time. 28

HYDROGEN FUELLED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

3.0 Hydrogen Fuelled Internal Combustion (IC) Engines

3.1 Alternatives fuels for IC Engines

Automobiles have become critically indispensable to our modern life style. On the other hand, future of automobiles, built on the internal combustion engines, has been badly hit by the twin problems due to diminishing fuel supplies and environmental degradation. A lot of research is being carried out throughout the world to evaluate the performance, exhaust emission and combustion characteristics of the existing engines using several alternative fuels such as hydrogen, compressed natural gas (CNG), alcohols (methanol and ethanol), LPG, biogas, producer gas, bio-diesels developed from vegetable oils, and a host of others. Hydrogen is a versatile fuel with the unique potential of providing an ultimate freedom from an energy (fuel) crisis and environmental degradation. In view of the versatility of internal combustion engines, they will continue to dominate the transportation sector.

In the history of engine development, hydrogen has been tried several times as an alternative fuel chiefly from the point of view of shortage of fossil fuels. Hydrogen does not experience problems associated with liquid fuels, such as vapor lock, cold wall quenching, inadequate vaporization, poor mixing, and so forth. The other significant feature of hydrogen in the present day context is the “clean-burning” characteristics of the fuel. When hydrogen is burned in air, the main product is water. Hydrogen combustion does not produce toxic products such as hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur, organic acids and carbon dioxide. Acid rain and the CO2 greenhouse effect are eliminated. Some oxides of nitrogen are generated and our experiments show that it is possible to get the concentration of NOx drastically reduced by monitoring the engine operation. In today’s world, where the effect of global warming turns out to be a crucial problem, the basic advantage of hydrogen combustion is that the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) is not formed at all when hydrogen is burned. This clean-burning property promises an accelerated entry of hydrogen

31 into the existing transportation sectors, as well as several energy consuming sectors, of the developing countries. Like CNG, hydrogen engine fuelling also needs an entirely different approach from that of liquid fuelling.

Hydrogen in view of its large source along with its clean burning characteristic has been recognized as a fuel for the sustainable future of transportation. Hydrogen provides fuel security against oil import also environment friendliness. Hydrogen (H2) is one the most abundant elements available on earth. However, it is not found in elemental form. A primary energy source is required to produce hydrogen. Hydrogen production technologies in commercial use today are catalytic steam reforming of natural gas, naphtha and other hydrocarbons, partial oxidation of hydrocarbons, gasification of coal and electrolysis of water.

3.2 Impact of vehicular pollution on environment

The news published regarding pollution impact are as under:

Environmental degradation is one of the most alarming results of vehicular emission. The adoption of CNG in New Delhi a decade ago has significantly reduced the air pollution in the city but with time the number of vehicles in the road also increased significantly. This increase in vehicular density has adversely affected the air quality. On major advantage to hydrogen as a fuel source is its

32 relatively low impact on the environment. Traditional fossil fuels, such as gasoline, create greenhouse gases and air pollutants as fuel is burned to create energy. Hydrogen does not create these harmful substances when used as an energy source. Instead, when hydrogen is combined with oxygen, it burns cleanly, producing water and heat instead of environmentally unfriendly exhaust. Unfortunately, some current methods of creating hydrogen still produce high levels of greenhouse gases, evening out its benefits. Hydrogen in comparison with other fuel sources is not only as powerful and efficient but more environmentally friendly.

3.2.1 Properties of Hydrogen

Hydrogen is an odourless, colourless gas. With molecular weight of 2.016, hydrogen is the lightest element. Its density is about 14 times less than air (0.08376 kg/m3 at standard temperature and pressure). Hydrogen is liquid at temperatures below 20.3 K (at atmospheric pressure). Hydrogen has the highest energy content per unit mass of all fuels - higher heating value is 141.9 MJ/kg, almost three times higher than gasoline.

Like any other fuel or energy carrier hydrogen poses risks if not properly handled or controlled. The risk of hydrogen, therefore, must be considered relative to the common fuels such as gasoline, propane or natural gas. The specific physical characteristics of hydrogen are quite. Some of those properties make hydrogen potentially less hazardous, while other hydrogen characteristics could theoretically make it more dangerous in certain situations.

Since hydrogen has the smallest molecule it has a greater tendency to escape through small openings than other liquid or gaseous fuels. Based on properties of hydrogen such as density, viscosity and diffusion coefficient in air, the propensity of hydrogen to leak through holes or joints of low pressure fuel lines may be only 1.26 to 2.8 times faster than a natural gas leak through the same hole (and not 3.8 times faster as frequently assumed based solely on diffusion coefficients). Experiments have indicated that most leaks from 33 residential natural gas lines are laminar. Since natural gas has over three times the energy density per unit volume the natural gas leak would result in more energy release than a hydrogen leak.

Table 3.1: Properties of Hydrogen Properties of hydrogen

Molecular weight 2.016

Density kg/m3 0.0838 Higher heating value MJ/kg 141.90

MJ/m3 11.89

Lower heating value MJ/kg 119.90 MJ/m3 10.05 Boiling temperature K 20.3 Density as liquid kg/m3 70.8 Critical point Temperature K 32.94 Pressure bar 12.84 Density kg/m3 31.40 Self-ignition temperature K 858

Ignition limits in air (vol. %) 4-75 Stoichiometric mixture in air (vol. %) 29.53 Flame temperature in air K 2,318 Diffusion coefficient cm2/s 0.61 Specific heat (cp) kJ/(kg·K) 14.89

For very large leaks from high pressure storage tanks, the leak rate is limited by sonic velocity. Due to higher sonic velocity (1308 m/s) hydrogen would initially escape much faster than natural gas (sonic velocity of natural gas is 449

34 m/s). Again, since natural gas has more than three times the energy density than hydrogen, a natural gas leak will always contain more energy. If a leak should occur for whatever reason, hydrogen will disperse much faster than any other fuel, thus reducing the hazard levels. Hydrogen is both more buoyant and more diffusive than gasoline, propane or natural gas.

Hydrogen/air mixture can burn in relatively wide volume ratios, between 4% and 75% of hydrogen in air. Other fuels have much lower flammability ranges, viz., natural gas 5.3-15%, propane 2.1-10%, and gasoline 1-7.8%. However, the range has a little practical value. In many actual leak situations the key parameter that determines if a leak would ignite is the lower flammability limit, and hydrogen’s lower flammability limit is 4 times higher than that of gasoline, 1.9 times higher than that of propane and slightly lower than that of natural gas.

Hydrogen has a very low ignition energy (0.02 mJ), about one order of magnitude lower than other fuels. The ignition energy is a function of fuel/air ratio, and for hydrogen it reaches minimum at about 25%-30% hydrogen content in air. At the lower flammability limit hydrogen ignition energy is comparable with that of natural gas.

Hydrogen has a flame velocity 7 times faster than that of natural gas or gasoline. A hydrogen flame would therefore be more likely to progress to a deflagration or even a detonation than other fuels. However, the likelihood of a detonation depends in a complex manner on the exact fuel/air ratio, the temperature and particularly the geometry of the confined space. Hydrogen detonation in the open atmosphere is highly unlikely.

The lower detonability fuel/air ratio for hydrogen is 13%-18%, which is two times higher than that of natural gas and 12 times higher than that of gasoline. Since the lower flammability limit is 4% an explosion is possible only under the most unusual scenarios, e.g., hydrogen would first have to accumulate and reach 35

13% concentration in a closed space without ignition, and only then an ignition source would have to be triggered.

Should an explosion occur, hydrogen has the lowest explosive energy per unit stored energy in the fuel, and a given volume of hydrogen would have 22 times less explosive energy than the same volume filled with gasoline vapor. Hydrogen flame is nearly invisible, which may be dangerous, because people in the vicinity of a hydrogen flame may not even know there is a fire. This may be remedied by adding some chemicals that will provide the necessary luminosity. The low emissivity of hydrogen flames means that near-by materials and people will be much less likely to ignite and/or hurt by radiant heat transfer. The fumes and soot from a gasoline fire pose a risk to anyone inhaling the smoke, while hydrogen fires produce only water vapor (unless secondary materials begin to burn).

Liquid hydrogen presents another set of safety issues, such as risk of cold burns, and the increased duration of leaked cryogenic fuel. A large spill of liquid hydrogen has some characteristics of a gasoline spill, however it will dissipate much faster. Another potential danger is a violent explosion of a boiling liquid expanding vapor in case of a pressure relief valve failure.

3.3 Advantages of Hydrogen over Conventional Fuels for Transport

Two realities suggest that the current energy economy is not sustainable:

1. The demand for energy is growing and the raw materials for the fossil fuel economy are diminishing. 2. Emissions from fossil fuel usage significantly degrade air quality all over the world. The resulting carbon byproducts are substantially changing the world's climate.

3.4 Hydrogen has these basic benefits that address the above concerns:

a) The use of hydrogen greatly reduces pollution. Hydrogen on

combustion produces water vapor and NOx. NOx being the only pollutant of concern which is formed due to the Nitrogen present in air. Hence use

of hydrogen in vehicle produces traces on NOx emission at lean burn conditions. b) Hydrogen can be produced locally from numerous sources. Hydrogen can be produced either centrally, and then distributed, or onsite where it will be used. Hydrogen gas can be produced from methane, gasoline, biomass, coal or water. Each of these sources brings with it different amounts of pollution, technical challenges, and energy requirements.  If hydrogen is produced from water we have a sustainable production system. Electrolysis is the method of separating water into hydrogen and oxygen. Renewable energy can be used to power electrolyzers to produce the hydrogen from water. Using renewable energy provides a sustainable system that is independent of petroleum products and is nonpolluting. Some of the renewable sources used to power electrolyzers are wind, hydro, solar and tidal energy.

3.5 Hydrogen Energy Road Map of India

In India MNRE has been a prime body which recognized hydrogen as a potential energy source for the future decades ago. As a part of overcoming the challenges with hydrogen economy MNRE had set up the National Hydrogen Energy Road Map which sketches the path forward. “The main objective of the National Hydrogen Energy Road Map is to identify the paths, which will lead to a gradual introduction of Hydrogen Energy in the country, accelerate commercialization efforts and facilitate creation of Hydrogen Energy Infrastructure in the country. The National Hydrogen Energy Road Map provides a comprehensive approach to the development of the components of the hydrogen energy system, ranging from production, storage, transport, delivery, applications, safety and standards, education and awareness among others”[3]. 37

 The National Hydrogen Energy Map has identified two initiatives,  Green Initiatives for Future Transport (GIFT) and  Green Initiative for Power Generation (GIP).  Hydrogen Vision 2020 – (GIFT)  Hydrogen cost at delivery point @ Rs. 60-70 /Kg  Hydrogen storage capacity to be 9 weight %  Adequate support infrastructure including a large number of dispensing stations to be in place  Safety regulations, legislations, codes and standards to be fully in place  Hydrogen Application for Transportation  Using hydrogen in Internal Combustion Engines  Using hydrogen in fuel cells  Hydrogen Electric Hybrid vehicles

3.6 International Status on Hydrogen as Automotive Fuel

Several R&D project have been undergoing in various parts of the world for developing hydrogen based Internal Combustion Engines. Some of the significant project in this direction is: a) The HyICE programme which was undergoing in Europe from 2004-2007 has successfully demonstrated hydrogen Engines. The project headed by European Commission and BMW in collaboration with various industry and academia. The investigation was carried out in both single and multi-cylinder engines for various fuel injection strategies like Direct Injection and Cryogenic Fuel Injection. The project demonstrated hydrogen engines with peak thermal efficiency 42% and a specific power output of over 100kW/L. b) Europe has successfully demonstrated hydrogen powered fork lift and bi-fuel passenger car. In Japan under the EFV21 project (Next Generation Environment Friendly Vehicle Development and Commercialization project),

with the aim of reducing CO2 emission from heavy duty engines Direct Injection Hydrogen IC engines were demonstrated which has high specific

power output and NOx emission within the regulations. The project has noted that presently hydrogen powered IC engines are more suitable for Heavy Vehicle rather than fuel cells due to the higher specific power output. c) Tokyo City University has developed two hydrogen engines which were turbocharged with Port Fuel Injection (PFI), subsequently these engines were used in light duty trucks with hybrid power train i.e. electric drive to overcome the issue of lower speed torque. These vehicles covered over

15000km. Lean NOx operation strategy has been adopted by several

researchers worldwide to lower the NOx emission. d) Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is another technology which aims to overcome the issue of low emission versus better combustion rate and thermal efficiency. High compression ratio is used in HCCI technology. e) With direct Injection it is possible to keep combustion confined, away from combustion chamber walls hence decreasing the heat loss from stratifying

the fuel/air mixtures for lower NOx when using relatively rich mixtures, or for faster combustion for relatively lean mixtures. The development of Direct Injection (DI) Injectors being one of the issues which have longer durability and sustained performance.

3.7 National Status on Hydrogen as Automotive Fuel

a) IIT Delhi in collaboration with Mahindra & Mahindra has developed a fleet of fifteen three wheelers which were inaugurated in 2012 during the Auto Expo 2012. The project has got fresh funding from MNRE and will be covering flied trial of 30,000 km per vehicle in period of two years. The vehicles are being used for ferrying passengers and goods in Pragati Maidan, New Delhi. The project provide a platform where hydrogen as a fuel for transportation being introduced to the public generating awareness about the fuel. b) Similar hydrogen powered three wheeler, bikes were also demonstrated by IIT BHU. The focus of R&D being hydrogen storage in metal hydride.

c) IIT Delhi in collaboration with Mahindra & Mahindra has developed a multi cylinder IC Engine which has been introduced into Mahindra’s Tourist or Model Mini Bus. Two of those vehicles has been built and calibrated. Each Vehicle will undergo field trials of 1, 00,000 km in coming months. d) Hydrogen Diesel Dual Fuel vehicles are developed by Mahindra & Mahindra under MNRE sponsored project with hydrogen substitution of over 50%. e) Various Vehicle manufacturers (M&M, Ashok Leyland, Tata etc.) in collaboration with IOCL has developed Hydrogen CNG blend fuel (18%) for vehicular application. M&M has completed the designated filed trials.

3.8 Hydrogen Application in Hydrogen IC Engine

Hydrogen can be used as an IC Engine fuel in different configurations,

a) Hydrogen SI Engines b) Hydrogen CI/Dual Fuel Engines c) Hydrogen-CNG Dual Fuel d) Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition Engine (HCCI)

As mentioned above there are several ways that hydrogen can be used as a motor fuel. It can be used to directly replace gasoline or diesel fuel in specially designed internal combustion engines (ICEs), or it can be used to supplement these typical fuels in existing engines. In either of these cases, the vehicle drive system will be identical to those used on most gasoline-powered or diesel- powered vehicles. The engine will drive the vehicle’s wheels through a transmission, drive shaft, and front or rear axle.

3.8.1. Hydrogen fuelled Spark Ignition Engines

Hydrogen is an excellent fuel for SI engines. Its wide ignition limits and hence the ability to operate with limited throttling losses, high flame speed that leads to near constant volume combustion and high thermal efficiency, good

40 mixing characteristics that allow high speed operation and formation of a homogeneous mixture with ease, resistance to auto-ignition that allows relatively high compression ratios to be used without end gas knocking and ability to be used with other fuels to enhance their performance. All over the world research work has indicated several advantages and challenges to be faced when hydrogen is used as an engine fuel. Apart from the well known challenges related to storage and handling of hydrogen some of the difficulties that become relevant when operating SI engines are: a) High burning rates that can lead to knock elevate the cylinder temperature

and result in high levels of NOx. This can be mitigated by using high levels of dilution using cooled exhaust gas, other gases like nitrogen etc. This phenomenon limits the equivalence ratios and hence power output that can be used in hydrogen engines. The influence of different diluents on reducing

NOx emissions under WOT conditions is seen in Fig.3.1. It is seen that EGR

allows high outputs under similar levels of NOx emissions as compared to other methods like dilution by Nitrogen and carbon dioxide.

8 Nitrogen dilution Carbon dioxide dilution 7.6 EGR

7.2

6.8 Indicated power (kW) Indicated Speed : 2500 rpm 6.4 Spark timing : MBT Throttle : WOT Allowbale NO : 1000 6 ppm 0.6 0.64 0.68 0.72 0.76 0.8 Fuel flowrate(kg/h)

Fig.3.1 Effectiveness of NOx control Measures

b) Hydrogen needs very low ignition energies. Hence, backfiring can occur during the suction of the hydrogen air mixture into the cylinder. This can be avoided by the use of timed manifold injection of hydrogen or by direct injection of hydrogen. The valve timing has to be altered so that overlap can 41

be minimized. Injecting hydrogen into the manifold towards the end of the suction stroke, after the air has entered and cooled the hot spots in the cylinder or into the manifold before the valve opens thus creating a very rich mixture will be helpful. Manifold injection thus results in higher power outputs than carburetion. It has been experimentally found that timed manifold injection can raise the power outputs significantly then carburetion. c) The operating limit for equivalence ratio is quite high for hydrogen (0.26 to 0.84). NO emission is negligible till an equivalence ratio of 0.55 and quite high in the region between 0.6 and 0.9. Equivalence ratios lesser than 0.4 have been observed to lower combustion rates and thermal efficiencies and

equivalence ratios close to 0.8 lead to extremely high NOx emissions. Spark

timing has a pronounced effect on performance and NOx emissions. The

drastic variation in NOx emissions with spark timing is seen in Fig.3.2. However, this reduction is at the expense of thermal efficiency. At higher equivalence ratios the rate of pressure rise becomes very high and this leads to rough combustion. Though the hydrogen engine can operate without a throttle, at low loads throttling can be done to ensure that the equivalence ratio does not fall below 0.4 in order to maintain high thermal efficiencies. Fig.3.3 indicates that maintaining the equivalence ratio around 0.4 is essential

to have high thermal efficiencies. This also leads to significantly low NOx

emissions. The NOx levels are compared in Fig.3.4 between gasoline and Hydrogen operation at the best ignition timing. We see that beyond a power

output of 6 kW where the equivalence ratio goes up to 0.8, the NOx level shoots up.

9000

8000 Speed : 2500 rpm 7000 Throttle: WOT 6000 MBT 5000

4000 B efo re TDC A fter TDC TDC

3000 Nitric oxide emission (ppm) emission oxide Nitric 2000 FFR : 0.68 kg/h 1000 FFR : 0.76 kg/h 0 -20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 Spark timing (°CA from TDC)

Fig.3.2 Effect of spark timing on NOx emissions

3.0 70 8000 Speed :2500 rpm Spark timing: MBT Gasoline 7000 Throttle : Variable 60 2.6 FFR : 0.2543 kg/h Hydrogen 6000 50 Spark timing : MBT 2.2 5000 40 Speed : 2500rpm

4000

30 NO(ppm) 1.8 3000

Brakepower (kW) Indicated power NO emission (ppm) NOemission 20 NO emission 2000 1.4 10 1000

1.0 0 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Equivalence ratio Brake Power (kW)

Fig.3.3 Effect of Throttling on thermal efficiency Fig.3.4 NOx levels compared d) The gases that leak into the crank case have to be properly ventilated so that crank case explosions can be avoided. e) The spark timing has also to be controlled properly in order to control the

combustion rate and NOx emissions. Significant retardation of the spark timing with output and equivalence ratio is needed. Compression ratios in the range of 10 to 12:1 can be used by careful control of the operating variables. f) Hydrogen leads to reduction in the power output because of its low density. This can be offset by directly injecting this fuel into the cylinder after the valves close. 43 g) The problem of poor mixture formation in the case of direct injection engines has limited the thermal efficiencies to values lower than manifold injection. The poor penetration of hydrogen when injected into the cylinder affects mixture preparation. h) EGR with after treatment devices along with lean burn can lead to high

efficiency and low NOx levels. i) Measures like manifold water injection, addition of nitrogen that is available in

the exhaust and EGR are effective in controlling NOx levels. EGR seems to be very effective and feasible technique in controlling the NO at all loads without any drop in power and efficiency. It also reduces the MRPR to some extent. Retarding the spark timing at higher equivalence ratios also reduces NO emission considerably, but also affects the thermal efficiency. Dilution of the charge by nitrogen is less effective in controlling NO at low loads but quite effective at high loads. j) Cycle by cycle variations were generally observed to be low as compared to other fuels. k) Hydrogen has been effectively used to enhance the performance of natural gas. It can also be used to enhance the performance with biogas. This could be a viable option in the case of stationary generator set engines and locomotive engines that could be run mainly on biogas. Figure 3.5 (a and b) indicates the improvements that can be obtained by adding small amounts of hydrogen to biogas about 5– to 15%. There is a significant reduction in HC emissions, extension of the lean limits and improvement in thermal efficiency.

30 Hydrogen=0% Hydrogen=5% Hydrogen=10% 25 Hydrogen=15%

10 Throttle:100%

CR=13:1 Brake Thermal Efficiency(%) BrakeThermal 5 Speed:1500 rpm Ignition Timing:MBT Fuel:Biogas+Hydrogen 0 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 Equivalence Ratio

12000 Hydrogen=0% Hydrogen=5% Hydrogen=10% 10000 Hydrogen=15% Throttle:100% CR=13:1 8000 Speed:1500 rpm Ignition Timing:MBT Fuel:Biogas+Hydrogen 6000

4000

Hydrocarbon(ppm) Emission 2000

0 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 Equivalence Ratio

Fig.3.5 (a and b): Effect of hydrogen on enhancing performance of biogas (SI mode)

3.8.2. Hydrogen Powered Three Wheelers (Single Cylinder SI Engine)

Ambient air quality in Indian cities can be controlled by reduced vehicular emission & Global warming can be controlled by Green House Gas mitigation with CO2 reduction. In order to achieve both the above goals, the main aim of is to develop a new technology for 3-wheeled vehicles, to use Hydrogen fuel (H2) to remove all carbon pollutants (CO, HC, Particulate Matter, Smoke, Aldehyde, 45

Ketone emissions) & eliminate CO2 emission. The project called DelHy-3W fosters the implementation of Indian Industrial and scientific skills in producing a very popular mass transport platform to operate with the cleanest fuel (Hydrogen). The hydrogen operated 3-Wheeler vehicle “Hyalfa” was developed by M&M with integration of the optimized engine, storage system, fuelling system and safety features. The main inspiration is to provide sustainable mobility for vehicle at the bottom of the pyramid and bring Carbon neutral, also reduce fossil fuel consumption & substantially reduce energy consumption by delivering optimum hydrogen fuel usage. By adopting this renewable fuel technology we not only achieve Sustainable Mobility, but also reduce India’s dependence on Fossil fuels.

Scope of the project: This technology innovation will definitely create a positive impact on hydrogen fuel usage in the World. This will also make India to be independent of the conventional fuels such as Gasoline and Diesel. The recent variations in oil prices makes will definitely create the way for non conventional energy sources and hydrogen fuel is one of them. As three wheelers are the main transport vehicle in Asia pacific regions the development of this technology makes India competitiveness in the World. For the benefit of society hydrogen a carbon free fuel results in significant environmentally pollutant reduction. It will also create the employment in India once it is commercialized and definitely it will have positive impact on environment to make the cities to be much cleaner. People, Planet and Profit are the three bottom-line of the sustainability. This technology addresses the three bottom-line of sustainability.

(a) People:  As three wheelers are the main transport vehicle in Asia pacific regions the development of this technology provides alternate fuelled green vehicle to customers.  Innovative safety system incorporated which shut off Hydrogen on leakage automatically ensuring safety of people. 46

 Achieving mileage of 80 km/kg of hydrogen will be economical for the users if Government supports and provide hydrogen fuel its due carbon credits

(b) Profit:  This technology innovation will definitely create a positive impact on hydrogen Economy to have globally competitive.  The recent variations in oil prices have to be mitigated by alternative fuel & sustainable energy sources and hydrogen fuel is one of them.  It will also create the employment & Business opportunities in India once it is commercialized.

 Environmental friendly no Carbon emission ultra low emissions of NOx  Mileage around 70 km/kg  Renewable fuel Hydrogen  Break thermal efficiency improved by 10-15 % than gasoline  No power loss compared to Gasoline  Improved drivability than gasoline vehicles

Exhaustive lab tests on engines & vehicles using IIT Delhi facilities to access the behaviour of the engine at varying operating conditions. Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd developed fifteen hydrogen vehicles with integration of the optimized engine, storage system, fuelling system and safety features. For this development a consortium of Industrial partners & Indian Academic (IIT Delhi) has developed the first fleet of hydrogen fuelled three wheelers with the support from the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) & International centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (ICHET) to decrease local pollution at New Delhi at an affordable cost. These 15 vehicles are refuelled at a dedicated hydrogen refuelling facility installed by Air products, USA. The fleet and refuelling facility are hosted in Pragati Maidan exhibition ground of India Trade Promotion Organization (ITPO). ITPO is hosting the project and helping 47 disseminate the Indian know-how. The Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has extend the project demonstration for another 2 years in Pragati Maidan for doing durability analysis of 15 3-Whellers for 30,000 kms each.

The vehicle chosen was originally a CNG fuelled 3 wheelers & 3 wheelers are chosen because it is one of the most public transports in India. For hydrogen fuel in the engine were designed by considering the specific combustion and safety requirements of hydrogen. The engine is equipped with a hydrogen fuel injection system for properly timed and metered fuel delivery. A new ignition system is developed from the existing Capacitive Discharge Ignition (CDI) system used normally in SI engine. For ensuring the safety hydrogen leak detection, shut off solenoid, emergency cutoff switch, flash back arrestors, fire extinguishers were used in the vehicle to ensure onboard passengers safety. The technical specifications of the engine are listed in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Engine Specification of Hydrogen Three Wheelers

Engine Type Single Cylinder; 4S

Displacement 395cc

Bore x Stroke (mm) 86 x 68

Compression Ratio 9.5 ±0.5

Number of Valves 2

Engine Speed 1150-4200 RPM

Valve Overlap & Max lift ~10.5 degree of crank angle & 8.15 mm

Cooling System Forced Air Cooling

Fuel Supply Fuel injection

(d) Quantifiable and tangible benefits from hydrogen engine development and achieved emission reduction:

The hydrogen engine is developed considering the specific combustion ignition characteristics of hydrogen. In engine the ignition system is basically a crank sensor (Pulsar Coil) triggered CDI (Capacitor Discharge Ignition) type that is controlled by Hydrogen ECU. The timed port injection used in the engine helps to avoid the backfire risk. For accurate controlling for ignition and fuel injection, CAM sensor was added to the engine. For precise controlling of the hydrogen gas injection, manifold air pressure (MAP) sensor added to the intake system to let the ECU know about the engine load condition. The engine is calibrated to operate on wider range of speed and load to optimize with respect to performance and emission at Air fuel ratios which avoids backfire. The photograph shows the experimental setup done at IIT Delhi for engine testing & development. It is observed that there is no carbon based emission in the exhaust (carbon monoxide [CO], carbon dioxide [CO2], Hydrocarbon [HC], sulphur, aldehydes emissions). Ultra low levels of NOx emission were observed in the exhaust which is typical in the range of little ppm level only (Fig.3.6). Hydrogen engine results in significant reduction in emission which is a very good potential benefit for the India in terms of environmental pollution (Fig.3.7 & Fig.3.8).

Fig.3.6 Representation of NOx Emission Benefit from Hydrogen Application

Fig.3.7 Representation of CO2 Emission Benefit from Hydrogen Application

Fig.3.8 Representation of HC Emission Benefit from Hydrogen Application

There is an overall improvement in thermal efficiency by 10 to 15 % in all speed range compared to gasoline (Fig.3.9). Due to hydrogen fuel characteristics and better combustion there is a significant improvement in performance. The power delivered is said to be comparable to gasoline (Fig.3.10). The drivability is improved very much after recalibration and it is similar to gasoline.

Fig.3.9 Representation of Thermal Efficiency Benefit from Hydrogen Application

Fig.3.10 Representation of Power Output with speed

(e) Extraordinary Features of the hydrogen fuel supply system:

Hydrogen fuel is supplied at 200 bar pressure from the hydrogen dispensing unit set by Air products, USA at Pragati Maidan (Fig 3.11 & 3.12). The hydrogen from the dispenser is supplied into the receptacle which has an inbuilt particulate filter to remove the impurities from the gas. The filtered hydrogen is stored on a Type III composite hydrogen cylinder which has an in-tank solenoid valve. If there is a leak on the cylinder or during emergency of PRD activation the 51 hydrogen is vented through the vent line through the black flash arrestor. The vented hydrogen will be displaced to atmosphere at a higher elevation of the vehicle. The outlet of the in-tank solenoid valve is connected to a pressure gauge to show the tank pressure. Then the hydrogen is a passed on through an excess flow valve to prevent rapid flow of hydrogen during breakage/leakage. Then the hydrogen is passed on to a service ball valve to cut off the fuel system in case of servicing the vehicle. The hydrogen gas is then allowed on a particulate filter to remove the impurities if any and it is passed to a pressure regulator to reduce the pressure from 200 bar line pressure to required injection pressure. The reduced hydrogen is passed to a low pressure transducer and the solenoid valve to cut off the hydrogen supply during engine off condition and during emergency shutoff. The hydrogen is passed on to a flash back arrestor to prevent reverse flow of hydrogen while any backfire occurs. The hydrogen is then passed on to the injector to inject the gas in the intake manifold. By using the fuel injection system the backfire was completely eliminated.

Fig.3.11 Photographs of Hyalfa Vehicle inauguration in Pragati Maidan during Auto Expo 2012 on 9th Jan 2012

Fig.3.12 Photographs of Hyalfa Vehicle inauguration in PragatiMaidan during Auto Expo 2012 on 9th Jan 2012

3.8.3. Mission Mode Project: Hydrogen Powered Mini Bus (Multicylinder SI Engine)

The Hydrogen Fuel Initiative accelerates the pace of research and development on hydrogen production and delivery infrastructure technologies needed to support hydrogen-powered fuel cells/Internal combustion engines (H2- ICE) for use in transportation. A properly optimized hydrogen ICE will allow use of higher compression ratios and hence the energy efficiency is expected to be higher than conventional engines. There are no HC, CO & CO2 emissions from hydrogen. Only trace amounts of HC and CO can occur due to lube oil consumption - NOx is the only exhaust emission. Thus this technology has significant potential for energy conservation, efficiency enhancement and emissions improvements. It includes development of electronic control unit for fuel injection and ignition system so that engine will operate without any undesirable combustion phenomena such as backfire/and rapid rate of pressure rise. After optimization of the engine with respect to performance and emissions, a prototype vehicle would be prepared to run in the campus. The satisfactory

53 operation of vehicle in campus will be able to demonstrate the intrinsic merit of hydrogen fuel in terms of ultra-lean operation leading to high thermal efficiency and extremely low-emission features. This test is proposed to be carried out for long term road tests to demonstrate to the public the strong merits of hydrogen for vehicular use. Such an effort is likely to ensure early and accelerated entry hydrogen to transport sector as envisaged in the National Hydrogen Energy Road map.

The following components are Designed and Developed for Hydrogen Engine operation.

(a) Piston: In-order to incorporate the change in compression ratio of 11:1 to 12:1, a new piston is designed and developed for the Hydrogen operation and the drawing of the same is mentioned below for your reference. (b) Turbocharger: An integrated exhaust manifold and Turbocharger is developed for Hydrogen operation and the waste gate is operated by the boost pressure on the compressor side. The Integrated Turbocharger was the smallest of the supplied turbochargers and in conventional thinking would be most suited for producing boost pressure at lower speed conditions. This turbocharger was close to the maximum limits of its ability to produce the achieved rated power, and generally a turbocharger should be designed just large enough to meet peak power needs and not much larger. (c) Component System Selection and Packaging

The following are components selected and Packaged on the Hydrogen engine.

(i) H2 Fuel Injector (ii) Mid Pressure Regulator (iii) High Pressure Regulator (iv) Fuel Rail (v) Fuel rail pressure and temperature sensor (vi) Hydrogen Leak sensor 54

(vii) Spark Plug (viii) Ignition Coil (ix) Wideband Lambda Sensor (d) Hydrogen Fuel Injectors Selected to use R&D partner own Hydrogen Fuel Injectors for the Mustang

H2 Engine.

(e) Mid Pressure Fuel Regulator

Most adjustable low pressure regulators are not capable of being designed to accept an inlet pressure ranging from several hundred to several thousand PSI while maintaining output pressure accuracy. We use of a mid stage regulator to regulate the inlet pressure from 220-3600psi down to a stabilized 220psi. From that mid pressure the low pressure regulator can be designed and selected to be capable of more accurately maintaining the desired end use pressure.

(f) Low Pressure Fuel Regulator We have chosen to use a R&D partner developed Low Pressure Regulator because of our previous experience with this regulator and the pressure range which is suitable for the fuel injectors and fuel flow requirements.

(g) Fuel Rail

There are several points that closely considered for the development of a gaseous hydrogen fuel rail (Fig: 3.13):

 All components for the fuel rail be constructed from high-grade corrosion resistant stainless steel, preferably 316L.  The fuel rail diameter must be large enough that the manifold volume is not as susceptible to resonance resulting in localized high or low pressure zones which can cause cylinder-to-cylinder fuel delivery variations.

Fig.3.13 Fuel Rail for Hydrogen Fueled Multi cylinder Engine

 High pressure hydrogen is one of the toughest fuels to seal due to the small molecular size of H2 and it is one of the most dangerous due to its high flammability, therefore all fuel connections should be one of the following styles:

It is very important to make sure that with any fuel injector with o-rings on each side which are meant to seal in a smooth bore that the surface finish meets the specifications of the o-ring and injector manufacturer. Be sure to design the distance from the injector port to the rail cup so that there is plenty of surface for the o-rings to seal even at the worst tolerance and that the rail doesn’t compress the injector when tightened down.

(h) Hydrogen Fuel Rail Pressure and Temperature Sensor

It is acceptable to use a H2 compatible fuel pressure sensor and a H2 compatible fuel temperature sensor, or a single combined pressure and temperature sensor. For this engine we received recommendations for a Sensata combination pressure and temperature sensor.

(i) Hydrogen Leak Sensor As an additional safety measure, especially for prototype hydrogen vehicles, good practice is to use a Hydrogen Leak Sensor because hydrogen is odorless, colorless, and highly flammable. Currently we are using a 4 channel alarm module. The threshold of leak is user settable and the same information can be configured to the ECU.

(j) Spark Plugs Spark plugs for a hydrogen engine need to have certain characteristics to operate properly.

 Coldest heat range: Because there is no carbon in the fuel to foul the plugs, use the coldest range spark plugs available. This will reduce the tendency for the spark plug to be the hot spot in the combustion chamber, causing pre-ignition.

(k) Ignition Coils There are several factors to consider when selecting ignition coils for a hydrogen internal combustion engine with a modern electronic control system (Fig: 3.14).

 Smart or Intelligent coils: Smart coils are generally 4-pins or more and have separate high current power, high current ground, and low current signal lines. Most of these smart coils use low current signals from the ECU and have high current positive and ground wires which are energized off of an ignition relay. Smart coils are by far the most common types of coil for modern coil-on-plug or coil-near-plug applications.

For hydrogen applications the coils must be internally grounded to pull down and dissipate any residual energy to avoid small unintended sparks which may cause back flash due to the low ignition energy and high flammability

range of hydrogen. The ECU that is used for the H2 Mustang Engine is designed to be used with smart or intelligent coils and is therefore not capable of working with traditional coils.

Fig.3.14 Different Ignition Coil Studied

(l) Wide Band Lambda Sensor The Bosch Wide Band Lambda Sensor is the newest generation wide band sensor currently available on the market and is the first sensor to have the ability to very accurately read Lambda at extremely lean conditions. R&D partner chose to use this sensor because this makes closed loop fueling control for a lean burn hydrogen engine possible.

(m) Wiring system design & development  Harness schematic development  System harness build and verification

(n) Dyno wiring harness Engine Dyno controller is communicated with ECU through Accelerator

pedal & other actuators for H2 operations. The wire gauge is selected as per the current requirement & automotive wiring grade is followed in the wiring harness to ensure safety & EMI\EMC issues. Grounding is taken care & appropriately grounded with ECU.

(o) Engine test bed harness

The H2 engine associated components must be fused. Fuses are designed as per current drawn by the component. Suggested fusing is shown in

58 the Electrical Interface Schematic. Relays are selected ensuring that power supplies and power cables are capable of supplying and carrying the required load, and are adequately protected against over current situations. Sealed electrical connectors are used to avoid fire to contact with the terminal.

The Gas Management system and the test rig development has been completed in IIT Delhi (Fig 3.15 & 3.16). The engine has been mounted on the test bed and coupled to the eddy current dynamometer. The air Provision for various parameter measurement like the temperature and pressure measurement at different strategic location has been provided along with the air intake system fabrication.

Fig.3.15 Hydrogen Cascade System at IIT Delhi

Fig.3.16 Test Rig at IIT Delhi

The graph shows the power output of the H2 Mustang engine as tested on IIT Dynamometer (Fig.3.17). Power output at lower speed is improved by optimizing the equivalence ratio from 0.5 to 0.6 and at speed above 1800 rpm equivalence ratio is maintained at 0.5 equivalence ratio. Equivalence ratio has been increased above 0.6 in the test cell to observe the increase in torque with respect to base 0.5 equivalence ratio but mild back firing has been observed above 0.6 equivalence ratio and hence equivalence ratio has been limited to 0.6.[13]

Fig.3.17 Power Comparison of Hydrogen fuelled Multi-cylinder Engine

Fig.3.18 Torque Comparison of Hydrogen fuelled Multicylinder Engine 60

Fig 3.18 shows the torque output of the H2 Mustang engine as tested on IIT Delhi Dynamometer. Note the “Min. Torque Spec” mark of 153Nm @ 2400rpm and that the engine was capable of significantly exceeding this target. In comparing a CNG engine running at Stoichiometric ratio to a Hydrogen engine running with ½ of the fuel of Stoichiometric ratio the expected torque output will be much lower for the lean hydrogen engine without the aid of forced induction.

The H2 Mustang Engine is turbocharged which can help to compensate for the lean equivalence ratio via increased airflow but not until the exhaust mass flow through the turbine is sufficient for the compressor to produce boosted intake system pressure. In the regions of operation where boost is not yet produced there may be significantly lower torque output than an equivalent CNG engine due to the lower energy content of lean operation. Further increase in equivalence ratio will lead to increase in NOx emissions as well as lead to back fire. Therefore it is necessary to have a trade off among NOx emissions, equivalence ratio and turbocharger design so as to get improved torque characteristics without pre-ignition and backfire.

(p) Brake thermal efficiency:

The brake thermal efficiency of the hydrogen engine is higher than the CNG engine (35 .6 % peaks). In hydrogen peak efficiency of 38 % is achieved which is due to the better combustion of hydrogen compared to the CNG. The improvement is thermal efficiency is one of the target specification of this project and it is achieved (Fig.3.19).

Fig.3.19 Brake Thermal Efficiency of Hydrogen fuelled Multicylinder Engine

(q) Combustion Data Measured at IIT Delhi

Fig 3.20 indicates the Cylinder pressure w.r.t cank angle in the hydrogen IC engine

Fig.3.20 In cylinder Pressure Measured at 2000 rpm WOT and Ignition Timing of 7.7 deg BTDC

(r) Vehicle 3-D CAD Packaging:

Fig 3.21 shows the final complete packaging of Hydrogen cylinders, Engine, Air intake system, Exhaust system and Cooling System.

Fig.3.21 Vehicle Hydrogen Component CAD Drawing

(s) Fuel System Packaging: Six Hydrogen Cylinder of 74 L water capacity are packaged currently on the vehicle (Fig 3.22). Dynatek Valves are installed on each cylinder and the same is shown below for reference. Each valve is actuated after the ignition-on and gets deactivated once we switch off the ignition key.

Fig.3.22 Hydrogen Cylinder Mounting CAD representation

Hydrogen Fuel at a pressure of 200 bar flows from the Cylinders to the mid-pressure regulator and after the mid-pressure regulator the pressure reduces from 200 bar to 15 bar. The pressure further reduces to around 4.44 bar after passing through the low pressure regulator. The low pressure regulator is

63 actuated through ECU by the low pressure solenoid which gets activated after the ignition key is ‘on’. The packaging of the mid-pressure regulator, low pressure solenoid and the low pressure regulator are shown in Fig 3.23. Pressure relief lines are installed with a flash back arrester so that in case of fire happens outside, flash back arresters won’t allow the fire to reach the cylinders. Hydrogen leak sensors are also packaged at four locations, one in the engine compartment and three near the cylinder area to inform the ECU as well as driver if any leak happens during the vehicle running conditions.

Fig.3.23 Hydrogen Layout Model

(t) Hydrogen Leak Detection Strategy: In the vehicle 4 Hydrogen leak sensors are installed, three near to the hydrogen cylinder region and one near the engine compartment (Fig 3.24). Based on the leak intensity detected, the information is send to the ECU and vehicle will go limp home mode. Near to the cluster, a small display unit is installed to display the leak information to the driver.

Fig.3.24 Hydrogen Leak Detection Sensors

3.8.4. Hydrogen fuelled Dual Fuel Engines

The dual fuel method offers a very simple solution to use hydrogen in a diesel engine with high thermal efficiencies. The dual fuel engine also does not suffer from problems like flash back that is experienced in hydrogen fuelled SI engines. These engines can also revert to normal diesel operation easily. The amount of secondary fuel that can be used along with diesel depends on its nature. Only small amounts of hydrogen can be tolerated along with the secondary fuel as combustion rates get enhanced significantly. Even in the neat hydrogen diesel or hydrogen biodiesel dual fuel mode only small amounts (about 30% energy share) of hydrogen can be used. However, even these small hydrogen shares are sufficient to significantly enhance efficiency and lower HC and smoke emissions. If the injection timing is suitably adjusted NOx emissions do not increase significantly. Hydrogen can be introduced in a dual fuel engine along with the intake air. However techniques to inject hydrogen directly into the intake after injection of a small amount of diesel called the pilot has been found to be very effective. Dual injectors that can inject both diesel and hydrogen have been developed but are not in series production and are quite expensive. Dual fuel engines can use hydrogen in practically any proportion based on its availability. Power outputs greater than normal diesel operation can be reached. 65

Simulation studies have indicated that it is possible to achieve BMEPs of about 35 bar. Knocking in dual fuel engines normally occurs when the amount of secondary fuel is sufficiently high while the pilot diesel quantity is also quite significant. In the case of hydrogen it has been reported that the knock regions of equivalence ratio are rather wide as compared to other fuels like natural gas. Thus dual fuel hydrogen engines have to be operated with proper control. Control of injection timing of pilot diesel and hydrogen flow rate are essential and these can be achieved through the use of an electronic controller. In general a viable route is injection of hydrogen into the manifold and direct injection of diesel. In this mode the diesel replacement will be around 25% and beyond this knocking will be a problem.

Hydrogen can be used along with low grade fuels like biogas particularly for stationary applications and also for locomotive applications. Figures 3.25 and 3.26 indicate the benefits of adding hydrogen in small quantities to biogas in the dual fuel mode when diesel is used as the pilot fuel. We see that even about 10% hydrogen use on the energy basis can significantly enhance thermal efficiency and reduce HC emissions also significantly. The effect on NOx is not significant. The enhancement in the peak heat release rate is evident from the Fig. 3.26 (a and b). In general hydrogen leads to faster and more complete combustion of biogas. Hydrogen can also be used along with biodiesel to enhance performance. Significant reductions in HC levels and smoke have been observed with both straight vegetable oils and also with biodiesel.

Fig.3.25 (a and b) Effect of hydrogen on improving biogas diesel dual fuel combustion

Fig. 3.26 (a and b) Effect of hydrogen on combustion and NO emission in biogas diesel dual fuel mode a. Hydrogen blended Compressed Natural Gas (HCNG)

HCNG is a mixture of natural gas and hydrogen, usually 5-7 percent hydrogen by energy and around 20% by volume. Natural gas is about 85+% methane, along with small amounts of ethane, propane, higher hydrocarbons, and “inert” like carbon dioxide or nitrogen. Methane has a relatively narrow

67 flammability range that limits the fuel efficiency and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions improvements that are possible at lean air/fuel ratios. The addition of even a small amount of hydrogen, however, extends the lean flammability range significantly. Methane has a slow flame speed, especially in lean air/fuel mixtures, while hydrogen has a flame speed about eight times faster. Methane is a fairly stable molecule that can be difficult to ignite, but hydrogen has an ignition energy requirement about 25 times lower than methane.

Methane can be difficult to completely combust in the engine or catalyze in exhaust after treatment converters. In contrast, hydrogen is a powerful combustion stimulant for accelerating the methane combustion within an engine, and hydrogen is also a powerful reducing agent for efficient catalysis at lower exhaust temperature.

HCNG is said to be the transition fuel due to the following reasons:  Low cost technology

 Uses existing Natural Gas/H2 infrastructure

 5-7% by Energy H2/Natural gas

 NOx reduction compared with NG  Suitable for CNG / LNG/Dual fuel  HCNG meets BS IV/Euro V norms.

It was proposed in India, to study the possibility of using Hydrogen-CNG blends on existing CNG vehicles, as India already has a vast experience of handling CNG as an automotive fuel. Studies indicate that a small proportion of hydrogen blended in CNG (Fig 3.27) in a conventional internal combustion engine may both increase overall efficiency and reduce pollution. Since, hydrogen is a clean burning fuel which has potential of production from fast developing renewable energy sources, it could address several potential problems related to energy security and environmental pollution. With the existing natural gas infrastructure in India, this application of using hydrogen with CNG may offer many advantages. 68

Fig.3.27 HCNG Operating System

Fig.3.28 HCNG Dispenser at IOCL

With this broad view, the project on “Use of Hydrogen (up to 30%) as Fuel Blended with Compressed Natural Gas in Internal Combustion Engines” was envisaged under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) with the following objectives to be met: (Report submitted by SIAM to MNRE).

 Use of Hydrogen in Compressed Natural Gas (H2-CNG) Blends up to 30% in IC Engine  Evaluation of Emission & Performance Characteristics with different HCNG blends on Vehicles. i. Participating Organizations  Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)  Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM)* with five – participating members:  Ashok Leyland  Bajaj Auto  VE Commercial Vehicles  Mahindra & Mahindra Limited and  Tata Motors  Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOCL) Following vehicles were deployed for testing and demonstration:

 Ashok Leyland Stag 4200 mm CNG Bus  Bajaj RE 4S CNG 3-Wheeler Passenger  Mahindra Bolero  Mahindra Champion CNG 3-Wheeler Cargo  TATA LP 407 4SP CNG Mini Bus  Tata Indica  VE Commercial Vehicles CNG 10.9 K Cargo Truck The project work plan was consisted of following broad activities:

 Tests with Different H2-CNG Blends  Selection of Optimized Blend Ratio for Engine Modification  Engine Optimization with Finalized Blend  Road Endurance Testing up to 50000 km with emission tests at every 10000  Analysis of Test Results & Recommendations

The vehicles were tested on Chassis Dynamometers at IOC R&D, Faridabad as per Delhi Bus Driving Cycle for buses, Modified Indian Driving Cycle for Passenger Cars and Indian Driving Cycle for 3-Wheelers. Based on the analysis of the results, it was found that 18% of H-CNG (18% by volume, Hydrogen blended with CNG) appeared to be the optimum H-CNG blend from the viewpoint of having maximum engine output and minimum NOx emissions. It was then decided that with 18% H-CNG blend, fine optimization of vehicles would be carried out for undertaking vehicle field trials.

During this phase of the project, India’s first dispensing station for H-CNG blends were also commissioned by IOCL on experimental basis (Fig: 3.28) . One station was commissioned at Dwarka, New Delhi and the other station was commissioned inside the campus of IOC R&D, Faridabad. These dispensing stations had state-of-the-art features like:  Designed to supply Hydrogen and H-CNG blend ratios from 5% to 50%  Delivery of H-CNG at a pressure of 200 bar  Delivery of pure hydrogen at a pressure of 350 bar  Fast filling of the vehicle storage tanks (20 kg/min)

ii. Engine Optimization with Finalized Blend

Based on the phase-1 tests (Table 3.3) to obtain the desirable blend of

Hydrogen and CNG with an optimal engine performance and reduction in NOx emissions, 18% HCNG blends was finalized. The vehicles were developed with engine optimization on 18% HCNG blend. These development tests were carried out before the start of field trials. Below is the chart of the finalized results with 100% CNG and 18% HCNG.

Table 3.3: Baseline testing of HCNG Vehicles

Emission Testing with Optimized Engine/Vehicle on Respective Fuel Fuel/Vehicle Ashok Leyland Stag BS-III Bajaj 3-Wheeler BS-III Eicher 10.9 K Cargo BS-IV CO THC NOx CO2 CO THC NOx CO2 CO THC NOx CO2 (g/km) (g/km) (g/km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/kw-hr) (g/kw-hr) (g/kw-hr) (g/Km) 100% CNG 0.338 0.499 0.345 470.4 0.795 0.588 0.586 1.42 1.33 3.7 18% HCNG 0.179 0.394 0.368 314.3 0.282 0.388 0.536 0.65 0.72 3.33

Fuel/Vehicle Mahindra Champion BS-II Mahindra Bolero BS-IV Tata LP 407 BS-III Tata Indica BS-IV CO THC NOx CO2 CO THC NOx CO2 CO THC NOx CO2 CO THC NOx CO2 (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/kw-hr) (g/kw-hr) (g/kw-hr) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) (g/Km) 100% CNG 1.476 0.512 1.271 0.88 0.41 0.07 205 0.45 0.5 0.2 0.247 0.063 0.022 119.5 18% HCNG 0.394 0.342 1.521 0.3 0.24 0.06 195 0.15 1 1.39 0.186 0.057 0.036 102.1 Following are the observations basis the above results:

 With HCNG blending, CO has reduced for all the vehicles as compared to 100% CNG.  With HCNG blending, THC has reduced for all the vehicles except one vehicle as compared to 100% CNG.

 With HCNG blending, no common trend (increase or decrease) in NOx emissions is observed.

 With HCNG blending, CO2 is found to be reduced in three vehicles out of seven vehicles. However, test data of all the vehicles was not available. iii. Field Trials (up to 50,000 km with emission tests at every 10,000 km)

Post fine optimization of the participant vehicles at 18% HCNG blend, the field trials were undertaken with the following broad objectives:

– To determine deterioration due to ageing. For this purpose, emission testing at every 10,000 km was carried out. – To observe general road worthiness against safety related hazard especially for fuel affected components such as fuel storage cylinders, engine and engine parts, fuel line etc.

During the course of the project, it was agreed that other than 3-Wheelers, all vehicles would accumulate 50,000 km. For 3-Wheelers, it was agreed to accumulate 30,000 km for the purpose of field trials.

Fig.3.29 Results of Tail pipe Emission for HCNG Blended Heavy Duty Bus/Truck

Fig.3.30 Results of Tail pipe Emission for HCNG Blended Light Duty Three Wheelers

Fig.3.31 Results of Tail pipe Emission for HCNG Blends by Various Automotive Companies

With 18% HCNG, the deterioration has been consistent and within limits for all participating vehicles. As such no rapid deterioration in the tail pipe emissions is reported due to the blended fuel.

Fig.3.32 HCNG Vehicles of Different Make and Model

(b) Dual Fuel Application: Hydrogen-Diesel The dual-fuel system is a supplementary fuel delivery system that works in conjunction with the vehicle’s diesel engine control system. The dual-fuel system supplies the engine with the alternative fuel and reduces the diesel consumption. The system is designed to work seamlessly with few requirements from the vehicle operator which allows the vehicle to be driven just like any other. The only additional requirement is some monitoring of the fuel storage system to ensure safe use of the fuel. i. To optimize the blend ratio for hydrogen and diesel for different load conditions on the vehicle ii. To develop a stable practical vehicle system with electronic control unit to run at the optimized condition. iii. To develop a demo fleet for field trials or technology demonstration after the completion of optimization work of the blend ratio for different conditions.

(b) Electronic Control System Design Electronically controlling a compression ignition engine provides the needed flexibility to realize the full benefits of an alternative fuel. Compression ignition engines present a unique challenge to the electronic control system because a small amount of diesel fuel is still required to initiate the combustion. This added complexity to the control system because the controller was required to handle both sets of fuel injection systems. The dual-fuel control system is composed of two major systems; the hardware and the software. The hardware represents a specialized collection of electronic circuitry that communicates with sensors and drives various control actuators. The software is a compilation of specialty firmware that performs fueling calculations and provides instruction to the hardware.

The dual-fuel control module (DFCM) is an auxiliary electronic control unit that interfaces with the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) engine control module (ECM) in order to control the fuel injected into the engine. The DFCM uses the OEM injection signals from the ECM along with various signals from engine sensors to perform the injector driving functions. All injection signals are routed through the DFCM hardware regardless of fuel mode. The DFCM also contains inputs and outputs for controlling and monitoring the additional gaseous fuel.

The diesel injection signals are rerouted from the original injector control circuits into the DFCM. Inside the DFCM the signals pass through simulator coils to prevent diagnostic test failures in the ECM (Fig 3.33). The DFCM then measures the injection signals and may modify the signal depending on the fuel mode. The dual fuel software determines the appropriate injection pulse width and timing based on several fuel maps and the various inputs from the OEM sensors. The injection signals are then sent to specialized peak and hold injector driver circuitry which supplies the appropriate level of current to the diesel injector. The DFCM also controls the injection of the alternative fuel

77 through the additional injectors plumbed into the intake of the engine. During dual-fuel operation the controller software determines the appropriate pulse width for the injectors based on fuel maps stored in the module. The alternative fuel injection signals are also sent to specialized peak and hold injector driver circuitry which supplies the injector with the proper level of current.

Fig.3.33 ECU Layout for Dual Fuel Vehicle

(d) Description about the Vehicle layout:

Hydrogen is filled through the hydrogen receptacle at 200 bar pressure in slow stage filling process using air products hydrogen filling station at UPES/Pragati maidan. Air product Inc has installed the hydrogen filling station which meets all safety standards for hydrogen filling which has provision to monitor tank pressure and temperature during filling and control the rate of the dispersion in smooth manner to ensure safe filling process. The pressure during the filling can be monitored through a pressure gauge fitted in the inlet line to cylinder take care of the safety. The hydrogen is then passed on through non return valve and the in tank solenoid valve to the hydrogen cylinder. Hydrogen

78 cylinder used is a Type III cylinder which is having a rated capacity of 350 bar however the filling is restricted maximum to 200 bar. As the solenoid actuation closes the outlet line of the valve the stored hydrogen is not allowed to pass on the exit line. Once the ECU is key on, it will give signal for valve actuation then only solenoid will allow the hydrogen to flow out.

In tank solenoid valve is also having additional safety features such as pressure relief device which will release the hydrogen if over pressured or exceeded the design set temperature to avoid the cylinder explosion. The tank solenoid valve is also houses an inbuilt excess flow valve in order to prevent rapid dispersion of gas in case of high pressure line puncture from storage tank to manual valve. The vent line is having additional safety device namely flash back arrestor to avoid the reverse flow of hydrogen from the vent line in-case of backfire.

The exit of the hydrogen gas from the in-tank solenoid is passed through a Manual valve to cut the hydrogen flow manually in case of any service or during leakage in the high pressure line. The hydrogen flow is then allowed to pass through an excess flow valve whose function is to prevent the excess flow of hydrogen beyond set flow which prevent rapid dispersion of hydrogen even in the incident of leakage in high pressure line. The gas from the manual valve is passed on through particulate filter to prevent any impurities reaching pressure regulator. The filtered gas is then passed through the high pressure electro- mechanical (solenoid) valve controlled by ECU and then to the pressure regulator to reduce from tank pressure to gauge pressure of 4.0 bar. The reduced hydrogen gas is supplied to gas rail that houses one low pressure transducer to monitor the pressure in the gas rail in order to ensure the operation of engine within the injection pressure and two Keihin Injectors which will inject the gas into the intake line after compressor out.

In addition to above safety precaution there will be four hydrogen sensors placed, two in the engine compartment and two on the storage compartment. If 79 there is a hydrogen leakage it will send signal to the ECU which will cut supply to the in-tank solenoid and hydrogen supply is stopped. In additional to all there is a crash sensor installed below the rear seat to cut off power supply to ECU and Hydrogen solenoid in case of accident. Instead of all safety features a fire extinguisher is also placed to the driver seat to cut off the fire due to accident. All tubes are Swagelok made SS tubing’s and its double feral type connectors.

Fig.3.34 Hydrogen Component Layout

(e) Gaseous Fuel Safety System

The safety system provides real-time gas detection and automatic fuel isolation. Hydrogen, unlike other transportation fuels, is colorless and odorless so electronic detectors are required. The system is composed of four main components which include:

 Gas detectors,  Inertia switch,  Solenoid isolation valves, and  Dual-Fuel control module.

The gas detectors are placed throughout the vehicle near critical areas of the high pressure fuel delivery system. The detectors sense the presence of the fuel, inform the DFCM of a problem, and disconnect power from the solenoid isolation valves. The solenoid valves are normally closed solenoid driven gas valves located in each fuel tank and at the pressure regulator. If power is cut from the valves they close preventing the release of gas. The inertia switch senses vehicle impact and disconnects power from the solenoid valves in the event of a collision. The DFCM performs the automatic fuel switching, diagnostic tests, and informs the driver through the display module.

1. Display module

A display module (Fig 3.35) is provided with the dual-fuel control system to provide the vehicle operator with real-time information about the dual-fuel system. This includes messages about the fuel modes and safety system status. An alternative fuel tank level and real-time diesel fuel replacement rate gauge is provided. The module houses a fuel mode switch that allows the user to select the fuel mode. Also contained in the display module is a communication port for connection to a PC which allows a calibration engineer to tune the control system. Below is an image of the typical display information.

Fig.3.35 Fuelling Mode Representation

2. Fuel Modes

The dual fuel control system can operate on two modes available to the vehicle operator in normal operation. These are the diesel only mode and the dual fuel mode and can be selected by turning the fuel mode switch on or off. The display will indicate the mode at the top as well as the measured position of the fuel mode switch. In Diesel mode the vehicle will run exclusively on the diesel fuel similar to that of a stock vehicle. In this mode the diesel injection output signals from the DFCM are a replication of the input signals from the OEM controller. The injection commands are effectively passed through the DFCM. In Dual-Fuel mode the vehicle will run on a combination of alternative fuel and diesel. The amount of diesel replaced by the alternative fuel will vary depending on the engine operating conditions. The DFCM will output the appropriate diesel and alternative fuel injection output based on the predetermined maps. The display will also show the real-time substitution or diesel replacement rate.

3. Operating on dual fuel

The dual fuel system is almost entirely automatic requiring little input from the operator. To operate the vehicle in automatic dual fuel mode put the fuel

83 mode select switch in the on position. The fuel select switch is located on the top of the display module. The display will indicate the fuel select switch..

The fuel select switch can be left in the on position at all times unless dual fuel operation is not desired. Once the dual fuel mode is selected by the fuel select switch, the DFCM enters the automatic fuel switching stage. In this stage several parameters are checked to ensure operating conditions are adequate for dual fuel operation. After all tests are passed the system will open the solenoid valves. Approximately 2 seconds after the valves have been opened the system will enter dual fuel operation. The display will indicate the mode change as shown below.

(i) Calibration

The calibration for diesel to dual fuel migration and back to diesel based on the varying load points and speed condition are challenging. Since the energy content of diesel and hydrogen are different at any point of transition we required the similar amount of torque then only transition will be smoother else it will cause jerk in drivability. The diesel injection strategy is having multiple pilot injection and one or two main injection which also varies on the load conditions. Hence matching the injection pattern of diesel and using different methodology to take the pilot injection in dual fuel mode is complex if not calibrated properly it will results in knock. Also the fuel substitution have to be happened by having the control over the emissions. Hence the development of dual fuel system has to be engine specific and same methodology cannot be deployed in all category of vehicles since the base diesel system will vary (Rotary pump, inline pump, LCCR, Common rail etc.)

The drivability also requires recalibration due to the difference in environmental conditions. The vehicle was recalibrated with Indian conditions considering change in coolant temperature, Inlet air temperature, drivability. The drivability of the dual fuel vehicle (Fig: 3.36) was assessed with different gear

84 ratio and ensures the smoother drivability in different driving conditions. The vehicle was rechecked on Chassis dyno with Indian driving cycle to assess the performance. The performance was at similar with diesel after necessary fine tuning. Smoke emissions where measured for diesel and dual fuel and it has been compared. The Max substitution rate for hydrogen replacement is around 55 %.

Fig. 3.36 Dual fuel vehicle

(ii) Key Environmental benefits:

 Substitution of close to 45 % diesel with renewable Hydrogen on Indian drive cycle

 The reduction of emissions; C0- 68 %, NOx- At par, HC- 68 %, PM- 30%

 Greenhouse gas reduction - CO2 by 25 %  Energy efficiency enhanced by 5-10 % for the same vehicle to diesel fuel.

3.8.5. Neat Hydrogen (HHCCI) and Hydrogen Diesel HCCI (HDHCCI) engines Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a concept where in a lean homogeneous mixture of air and fuel is compressed and ignited. Compression 85 of this mixture leads to auto-ignition in multiple locations, followed by combustion that is significantly faster than the conventional Otto or Diesel modes. In HCCI engines, combustion rate is controlled by chemical kinetics.

This mode of combustion is known to produce extremely low levels of NOx emissions because of the low peak temperatures that are reached. HCCI engines have the potential to work with high thermal efficiencies. However, controlling combustion at relatively high equivalence ratios and sustaining combustion at very low equivalence ratios without misfire are some of the problems that are faced. Control of the temperature of the intake charge, use of diluents along with the main fuel to suppress combustion rate, use of low self ignition temperature additives, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and multiple pulse diesel injection are some of the methods that have been used to control the combustion process in HCCI engines. Several liquid and gaseous fuels have been tried in the HCCI mode and most work has been concentrated on diesel and natural gas.

HCCI with diesel is generally associated with problems like too early combustion phasing and low efficiency, high HC emissions, high particulate emissions, lubricating oil dilution and poor load range. Most of the problems with diesel fuelled HCCI engines are due to the poor volatility and low self ignition temperature of diesel. Thus gaseous fuels are preferred in HCCI engines as they can form mixtures readily with air and also have relatively high self ignition temperatures. Natural gas been used in the neat form and along with diesel in HCCI engines. The high self ignition temperature of natural gas necessitates the use of very high intake charge temperatures. Neat natural gas operation was possible with an intake temperature of around 470 K. This could be reduced through the simultaneous use of diesel in small quantities (about 10% of the total energy). Use of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) in a neat natural gas HCCI operation is preferred as it can lower the combustion rate and through proper combustion phasing increase the thermal efficiency and extend the load range.

Neat hydrogen fuelled HCCI operation was possible with equivalence ratios between 0.19 and 0.30 with a compression ratio of 16:1 and intake charge temperatures in the range of 130 to 80°C. Increase in the intake charge temperature led to advanced start of combustion and increased heat release rates which resulted in lower efficiencies. At any given equivalence ratio it is better to operate at the lowest possible charge temperature. The highest brake thermal efficiency was 24.2% at a BMEP of 2.2 bar (at an intake charge temperature of 80°C) where as it was only 21.5% with diesel operation at the same BMEP. The range of BMEPs was limited by knock. Figures 3.37 and 3.38 indicate the thermal efficiency and NOx emissions at different BMEPs and charge temperatures in the hydrogen HCCI (HHCCI) mode. The level of NO emissions were lesser than 25 ppm in the HHCCI mode. It was 430 ppm with diesel mode of operation. Addition of CO2 was effective in terms of increasing the thermal efficiency and also extending the operation to higher BMEPs (2.2 bar to 3.1 bar). The thermal efficiency was also elevated. The thermal efficiency of the hydrogen HCCI mode could exceed that of the hydrogen SI mode of operation but the IMEP range is limited. A comparison of the thermal efficiencies and NO emissions between the CI and hydrogen HCCI modes is seen in Figs 3.39 and 3.40. The thermal efficiency is significantly higher and NO levels are very low even at high BMEPs. However, the range of usable BMEPs is narrow and is limited by knock.

Figs.3.37 and 3.38 : variation of efficiency and NO emissions in the neat hydrogen HCCI mode

Figs.3.39 and 3.40 : Comparison of diesel (CI) and hydrogen HCCI modes

Addition of hydrogen to the charge in a diesel fuelled HCCI engine was found to be beneficial. HCCI engines with hydrogen being inducted and diesel being injected into the cylinder using a common rail system have been successfully demonstrated. Increase in the amount of hydrogen improved the thermal efficiency of diesel fuelled HCCI operation by correctly phasing the combustion process. The maximum brake thermal efficiencies reached were significantly higher than the diesel HCCI mode and BMEPs of about 4 bar could be reached with EGR. This could be enhanced by turbo charging. The brake thermal efficiency increases as we increase the hydrogen quantity and the maximum values are reached close to misfiring conditions as we see in Figs. 3.41 and 3.42. EGR allows higher hydrogen energy ratios to be used. There was a need to vary the injection timing with the amount of hydrogen used and also with respect to the load. This was easily achieved with the common rail system. Low hydrogen energy ratios led to knock while increasing the hydrogen energy ratio to high levels led to misfiring just after the best thermal efficiency point was reached. NO levels decreased with increase in the hydrogen energy ratio at all operating conditions due to reduction in the combustion rate. Extremely low levels of NOx could be reached as seen in Figs 3.43 and 3.44. The NOx levels

88 were also lower than the diesel HCCI mode. The HC levels that are normally high in the diesel HCCI mode are reduced with the introduction of hydrogen. As the load increases the maximum amount of hydrogen that could be used was reduced. In general hydrogen can be used to phase the combustion process and also achieve combustion without intake charge heating in the case of diesel fuel HCCI operation. The amount of hydrogen that can be used could vary from 50% to about 10% of the overall energy input. The load range is limited and hence this mode has to be used along with neat diesel or dual fuel mode of operation.

Figs.3.41 and 3.42: Brake thermal efficiency in the hydrogen diesel HCCI mode

Figs.3.43 and 3.44 : NO emissions in the hydrogen 89

Hydrogen has been used as a fuel additive to improve the performance of HCCI engines with other fuels like natural gas and biogas. When hydrogen is added to natural gas in a HCCI engine, lower intake temperatures are needed and the start of combustion gets advanced. Thermal efficiency was improved and

NOx level was considerably reduced due to the effect of reduction in the charge temperature. It has been reported that the addition of hydrogen will contribute H atoms which will aid the auto-ignition of methane. The start of combustion is advanced with the introduction of hydrogen. In a biogas fuelled HCCI engine exhaust gas fuel reforming was adopted to produce hydrogen for enhancing the combustion of biogas. Addition of hydrogen in a HCCI engine with manifold injection of diesel retarded the combustion and led to increased thermal efficiency and power output. The Biogas has been shown to have good potential for HCCI operation. The neat biogas fuelled HCCI mode has been tried with inlet charge temperatures of about 200°C and the range of equivalence ratios that could be used were in the range 0.25 to 0.4. The intake charge temperature needed for operating a biogas fuelled HCCI engine can be reduced by the addition of hydrogen. It was also found that hydrogen could extend the amount of biogas that can be used before misfiring occurs in HCCI engines. Figure 3.45 indicates the results with biogas diesel HCCI operation where small amounts of hydrogen have been used. Hydrogen increases the thermal efficiency and also extends the amount of biogas that can be used. The heat release rate shown in Fig.46 shows that introduction of hydrogen has allowed proper combustion phasing and also increased the combustion rate which is the reason for the high thermal efficiency. Figures 3.47 and 3.48 indicate that the NO level with hydrogen addition is still extremely low and also that the injection timing of diesel has to be changed as the amount of biogas is varied. This variation in injection timing of diesel can only be achieved through a common rail controller specifically developed for HCCI operation.

Figs. 3.45 and 3.46: Effect of hydrogen on biogas diesel HCCI mode (efficiency and combustion)

Figs. 3.47 and 3.48: Effect of hydrogen on biogas diesel HCCI mode (NO emission and injection timing)

3.9. Hydrogen Safety as Automotive Fuel

3.9.1 Safe and Abundant Fuel Source

Hydrogen is commonly used in many industrial applications and has one of the best safety records of all fuels. While it is flammable and potentially explosive in high concentrations, the gas is light and quickly disperses into the atmosphere when a container in which it is concentrated ruptures.

Hydrogen is very easily ignited. A spark from static electricity, a vehicle tailpipe, electrical device, or even a hot surface can all ignite a mixture of air and leaked hydrogen within its flammable range. On a vehicle, static electricity is removed by proper grounding and bonding of electrical components. Fuel tanks, lines, and connections should be deliberately placed so that they avoid surfaces that might be hot or a source of ignition.

3.9.2. Hydrogen Leakage and Implications

 Leakage, diffusion, and buoyancy: These hazards result from the difficulty in containing hydrogen. Hydrogen diffuses extensively, and when a liquid spill or large gas release occurs, a combustible mixture can form over a considerable distance from the spill location.

 Hydrogen, in both the liquid and gaseous states, is particularly subject to leakage because of its low viscosity and low molecular weight (leakage is inversely proportional to viscosity). Because of its low viscosity alone, the leakage rate of liquid hydrogen is roughly 100 times that of JP-4 fuel, 50 times that of water and 10 times that of liquid nitrogen.  Hydrogen leaks can support combustion at very low flow rates, as low as 4 micrograms/s.

3.9.3. Hydrogen vehicle hazards

The largest amount of hydrogen at any given time is present in the tank. Several tank failure modes may be considered in both normal operation and collision, such as:

 catastrophic rupture, due to manufacturing defect in tank, external fire combined with failure of pressure relief device to open;  Massive leak, due to faulty pressure relief device tripping without cause or chemically induced fault in tank wall.  Slow leak due to stress cracks in tank liner, faulty pressure relief device, or faulty coupling from tank to the feed line.

Most of the above discussed failure modes may be either avoided or their occurrence and consequences minimized by:

 leak prevention through a proper system design, selection of adequate equipment (some further testing and investigation may be required), allowing for tolerance of shocks and vibrations, locating a pressure relief device vent, protecting the high pressure lines, installing a normally closed solenoid valve on each tank line, etc.  leak detection by either a leak detector  Ignition prevention, through automatically disconnecting battery, thus eliminating source of electrical sparks and by designing the system for both active and passive ventilation (such as an opening to allow the hydrogen to escape upward).

3.9.4. Removing the Fuel Source—Avoiding and Detecting Leaks

Good design for a fuel system involves two major principles:

 Avoiding leaks of hydrogen fuel  Detecting leaks of hydrogen fuel

The most likely locations for a hydrogen leak are at joints and connections in the high-pressure hydrogen fuel system. Hydrogen gas is the smallest of all molecules and can, therefore, move more easily through joints than other gases. Tightening to the correct torque as specified by the manufacturer and use of only approved replacement parts.

In a properly designed and maintained hydrogen fuel system, the most likely location for a hydrogen release will be through the PRD/TRD. If the PRD/TRD is properly oriented, a release will pose little danger to the vehicle, the operator, or the public. All vehicles that use hydrogen fuel should also be equipped with one or more sensors to detect hydrogen leaks (Fig 3.49). Sensors should be linked to the vehicle control system. If hydrogen levels approaching the lower limit of flammability are detected, the system will automatically shut down the vehicle and close valves to isolate the hydrogen within the high- pressure tank. In most cases, this will stop the source of the leak and remove any hazard. Some vehicles may include an “override” switch that will allow the vehicle to operate for a short time, even after a hydrogen leak has been detected. This switch should only be used in case of extreme emergency, for example, to move the vehicle out of high speed traffic.

Fig. 3.49 Multiple safety systems in hydrogen fueled vehicles

3.9.5. Hydrogen Leak Detection Systems

The following are some considerations for the design of a hydrogen leak detection system.

 Sum all possible sources to be monitored, such as valves, flanges, connections, expansion joints, etc.  Evaluate the designed response time of the leak detection system and determine if it will be suitable for the needs of the hydrogen system at hand.  Provide for visual and audible alarming as conditions approach a danger level. The alarm set point should be adjusted to actuate while the hydrogen is still in a "safe" condition, and approaching a dangerous one.  Develop a maintenance program to periodically clean and recalibrate portable and fixed detectors and validate acceptable performance of same.  The atmospheric sampling equipment should detect hydrogen at 20 percent of its lower flammability limit (LFL), or 0.8 percent by volume, in air. (0.8% by volume in air = 20% of the LFL, 4% by volume in air).

3.9.6. Ventilating Enclosed Spaces

Hydrogen leaking into open air poses very little danger to anyone—it will quickly dissipate to non-flammable levels. Hydrogen that leaks into an enclosed space potentially presents a much greater hazard. When designing a hydrogen fuelled vehicle, it is important to minimize all potential for hydrogen to leak into the passenger compartment, trunk, cargo space, wheel wells, and other enclosed spaces. This is done through careful placement of fuel tanks, lines, and connections. It may also be advisable to provide ventilation openings in locations that might not otherwise require them, specifically to vent any leaked hydrogen.

Another important consideration is placement of the outlet for any PRDs/TRDs. These outlets should be at the top surface of the vehicle and pointed away from the passenger or cargo compartment.

The most important safety principle in any situation is education—making anyone who will come into contact with a vehicle aware of a potential hazard. For hydrogen and other alternative-fuelled vehicles, this is done with appropriate labelling to let users, emergency responders, and the public know that hydrogen is present.

More information on the above aspect can be accessed from the report by the Sub-Committees on “Hydrogen Storage” & “Hydrogen Safety”

3.10 Status of Hydrogen Powered Vehicles in India

Status of Hydrogen Powered Vehicles in India is given below:

Table.3.4 : Targeted Hydrogen Powered Vehicles on Road by 2020 and present status

Target 2020 Current Status

1,000,000 vehicles on road 0 : On road <100 :Demonstration

750,000 two/three wheelers < 50*

150,000 cars/taxis etc < 10**

100,000 buses, vans etc < 10***

*15 Hydrogen Three Wheelers under MNRE sponsored project by IIT Delhi and M&M

*Several Three Hydrogen wheelers by IIT BHU

** Few by IIT BHU

*** Two Min bus Developed under MNRE Mission Mode Project by IIT Delhi and MNRE

Immediate Steps/ Actions to be taken to improve these figures

 Hydrogen Production and Availability to be strengthened. R&D for technological advancement in production methodology and economics of production.  Innovative injector design to be carried out for indigenous low cost hydrogen specific injectors.  Hydrogen gas or vehicular application has mostly utilized compressed gas technology for fuel storage. Hydrogen gas is stored in Type III and Type IV cylinders now. These cylinders are expensive as they are imported from foreign companies. Mochas been developing Type III cylinder at their R&D facility, it is extremely necessary to develop indigenously such technology so that local manufacturing could bring the cost down.  Infrastructure development for hydrogen economy. Currently limited number of fuelling stations available and with current available dispensing stations certain undergoing project requirements are no able to meet. It is necessary to chalk out expansion plans if hydrogen economy to establish.  Hydrogen specific guidelines to be established for various aspects of hydrogen economy based on which approvals could be given by various certifying agencies like PESO, ARAI etc. Safety regulations, legislations, codes and standards to be fully in place at the earliest.

3.11 Legislative Requirements for Hydrogen Economy

In India there is no legislative approval available for the Hydrogen vehicle. In order to make the hydrogen vehicles to production the following are required.

 Safety approval by modification in AIS 024, 028 standards for Hydrogen, HCNG

 Regulatory Type approval to be developed for Hydrogen.  For hydrogen fuel due to low density in nature requires higher storage pressure of 350, 700 bar. In India currently 200 bar storage is followed and it has to be enhanced to have amicable driving range on vehicle.  Currently Type 1 steels tanks are available in India which is not suitable for hydrogen transportation due to higher weight and lower storage volume. Hence the approval for Type III, Type IV has to be provided. Currently limited Type III has been approved for demo basis.  The hydrogen components are currently imported due to limited usage in India. Hence the local manufacturing of the components and safety system will bring down the cost make the hydrogen vehicle transportation to adaptable.  Safety codes for storage, transportation of hydrogen for automotive have to be developed by incorporating ISO standards by BIS.  The Infrastructure road map for hydrogen generation and transportation and dispensing has to be evolved. Currently few hydrogen stations are only available at Delhi which is not even sufficient for field demo of the vehicles.  For HCNG Type 1 steel cylinders the tensile strength should be less than 950 MPa which should be allowed based on the experience of demo trail done by OEM’s under MNRE &SIAM. This has to be regularized for HCNG commercially.  Hydrogen diesel Dual fuel vehicles require emission and safety developments to be worked out and should be published and implemented.  Fuel cell and neat hydrogen vehicles regulations to be evolved.

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HYDROGEN FUELLED VEHICLES BASED ON FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY

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4.0 Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles Based on Fuel Cell Technology

4.1. Introduction

The critical issues facing the nation’s future generations are energy security, global warming and pollution. Considerable research and development work has been undertaken for improving energy security & to mitigate the environmental impact (Fig 4.1) through exploration of alternate fuels, efficient lighting systems like CFLs, solar and wind energy harnessing, etc. Many of these programs have been quite successful where Governments supported private entrepreneurship by providing seed money for research and development, subsidies and tax cuts.

Figure 4.1: Sustainable Future Mobility Matrix

Research is on to harnessing renewable energy and to store in electrochemical devices or in a carrier and also to regenerate power on-board vehicle for reduction imported fuel and also to improve the fuel efficiency. In this 103 regard, electrochemical storage devices and electrochemical converters are now being regarded as one of the key energy solutions for the 21st century.

With anvil of more stringent regulations on emissions and demand for improved fuel economy due to constraints on energy resources and also required urgency to reduce the GHG emission for arresting global warming, the electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles have attracted more attention by automakers, governments, and customers.

Regulatory mandates, including those for safety, higher fuel efficiency and reduced emission standards, continued to pose many technological challenges. Considering the issues and requirement of zero emission vehicles, various flow type Redox batteries, Lithium ion Batteries and hydrogen based fuel cells or hybrids of fuel cell and lithium ion batteries are being considered as on-board power sources for automotive applications. These implementation of battery and fuel cell technologies hybrids will contribute significantly for reduction of emission and lowering the impact of environment and also resulting in enhanced energy security and creation of new energy industries. Both electricity and Hydrogen are being considered as energy carrier for automotive applications. Batteries and Hydrogen based fuel cells can be utilized as power source in transportation, distributed heat and power generation which requires electricity and Hydrogen as energy carrier. Both of them can be generated from fossil fuels and also from renewable energy and hence migration from fossil to renewable is also feasible.

However, the transition from a carbon-based (fossil fuel) energy system to a electron and hydrogen-based economy involves significant scientific, technological and socioeconomic barriers for implementation of batteries, hydrogen and fuel cells as clean energy technologies of the future.

At present, hydrogen has following limitations:

1. Hydrogen is a gas and inconvenient for transporting, storing and using a gaseous fuel

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2. Hydrogen must be produced from primary fuel sources, the least expensive of which are fossil sources. 3. Fuel cells are desirable for their high efficiencies but they are also at present too expensive. 4. Absence of an infrastructure that delivers hydrogen or its precursors and need to be created.

In view of these limitations, hydrogen is not considered as solution for immediate term although hydrogen’s potential as a transportation fuel in the longer term should not be ignored. However, factors like feasibility of cogeneration of power and Hydrogen is possible by coal gasification technology and possibility of varying ratio of power to Hydrogen depending on the grid load on the grid and practicability of smoother transition of Hydrogen generation from fossil to renewable cannot be ignored and which will render considering the candidature of Hydrogen as an energy carrier in midterm.

Fuel cells have been under development for many years. The advantages of fuel cells are that they are very efficient and that they operate without generation of any pollutants. All fuel cells currently being developed for near term use in electric vehicles require hydrogen as a fuel. Hydrogen can be stored directly or produced onboard the vehicle by reforming methanol, or hydrocarbon fuels derived from crude oil (e.g., gasoline, diesel, or middle distillates). The vehicle design is simpler with direct hydrogen storage, but requires developing a more complex refueling infrastructure.

4.2. Fuel Cell Types

A fuel cell is like a battery it generates electricity from an electrochemical reaction. Like batteries, fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy and also produces water and heat. However, a battery holds a chemicals within it which store energy and once this is depleted, the battery must be discarded in the case of primary battery, and for secondary batteries, depleted charge has to be restored by recharging by using an external supply of electricity. During

105 charging process, electrochemical reaction is driven in the reverse direction. A fuel cell, on the other hand, uses oxidant and reductant which is not contained in the stack and stored and supplied externally and can be run indefinitely, as long as fuel and oxidant is supplied.

There are various types of fuel cell based on the cell design and electrolyte. A fuel cell unit consists of a stack, which is composed of a number of individual cells. Each cell within the stack has two electrodes, anode and cathode. The reactions occurs at the electrodes and produces electricity. Every fuel cell also has either a solid or a liquid electrolyte, which allows migration of ions from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which accelerates the reactions at the electrolyte electrodes. The electrolyte plays a key role of separation of fuel and oxidant and permit migration of appropriate ion between the electrodes. If free electrons or other substances travel through the electrolyte, they disrupt the chemical reaction and lower the overall efficiency of the cell.

Fuel cells are generally classified according to the nature of the electrolyte (except for direct methanol fuel cells which are named for their ability to use methanol as a fuel), each type requiring particular materials and fuel. Each fuel cell type also has its own operational characteristics, offering advantages to particular applications. This makes fuel cells a very versatile technology.

Fuel cells are a family of technologies that generate electricity through electrochemical processes, rather than combustion. There are many fuel cell types, but the principal ones include the alkaline fuel cell (AFC), proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell, direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC), molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), and solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). A number of these fuel cell types are commercially available today.

Each fuel cell type has its own unique chemistry, such as different operating temperatures, catalysts, and electrolytes. A fuel cell’s operating characteristics help define its application – for example, lower temperature PEM and DMFC fuel cells are used to power passenger vehicles and forklifts, while

106 larger, higher temperature MCFC and PAFC fuel cells are used for stationary power generation

More information on the above aspect can be accessed from the report by the Sub-Committees on “Fuel Cell Development”

4.2.1. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell

The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) uses a water-based, acidic polymer membrane as its electrolyte, with platinum-based electrodes. The PEMFC fuel cell is also sometimes called a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (also PEMFC).

PEMFC cells operate at relatively low temperatures (below 100 degrees Celsius) and can tailor electrical output to meet dynamic power requirements. Due to the relatively low temperatures operation and the use of precious metal- based electrodes, these cells must operate on pure hydrogen. PEMFC cells are currently the leading technology for light duty vehicles and materials handling vehicles, and to a lesser extent for stationary and other applications. Hydrogen fuel is processed at the anode where electrons are separated from protons on the surface of a platinum-based catalyst. The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode side of the cell while the electrons travel in an external circuit, generating the electrical output of the cell. On the cathode side, another precious metal electrode combines the protons and electrons with oxygen to produce water, which is expelled as the only waste product; oxygen can be provided in a purified form, or extracted at the electrode directly from the air.

A variant of the PEMFC which operates at elevated temperatures is known as the high temperature PEMFC (HT PEMFC). By changing the electrolyte from being water-based to a mineral acid-based system, HT PEMFCs can operate up to 200 degrees Celsius. This overcomes some of the current limitations with regard to fuel purity with HT PEMFCs able to process reformate containing small quantities of Carbon Monoxide (CO). The balance of plant can also be simplified through elimination of the humidifier. 107

HT PEMFCs are not superior to low temperature PEMFCs; both technologies find niches in where their benefits are preferable. The table below summarizes differences between the two PEMFC variants:

Advantages of PEMFC

a. Lower temperature operation-easy start up b. Good response for dynamic loads c. Simpler design and assembly stack is easier

Limitations with PEMFC

a. In tolerance to poisonous gases like CO which is also generated during Hydrogen production. b. Higher activation losses due to lower temperature operation.

4.2.2 Fuel Cells for Transportation Applications

Fuel cells are being considered for transport as any units that provide propulsive power to a vehicle, directly or indirectly (i.e. as range extenders). This includes the following applications for the technology:

 Forklift trucks and other goods handling vehicles such as airport baggage trucks etc.  Two- and three-wheeler vehicles such as scooters  Light duty vehicles (LDVs), such as cars and vans  Buses and trucks  Trains and trams  Ferries and smaller boats

Fuel cell technology has advanced considerably during the past thirteen years. The industry still faces significant challenges – technical, commercial and structural – which must be overcome before fuel cells realize their full potential, but the path today is much clearer. The importance of fuel cells in meeting social, 108

environmental and economic goals is fully realized. Research units of various Industries and governments are engaged in exploiting the opportunities. Fuel cell supply chains are becoming well established, and the fuel cell industry is well organized in Europe, North America, Japan and Korea.

Nationally, support for fuel cells is also continuing with governments allocating funds to further improve the competitiveness of fuel cell technology and support its adoption by industry. A large number of national hydrogen infrastructure groups have also formed during the past four years which are working in a unified manner to plan the rollout of hydrogen as a transport fuel around the world. These groups are also sharing their knowledge and experiences as they go along to speed up the learning process and to standardize regulations at a global level.

It is certain that the developments in the research labs will reach the commercial stage and continue the progress to improve fuel cell durability while simultaneously lowering cost. The implications of this cost reduction will be felt far and wide in the sector as the technology becomes cheap enough to compete in new markets and mass production ensues; this was one of the developments anticipated in our Industry Review 2013.

4.3. INTERNATIONAL STATUS

Commitments by various countries for Hydrogen Technology

4.3.1 The World Prepares

By the end of 2010 there were 212 hydrogen stations across the world, according to the TÜV-SÜD-operated website H2Stations.org, though many of these are not publically accessible. Fifteen further stations were added in 2011 with 122 in the final planning stage: an indication of serious ramp-up in the few years before 2015. Preparations in the global regions indicated in the 2009 letter of understanding are gathering pace.

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4.3.2 Japan In January 2011 ten Japanese oil and energy companies signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with domestic automakers Toyota, Honda and Nissan, agreeing three main points: that the automakers will continue to reduce manufacturing costs and popularize FCEV; that the automakers and fuel suppliers will work together to expand the introduction of FCEV and the hydrogen supply network; and that the hydrogen fuel suppliers will construct a network of approximately 100 hydrogen refueling stations by 2015. These stations will be clustered into Japan’s four major metropolitan areas: Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka and Fukuoka. This MoU cements Japan’s position as a global leader in FCEV and by far the most active country in Asia in this field.

HySUT, the Research Association of Hydrogen Supply/Utilization Technology, is coordinating Japan’s infrastructure efforts. Established in July 2009, it is an industry grouping of eighteen companies and organizations. It will demonstrate its commercial hydrogen station specification with the launch of two new stations in Nagoya and Ebina later this year.

A $50 million government subsidy is being made available to support the construction of new hydrogen stations in 2013. The subsidy will cover up to 50% of a station’s capital cost; HySUT states the current cost per station is in the region of $5 million, so the subsidy could support 20 new stations. If the subsidy continued at this rate then Japan could have close to 90 stations by the end of 2015. The per-station subsidy may reduce from 50% over time, with private companies picking up the deficit; this would put the 100 station target within reach.

The commercial standard that the new stations are being built to allows for hydrogen pumps to be installed at existing stations, which may help with capital cost further. The first dual-purpose hydrogen and gasoline station based on the standard opened in Ebina in April 2013. In January 2013 JX Nippon Oil & Energy Corp. announced plans to construct 40 stations by 2015 and Iwatani announced at the FC Expo in February 2013 that it would be building 20 by the same date. A

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task force of automakers, infrastructure companies and government agencies is being established in the country to try and secure Japanese dominance in the FCEV market; focus areas include vehicle cost reduction, purchase subsidies and the relaxation of regulations surrounding infrastructure construction.

4.3.3 European Union In January 2013 the EU allocated €3.5 million from the TEN-T transport infrastructure programme to fund the Hydrogen Infrastructure Project (HIT), which aims to form an interconnected hydrogen network between the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, and France. In the same month, the European Commission launched its Clean Fuels Strategy, which proposes a package of binding targets for infrastructure for a portfolio of low-to-zero-emission vehicles. For hydrogen it says that common standards for components such as fuel hoses are needed and proposes that ‘existing filling stations will be linked up to form a network with common standards ensuring the mobility of Hydrogen vehicles. This applies to the 14 Member States which currently have a Hydrogen network.’ This is the first step towards mandating the construction of stations, which would provide a base of centrally supported stations that can bridge the gap of unprofitability (due to high station costs and low utilization) that can deter the private sector.

4.3.4 Germany Germany is at the forefront of European fuel cell activity. On 10th September 2009 an MoU was signed between industry partners to evaluate the deployment of a German hydrogen infrastructure in order to promote the serial production of FCEV, a direct response to the letter of understanding from global

automakers published two days previously. The project, H2 Mobility, brings together automaker Daimler and energy companies Shell, Total, Linde, Vattenfall, EnBW and OMV, as well as NOW GmbH, the National Organization for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology.

In June 2012 the German Government’s Federal Transport Minister signed a letter of intent with industry partners Daimler, Linde, Air Products, Air

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Liquide and Total securing €20 million in funding to expand Germany’s hydrogen refueling network to 50 stations (from an existing sixteen) by 2015, enough to support initial demand for FCEV; these will be built in metropolitan areas and connecting corridors. A year earlier, Daimler and Linde had committed to build twenty hydrogen stations by 2014; a total of 1,000 hydrogen stations are expected in Germany by 2025.

4.3.5 Scandinavia The Nordic countries are extremely progressive in the adoption of renewable energies, and this enthusiasm is now spreading to fuel cell technologies. Norway has abundant natural gas reserves and plenty of hydropower, both of which can be used to create hydrogen for vehicle use, and Denmark is interested in the storage of excess wind energy as hydrogen vehicle fuel.

In June 2006, the Scandinavian Hydrogen Highway Partnership was formed, bringing together hydrogen associations in Norway, Sweden and Denmark in a common endeavor to build a regional hydrogen refueling infrastructure.

In early 2011, Hyundai signed an MoU with representatives from Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Iceland under which Hyundai would provide FCEV for demonstration and the countries would continue to develop the necessary refueling infrastructure. Following a series of successful vehicle demonstrations

in Sweden and Denmark throughout 2011, Hyundai joined Daimler in the H2 moves Scandinavia project, collaborating in the official opening of the project’s

hydrogen station in Oslo. H2 moves Scandinavia aims to demonstrate the market readiness of FCEV and hydrogen refueling infrastructure to the public through the operation of a fleet of nineteen FCEV (ten Daimler, four Hyundai, five converted Think) in Scandinavia, focusing on Oslo.

The Danish Government’s Energy Plan 2020, announced in March 2012, adopts the recommendations of an industry coalition and sets out an

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infrastructure plan to enable the establishment of a countrywide hydrogen refueling infrastructure by 2015.

A European Hydrogen Road Tour, organized by H2 moves Scandinavia, culminated in October 2012 with Hyundai, Honda, Toyota, Nissan, and a number of infrastructure companies and Nordic NGOs signing an MoU to bring FCEV to Scandinavia from 2014–2017; Daimler, whose B-Class F-CELL featured on the tour, was notable in its absence. Shortly afterwards, Skåne Regional Council signed a contract securing two Hyundai ix35 FCEV, the first of their kind in Sweden.

4.3.6 United Kingdom In January 2012 the UK Government cemented its interest in FCEV with the signing of a MoU with a range of industry partners, including six automakers

and three industrial gas companies, to create UK H2 Mobility. Echoing the

German H2 Mobility, it aims to analyze the specific UK case for the introduction of FCEV, review the investments required for infrastructure and identify opportunities for the UK to become a global player in FCEV manufacture.

This evaluation, due for publication by the end of 2012, will be followed by the development of a business case for implementation.

In early February 2013 the initial findings of the government–industry UK H2Mobility project were revealed. The study sees 1.6 million FCEV on UK roads by 2030, with annual sales of more than 300,000. It further found that 10% of new car customers would be receptive to FCEV when first introduced and that an initial rollout of 65 hydrogen stations in heavily populated areas and along national trunk routes (left) would provide sufficient coverage for these early vehicle sales. Hydrogen should be cost-competitive with diesel immediately, with

60% lower CO2 emissions than diesel by 2020; as the fuel mix becomes more renewable this improves to 75% lower by 2030 and would be on course for 100% by 2050. As vehicle sales grow, the number of refueling sites would increase to 1,150 by 2030; by that time 51% of the fuel mix should be coming from water

electrolysis, contributing to an annual total vehicle CO2 emissions reduction of up 113

to three million tons by FCEV in 2030. Furthermore, FCEV could have a UK

market share of 30–50% by 2050. The UK H2 Mobility partners are now working on business cases for implementing the first wave of UK hydrogen stations.

In February 2013 it was announced that Air Products and partners will deliver at least one new 700 bar hydrogen station in London and upgrade the existing two to 700 bar, as well as a station at nearby Millbrook Proving Ground. These will be complemented by a number of Hyundai ix35 FCEV and Revolve HICE vans.

4.3.7 France In July 2013 the Mobility Hydrogen France consortium officially launched with twenty members including gas production and storage companies, energy utilities and government departments. The group is co-funded by the consortium members and the HIT project. It aims to formulate an economically competitive deployment plan for a private and public hydrogen refueling infrastructure in France between 2015 and 2030, including an analysis of cost-effectiveness. Initial deployment scenarios for vehicles and stations will be published in late 2013.

4.3.8 United States After months of speculation, the US Department of Energy officially

launched the H2 USA hydrogen infrastructure project in May 2013. Bringing together automakers, government agencies, gas suppliers, and the hydrogen and fuel cell industries, the project will coordinate research and identify cost- effective solutions to deploy infrastructure that can deliver affordable, clean hydrogen fuel across the United States. The project will focus on identifying actions to encourage early adopters of FCEV and evaluating the cost reduction potential and economies of scale of alternative fuelling infrastructure solutions. Examples include tri-generation (heat, power and hydrogen) plants such as the biogas-fed Air Products and Fuel Cell Energy facility at California’s Orange County Sanitation District and the repurposing of hydrogen infrastructure for other applications to also serve FCEV.

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4.3.8.1 California California has historically been a heavily polluted area. California continues to lead the USA in the adoption of FCEV. In 1990, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) issued a mandate requiring the introduction of zero- emission vehicles (ZEV) in the state from 1998. Although later postponed and amended, this rule provided much of the impetus for the development of FCEV in the 1990s. In September 2011 the California Energy Commission invested $8.5 million to support the deployment of FCEV in 2015. This was followed by the launch of the CARB’s Advanced Clean Car programme in January 2012, which coordinates requirements for car model years 2017–2025, mandating that ZEV (FCEV and BEV) and PHEV must account for one in seven car sales by 2025. By 2050 it is hoped that 87% of the on-road fleet will be ZEV.

A part of this programme, the Clean Fuel Outlet regulation, requires the construction of alternative fuel outlets for a particular fuel (such as hydrogen) when there are 20,000 vehicles using that fuel in a region; for the South Coast, where air quality is worst, the threshold is 10,000. This means that the seven petroleum companies that currently supply 93% of California’s gasoline are obliged to build hydrogen outlets in line with the introduction of FCEV, spreading the cost of new infrastructure amongst those who are profiting from the existing setup.

The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP, formed in 1999) is an automotive-OEM-backed outreach project to promote the commercialization of FCEV in California and coordinate the development of supporting infrastructure. Honda has been leasing its FCX Clarity vehicles to Californian customers for $600 per month (three-year period, excluding fuel) since 2008. In the same year GM launched Project Driveway, an end user acceptance programme that leased over a hundred HydroGen4 (marketed as Equinox in the USA) in locations across the globe including California. Daimler has been leasing Mercedes-Benz B-Class F-CELL vehicles to Californian customers since December 2010 ($849 per month, three year period, including fuel). In August 2012, the CaFCP released a document entitled ‘A California Road Map: The Commercialization of 115

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles’ containing a strategy for infrastructure build-up from 2012 to 2017; it concluded that 68 station locations strategically placed around the state would adequately serve the first wave of FCEV customers in 2015.

The Office of California Governor Edmund G. Brown published its ‘2013 Zero Emissions Vehicle (ZEV) Action Plan’ in February 2013, which includes a roadmap towards 1.5 million ZEV on Californian roads by 2025. It mandates that major metropolitan areas in California be ‘ZEV ready’ by 2015, including suitable funding for infrastructure for FCEV and BEV/PHEV, as well as streamlined permitting. The plan incorporates the findings of the California Fuel Cell Partnership’s study (see page 11), which suggests 68 stations would be needed for an initial launch of vehicles in 2015. Funding has been secured for an additional seven HRS to the state’s existing nine through the California Energy Commission and it is hoped there will be more than 25 operational by the end of 2014. Government legislation to support the construction of HRS in California is currently under review. SB 11 would see $20 million a year allocated to HRS in FY 13/14, FY 14/15 and FY 15/16, and up to $20 million a year available until 2024, although the CaFCP states that funding would end after 100 stations; the Senate Bill will be passed or declined in September 2013.

This Californian progress is an important step for the country as a whole: because CARB predates it, the US Clean Air Act allows California to determine its own air quality standards – other states may choose federal standards or Californian standards, but not set their own. This allows willing states to adopt more progressive Californian standards, and this unique model could speed up FCEV adoption across the USA.

4.4 Initiatives by Automotive Companies

4.4.1 Daimler Daimler has a long history of fuel cell activity, spearheading the development of PEMFC for automotive use with its 1994 NECAR. The company remained active in the years after, producing four further variants of the NECAR 116

before revealing its first-generation fuel cell passenger vehicle, the A-Class F- CELL, in 2002. Its second-generation vehicle, the B-Class F-CELL (above) entered limited series production in late 2010 offering improvements in range, mileage, durability, power and top speed. A fleet total of 200 vehicles is now in operation across the world, including more than 35 in a Californian lease scheme.

Plans for commercialization

Daimler plans to commercialize its third-generation F-CELL from 2014, an update to the B-Class F-CELL that is currently in widespread demonstration, that will likely adopt the improved chassis design featured on 2012 edition conventional B-Class vehicles. Production of this vehicle will be limited and sales targeted at markets with supporting infrastructure; Daimler has been proactive with its involvement in German infrastructure-building initiatives. The German market is expected to be the largest early European market for FCEV, and the domestic manufacturer has positioned itself perfectly to capitalize on this. However, Daimler says that the scale of market introduction is intrinsically linked to cost reduction, so true volume production of the F-CELL will coincide with the fourth generation of the car, around 2017.

Daimler has also shown interest in the luxury sedan sector, a promising market for early FCEV, with the multi-drive platform F 800 Style F-CELL concept it demonstrated at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show; the car has a maximum speed of 112 mph (180 kmph) and a range of 370 miles (600 km). More recently, the F 125! concept released to celebrate the firm’s 125th anniversary in September 2011 is designed to showcase Daimler’s vision for 2025; the car would offer top speeds of 135 mph (220 kmph) and a range of 620 miles (1,000 km) with a fully hybridized plug-in battery–fuel-cell drivetrain.

4.4.2 Ford Ford began actively pursuing fuel cells at the turn of the millennium with several fuel cell Focus models demonstrated in 2000 and 2001. Ford continued its development of fuel cell power trains and in 2007 launched a fleet of 30 fuel cell 117

equipped Focus cars for testing in the US, Canada and Germany. The cars proved a success and many have continued to be used far beyond their trial period, some even to today. In the same year a stylish fuel cell crossover concept, the Edge Hy Series, was shown at several motor-shows.

Plans for Commercialization

Ford, one of the ‘Big Three’ American automakers, was deeply affected by the global automotive industry crisis from 2008 to 2010; during that period and since, no fuel cell demonstration vehicles have been released and little-to-nothing has been heard of its fuel cell commercialization plans. However, its interest in the core technology remained clear: in 2008 Ford and Daimler established a joint venture, the Automotive Fuel Cell Cooperation (AFCC), to purchase and continue the development of Ballard Power Systems’ automotive fuel cell assets.

At the 2012 World Hydrogen Energy Conference in Toronto, Ford’s head of fuel cell R&D, Chris Gearhart, clarified the company’s current outlook for FCEV. Having narrowly avoided bankruptcy in 2009 the company is now unwilling to lose money on a technology before profiting from it, a hurdle accepted by those automakers that have chosen to undertake FCEV demonstration projects. That said, the company is still committed to the commercial release of vehicles and is targeting a 2020 timeframe, when the technology will have become more price- competitive, an exercise that Ford is actively involved in through the AFCC.

4.4.3 General Motors General Motors has the longest fuel cell history of any automaker, with the Electro Van demonstrating the potential for fuel cell technology nearly 50 years ago. The company has had a succession of fuel cell test and demonstration vehicles, including the world’s first publicly drivable FCEV in 1998. 2007 saw the launch of the HydroGen4 (marketed in the USA as the Chevrolet Equinox, above), representing the fourth generation of GM’s stack technology. More than 120 test vehicles have been deployed since 2007 under Project

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Driveway, which put the vehicles into the hands of customers and has been the world’s largest FCEV end-user acceptance demonstration: the vehicles have accumulated more than two million miles on the road. A fifth-generation fuel cell stack, half the size and with significantly less platinum than its predecessor, was integrated into a fuel cell concept of the now popular Chevrolet Volt/Vauxhall Ampera but has yet to reach test vehicles.

Plans for commercialization

Shortly after Project Driveway launched, the automotive industry crisis hit America. In June 2009 General Motors Corporation filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization in a pre-packaged solution that saw all original investment lost and the company’s remaining profitable assets sold to a new government-backed entity, General Motors Company, which issued an IPO in 2010, the largest in US history at $20.1 billion. GM subsequently returned to profit last year.

Despite these severe changes in the business, including recent cuts to R&D staff, the fuel cell development division has remained; this is a positive reminder of GM’s belief in the technology. It is understandable that the company has neither released further demonstration vehicles since the HydroGen4, nor affirmed any substantial details of fuel cell commercialization. With successful trials completed in California and Germany, and with the promise of further infrastructure in these areas, it seems likely that this is where GM will commercialize first; one would hope still within the 2015 timeframe.

4.4.4 Honda Honda’s first FCX fuel cell prototype was shown at the 1999 Tokyo Motor Show aiming to provide a ‘foretaste of the 21st century’; several of the prototypes were used for demonstrations and were later superseded by an updated model featuring Honda’s own fuel cell technology in 2002. In 2006 the company unveiled its new FCX concept, a sleek, high-end sedan vehicle that showcased Honda’s latest fuel cell and electric technologies. The concept was refined and released in July 2008 as the Honda FCX Clarity (above), the world’s first 119

commercial FCEV. Built on its own production line in Japan, the Clarity is the only FCEV custom-designed from the ground up (Other FCEV to date have been retrofits of existing chassis designs, most commonly crossover SUV.)

Launched on a limited lease in California (where hydrogen infrastructure was most available), customers pay $600 per month over a three-year term for the vehicle, maintenance and insurance. The Clarity was met with positive reviews and more than fifty vehicles are now on lease in California, with several more in Japan and two in the custody of the Clean Energy Partnership in Europe.

Plans for commercialization

Honda is a signatory to both the September 2009 global letter of understanding and the January 2011 Japanese MoU, both of which set 2015 as the year for first commercialization. The company has stated that it does not plan to mass commercialize the FCX Clarity; whether a successor utilizing the same unique design elements would supersede it is unclear. The company may opt to integrate a fuel cell drive train into an existing model in a fashion similar to what it has done for its CR-Z, Insight and Jazz PHEV.

Honda has been proactive in the development of Japanese hydrogen infrastructure and demonstrated its own solar hydrogen station in March 2012, a platform that it intends to develop for home use. It seems likely that the company is still on track to produce a commercial FCEV by 2015, even if details have been scarce to date. In the longer term Honda plans to co-develop both FCEV and BEV, with the former powering mid-to-large cars and the latter powering smaller models.

4.4.5 Hyundai

Hyundai-Kia unveiled its first FCEV in 2000, a Hyundai SUV with an internally developed fuel cell stack; both methanol- and hydrogen-fuelled variants were demonstrated. The 2004 Hyundai Tucson FCEV and Kia Sportage FCEV had improved ranges and fuel cells from UTC Power. Hyundai-Kia started using own fuel cell technology with the 2008 Kia Borrego FCEV, the predecessor of the 120 now well-known Hyundai ix35 FCEV, which was first revealed in late 2010. The ix35 FCEV began appearing at global events in mid-2011 and has subsequently been deployed in a wide variety of demonstration programmes, with particular interest shown in Scandinavia.

Plans for commercialization

Hyundai demonstrated its ix35 FCEV extensively throughout late 2011 and 2012.The Company will be producing approximately one thousand of these vehicles for lease between 2012 and 2014, before entering full commercial production with a 10,000 unit full-scale production run planned for 2015. Lease schemes will vary in scale, from the consumer level through to the national level. In May 2012 Hyundai signed a MoU with Norwegian firm Hydrogen Operation to supply ix35 FCEV to public agencies, commercial fleets and taxi firms in Norway. Hyundai has stated that it is seeking to sign further MoU with private enterprise firms in the Nordic region; the strong drive for sustainable technologies here makes it a perfect launch market for FCEV. Hyundai has also actively demonstrated its vehicles in Germany, the UK and the USA, all of which are promising early markets for FCEV. Hyundai is aiming for a completive cost of $50,000 (USD) (£35,000 (GBP)), a premium of approximately 40% over the premium ICE model. In the longer term Hyundai-Kia plans to use the Kia brand to sell smaller battery electric vehicles and the Hyundai brand to sell larger fuel cell electric vehicles.

4.4.6 Nissan

Nissan is a relatively new player in the FCEV game. Its first fleet of demonstration vehicles came in 2003: X-Trail SUV fitted with UTC Power fuel cells. These vehicles were leased to a number of Japanese businesses and authorities in 2004 and in 2005 the X-Trail FCV was updated with the first generation of Nissan’s in-house fuel cell stack technology. Variants of this model, including a 2008 update with a second-generation stack, were showcased across the world until late 2009. As several other automakers began to release next-

121 generation demonstration vehicles, Nissan decided to focus its efforts on further development of the fuel cell stack system instead.

In October 2011, Nissan announced its next-generation fuel cell stack, claiming an industry-leading power density, substantial size reductions over existing stacks and a cost one-sixth that of its 2005 stack due to a lower platinum loading and more cost-effective parts. The company plans to integrate a version of this stack into a commercial FCEV from 2016. Launch markets and volumes are unknown at present.

4.4.7 Toyota

Toyota’s first fuel cell prototype, a hydrogen fuel cell powered RAV4, was demonstrated in 1996. There have been five revisions of this SUV concept since, each with improved fuel cells and electric drivetrains: the FCHV-2 in 1998 (methanol-fuelled), FCHV-3 (metal hydride storage), FCHV-4 (pressurized hydrogen storage) and FCHV-5 (hydrogen–gasoline hybrid) in 2001, and most recently the FCHV-adv in 2008. The FCHV-adv featured a custom-designed, high-performance fuel cell stack with 700 bar hydrogen storage and has been used in numerous demonstrations globally, most notably in Japan and the USA.

Plans for commercialization

At the 2011 Tokyo Motor Show Toyota unveiled its commercial FCEV concept, the FCV-R (above). This is Toyota’s first fuel cell sedan design; the company, like several others, is targeting the luxury sedan niche for early FCEV as the high margins allow for some cost absorption of the fuel cell technology. The FCV-R offers a 435 mile (700 km) range and represents the earliest iteration of what will be Toyota’s first commercial offering, which at the 2012 Geneva Motor Show the company affirmed would be on the market in 2015. Cost is currently projected at $125,000 (USD) though this may come down with further improvements to both the fuel cell stack and Toyota’s Hybrid Synergy Drive platform, an adaptable drivetrain solution that standardizes and shares components across FCEV, BEV and PHEV.

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4.5 Partnership by Automotive Companies for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

4.5.1 BMW and Toyota In January 2013 it was announced that Toyota and BMW will be sharing a number of technologies and jointly developing a fundamental fuel cell vehicle platform by 2020 – including not only a fuel cell system, but also a hydrogen tank, electric motor and supporting battery system. Germany is an important early market for FCEV, and Toyota can lend to BMW years of experience and expertise in the development of fuel cell and battery powered drivetrains. In September 2012, Toyota announced a new fuel cell stack with more than twice the power density of the stack currently used in the FCHV-adv demo vehicle, at approximately half the size and weight.

The following month Toyota indicated that it is planning to begin series production of a fuel cell Prius in 2014, and to market the car from 2015 in Japan, the US and Europe. Policy support would be needed in the early phases and the main challenge in launching such a vehicle is cost reduction: if the car were series produced now it would cost just under €100,000; this would have to fall by 30 to 40% before it could be marketed. In May 2013 Toyota Motor Sales USA’s group vice president of strategic planning Chris Hostetter said that the cost factor of the vehicles, which will be on sale in the USA from 2015, is in the region of $50,000 and that customers should likely see a sticker price under $100,000. Toyota will sell the vehicle in US states that follow CARB regulations and have appropriate infrastructure. A pre-production version of Toyota’s commercial FCEV is to be shown at the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show, exactly two years after the unveiling of the FCV-R at the 2011 show.

4.5.2 Daimler, Ford and Renault Nissan Four days after Toyota and BMW announced their collaboration, Renault- Nissan signed an agreement with Daimler and Ford to join the AFCC and to jointly develop a common fuel cell system for use in separate mass-market cars from 2017. This timeframe pushes back Daimler’s schedule; its decision to forego its limited 2014 production run is disappointing for the industry and early

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adopters, however the combination of currently limited hydrogen infrastructure and high cost-per-unit for vehicles makes for a challenging proposal for many. By jointly lowering the cost of the core technology, and waiting until series production can be achieved, where economies of scale play to their advantage, the automakers should be able to substantially lower the cost of their offerings. Add to this the many hydrogen stations that are due to be constructed in Germany in the coming years and a 2017 launch seems a pragmatic move for Daimler. Ford still has no immediate-term plans to release a commercial FCEV but its deep involvement in the AFCC keeps the automaker at the technological forefront.

Nissan is a signatory of the January 2011 Japanese MoU and it is anticipated that the automaker will still launch an FCEV domestically in 2015, most likely with a variant of its 2011 fuel cell stack; by this logic the AFCC common system would be implemented in a more affordable second-generation vehicle. At the Paris Motor Show in late September 2012, Nissan show cased its TeRRA concept – a design study for a zero-emission evolution of the company’s Juke and Qashqai SUV crossovers. This was the first new fuel cell concept car from the Japanese automaker in five years and could be indicative of its first- generation commercial offering

4.5.3 GM-Honda In early July 2013 Honda and General Motors announced that they have signed a co-development agreement to collaborate on next-generation fuel cell systems and hydrogen storage technologies. The companies will benefit from shared expertise and economies of scale in manufacturing once they enter the production phase. Honda plans to launch the successor to its FCX Clarity in Japan and the USA from 2015, with a European rollout to follow later; this will likely implement current-generation fuel cell technology. GM is yet to announce any launch plans and it now seems unlikely that the American automaker will launch a vehicle within the 2015 timeframe, although its commitment to the technology is still clear.

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4.5.4 Hyundai Hyundai began assembly line production of the ix35 FCEV at its Ulsan manufacturing plant in late February 2013. Up to 1,000 of the vehicles will be built up until 2015 for lease to public and private fleets. The first of these vehicles are to be delivered to Hyundai’s Scandinavian partners; fifteen ix35 FCEV were delivered to the Municipality of Copenhagen in Denmark at the beginning of June 2013 under the European HyTEC project.

4.5.5 Volkswagen In March 2013 Volkswagen signed an agreement with Ballard Power Systems for engineering services to advance the development of fuel cells for use in its fuel cell demonstration programme. The contract term is for four years, with an option for a two-year extension. Under the contract Ballard will aid the design and manufacture of a next-generation fuel cell for use in Volkswagen Hy Motion demonstration cars. Ballard engineers will lead critical areas of fuel cell product design – including the membrane electrode assembly, plate and stack components – along with testing and integration work. The last Hy Motion demonstrator was a fuel cell version of the 2008 Tiguan. Following the Ballard contract, it was announced in May 2013 that the Volkswagen Group is to begin trials of a fuel cell powered Audi A7 at the end of August.

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TESTING, STANDARDS, CODES AND REGULATIONS FOR HYDROGEN VEHICLES

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5.0 Testing, Standards, Codes and Regulations for Hydrogen Vehicles

5.1. Introduction

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses the gaseous fuel hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive power. Hydrogen vehicles include automobiles and other transportation vehicles. Hydrogen vehicles convert the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric motors. Widespread use of hydrogen vehicles for fueling transportation is a key element of the hydrogen economy. This write up provides a summary of the various hydrogen testing requirements, standards, safety codes and regulations.

5.2 Issues with Hydrogen Fuel

 Safety is critical due to high flammability of the fuel. Adequate safety equipment such as flame traps is required.  Maintaining the quality of Hydrogen through production is an issue.  Low energy density makes vehicle range a problem.  Leakage tendency of hydrogen is higher.  No distribution infrastructure.  Metal Embrittlement tendency requires changes in engine parts and storage.  Backfire and pre-ignition are some more technical issues.

5.3 Need for Hydrogen Standards and Regulations

In order to ensure safety of vehicles and for technical solutions to these issues following regulations and standards is critical. Governments have identified the development of regulations and standards as one of the key requirements for commercialization of hydrogen-fuelled vehicles. Regulations

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and standards will help overcome technological barriers to commercialization, facilitate manufacturers’ investment in building hydrogen-fuelled vehicles and facilitate public acceptance by providing a systematic and accurate means of assessing and communicating the risk associated with the use of hydrogen vehicles, be it to the general public, consumer, emergency response personnel or the insurance industry.

5.4. Hydrogen as a Fuel: Standards

ISO TC 197 is the international committee that deals with standards related to Hydrogen. The structure of the committee is given in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: ISO TC 197 Committee structure for Hydrogen

ISO/TC 197 was created to promote the increased use of hydrogen as an energy carrier and fuel. Standardization is required in the field of systems and devices for the production, storage, transport, measurement and use of hydrogen. The standardization efforts of the technical committee ISO/TC 197 will facilitate the emergence of a renewable, sustainable energy system based upon hydrogen as an energy carrier and fuel. As standardization is undertaken simultaneously with

130 technology development, ISO/TC 197 work facilitates the early demonstration and implementation of the hydrogen technologies that will be required to move hydrogen into widespread energy applications. India is a member of this committee.

The standards published by this committee are as follows:

ISO 13984:1999 Liquid hydrogen -- Land vehicle fuelling system interface

ISO 13985:2006 Liquid hydrogen -- Land vehicle fuel tanks

ISO 14687-:1999 Hydrogen fuel -- Product specification -- Part 1: All applications except proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell for road vehicles

ISO14687-:2012 Hydrogen fuel -- Product specification -- Part 2: Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell applications for road vehicles

ISO 14687-:2014 Hydrogen fuel -- Product specification -- Part 3: Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell applications for stationary appliances

ISO/PAS 15594:2004 Airport hydrogen fuelling facility operations

ISO/TS 15869:2009 Gaseous hydrogen and hydrogen blends -- Land vehicle fuel tanks

ISO/TR 15916:2004 Basic considerations for the safety of hydrogen systems

ISO 16110-1:2007 Hydrogen generators using fuel processing technologies -- Part 1: Safety

ISO 16110-2:2010 Hydrogen generators using fuel processing technologies -- Part 2: Test methods for

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performance

ISO 16111:2008 Transportable gas storage devices -- Hydrogen absorbed in reversible metal hydride

ISO 17268:2012 Gaseous hydrogen land vehicle refuelling connection devices

ISO/TS 20100:2008 Gaseous hydrogen – Fuelling stations

ISO 22734-1:2008 Hydrogen generators using water electrolysis process -- Part 1: Industrial and commercial applications

ISO 22734-2:2011 Hydrogen generators using water electrolysis process -- Part 2: Residential applications

ISO 26142:2010 Hydrogen detection apparatus -- Stationary applications

5.5 Hydrogen Vehicle Testing

A hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle uses a traditional ICE that has been modified to use hydrogen fuel. One of the benefits of hydrogen-powered ICEs is that they can run on pure hydrogen or a blend of hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG). That fuel flexibility is very attractive as a means of addressing the widespread lack of hydrogen fuelling infrastructure in the near term. The Vehicle Testing has to provide pure hydrogen or hydrogen/CNG blends to the various internal combustion engine test vehicles. The Vehicle Testing Activity evaluates hydrogen and HCNG internal combustion engine vehicles in closed-track and laboratory environments (baseline performance testing), as well as in real-world applications – including fleet testing and accelerated reliability testing (accumulating life-cycle vehicle mileage and operational knowledge within 1 to 1.5 years). Emissions testing is also conducted as per Euro norms. Testing hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles also 132

supports development of the hydrogen infrastructure needed for fuel cell vehicles.

5.5.1. Facilities Required for Hydrogen Vehicle Testing

The facilities required for hydrogen testing are provided in the figures below (USDOE). Testing facilities include vehicle fuel cylinder testing, setups for sensor testing, virtual testing, vehicle emission using chassis dynamometer, engine dynamometer, noise and vibration testing. Such facilities need to be developed in India as shown in Figure 5.2 & 5.3.

Fig 5.2: US DoE Facilites

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Fig 5.3: Other Certification facilities

5.5.2. Hydrogen Vehicle Type Approval

EEC 79 / 2009 is an European regulation for type approval of Hydrogen vehicles. Similar regulation is required in India. Some Salient Provisions of EEC 79/2009 are

Hydrogen system installation must be remote from heat sources. Hydrogen container should not be installed in engine compartment and be protected against corrosion Measures to prevent misfuelling of vehicle and leakage The refueling connector should be protected and should have a non return valve Hydrogen container should be mounted and fixed properly Hydrogen fuel system should contain an automatic shut off valve mounted on the cylinder In case of accidents, the shut off valve should interrupt fuel flow

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Hydrogen components should not project beyond outline of the vehicle Hydrogen system installation must be safe from damage Hydrogen components must not be located near vehicular exhaust Ventilation system for hydrogen leakage should be provided In case of accidents, the pressure relief device should function normally. Passenger compartment must be isolated from hydrogen Hydrogen components should be enclosed by gas tight housing Electrical devices should be isolated and hydrogen fuel system should be grounded. Labels should be provided to identify the hydrogen vehicle

5.5.3. Hydrogen Cylinder testing facility:

Test facilities for hydrogen cylinder testing including gunfire, environmental chamber, hydrogen cycling, bonfire and burst testing as shown in Figure 5.4.

Fig 5.4: Hydrogen Cylinder Testing Facilities (Source: Internet)

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5.6 Fuel Cell Vehicle Standards

Fuel cell vehicles use fuel cells which produce an electric current that runs a motor which drives the vehicle. IEC/TC 105 is the international committee on fuel cells. There are important standards regarding fuel cell technologies and infrastructure. IEC 62282 is a globally accepted standard for fuel cell vehicles consists of the following parts under the general title Fuel cell technologies: Part 1: Terminology. Part 2: Fuel cell modules. Part 3-1: Stationary fuel cell power plants – Safety. Part 3-2: Stationary fuel cell power plants – Test methods for performance. Part 3-3: Stationary fuel cell power plants – Installation. Part 4: Fuel cell system for propulsion and auxiliary power units. Part 5: Portable fuel cell appliances – Safety and performance requirements. Part 6-1: Micro fuel cell power systems – Safety1. Part 6-2: Micro fuel cell power systems – Performance1. Part 6-3: Micro fuel cell power systems – Interchangeability1. Part 7: Single Cell Test Method for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC).

5.7 Cryogenic Liquid hydrogen standards

Hydrogen can be stored as a cryogenic liquid at -259°C. European Standards for cryogenic liquid hydrogen are as follows:

Directive 97/23/EC and Harmonised Standard EN 13458 provide framework requirements for the pressure protection of cryogenic storage tank systems.

EN 13458-1, Cryogenic vessels - Static vacuum insulated vessels - Part 1: Fundamental requirements.

EN 13458-2, Cryogenic vessels - Static vacuum insulated vessels -Part 2: Design, fabrication, inspection and testing.

EN 13458-3, Cryogenic vessels - Static vacuum insulated vessels -Part 3: Operational requirements.

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EN 14197-3, Cryogenic vessels – Static non vacuum insulated vessels–Part 3: Operational.

EN 13648-3: Cryogenic vessels – Safety devices for protection against excessive pressure – part 3: Determination of required discharge capacity and sizing for relief devices.

5.8 Hydrogen Stations

Hydrogen stations are to be considered as subject to a particular risk of fire and explosion. The degree of risk influences the type of electrical installation.The installation and operation of electrical systems in hydrogen stations must be in accordance with the Regulations, Standards and Codes of Practice of each country. In particular ATEX Directive must be taken into account for this application. ATEX Directives, (95 and 137).

5.9 Hydrogen Storage

Provisions related to Hydrogen cylinders, valves including Hydrogen dispensing under Gas Cylinders Rules, 2004 and Static & Mobile Pressure Vessels (Unfired) Rules, 1981.

5.10 Hydrogen in Transport Sector:

The transition in vehicle fuels from liquid hydrocarbons to gaseous hydrogen requires an adaptation of automobile design and safety technology to the special properties of hydrogen. In contrast to LPG and gasoline vapour, hydrogen is extremely light and rises rapidly in air. In the open this is generally an advantage, but it can be dangerous in buildings that are not designed for hydrogen. Many countries’ building codes, for instance, require garages to have ventilation openings near the ground to remove gasoline vapour, but there is often no high level ventilation. Hydrogen released in such a building collects at roof level, and a resulting explosion can be extremely destructive. Hydrogen has been used widely for more than a hundred years in large-scale industrial 137 applications. There have been incidents with hydrogen, as there have been with other materials including gasoline, LPG and natural gas. In general, though, experience shows that hydrogen can be handled safely in industrial applications as long as users stick to the appropriate standards, regulations and best practices. Modern, established technologies within energy supply and transportation are at high safety standards. This ensures a secure, safe and user-friendly supply of energy in stationary, transport and other system applications. It is the result of a long learning process within these technologies. Future infrastructure systems for hydrogen applications, as new storage media and refueling stations, need at least to have the same high safety standards as the established technologies.

Also here many years of experience make the large-scale industrial applications very safe in general, but comparing with the application of natural gas the frequency of accidents is reported 5–20 times higher for hydrogen. The following accident causes have been identified:

 Mechanical failures of vessels, pipes, etc. often caused by hydrogen embrittlement or freezing  Reaction with pollutants (e.g. air)  Too low purity of hydrogen  Accidents caused by smaller releases due to poor ventilation or flow back of air under ventilation  Accidents during purging with inactive gases,  Non-functioning of safety equipment,  Wrong operations (by staff),  Failure in evaporating system (e.g. valve failure) or not intended ignition/fire/explosion.

5.11 Hydrogen vehicle hazards

Hydrogen onboard a vehicle may pose a safety hazard. The hazards should be considered in situations when vehicle is inoperable, when vehicle is in

138 normal operation and in collisions. Potential hazards are due to fire, explosion or toxicity. The latter can be ignored since neither hydrogen nor its fumes in case of fire are toxic. Hydrogen as a source of fire or explosion may come from the fuel storage, from the fuel supply lines or from the fuel cell. The fuel cell poses the least hazard, although hydrogen and oxygen are separated by a very thin (~20- 30 m) polymer membrane. In case of a membrane rupture hydrogen and oxygen would combine, but in that case the fuel cell would lose its potential, which should be easily detected by a control system. In that case the supply lines should be immediately disconnected. The fuel cell operating temperature (60° to 90°C) is too low to be a thermal ignition source, however, hydrogen and oxygen may combine on the catalyst surface and create ignition conditions. However, the potential damage would be limited due to a small amount of hydrogen present in the fuel cell and fuel supply lines. The largest amount of hydrogen at any given time is present in the tank. Several tank failure modes may be considered in both normal operation and collision, such as:

 catastrophic rupture, due to manufacturing defect in tank, a defect caused by improper handling of the tank or stress fracture, puncture by a sharp object, external fire combined with failure of pressure relief device to open;  massive leak, due to faulty pressure relief device tripping without cause or chemically induced fault in tank wall; puncture by a sharp object, operation of pressure relief device in a case of fire.  slow leak due to stress cracks in tank liner, faulty pressure relief device, or faulty coupling from tank to the feed line, or impact-induced openings in fuel line connection.

A similar failure analysis may be applied to both high pressure and low pressure fuel lines. In a study conducted on behalf of Ford Motor Company, Directed Technologies, Inc., has performed a detailed assessment of probabilities of the above failure modes. The conclusion of the study is that a catastrophic rupture is a highly unlikely event. However, several failure modes

139 resulting in large hydrogen release or a slow leak has been identified both in normal operation and in collision.

Most of the above discussed failure modes may be either avoided or their occurrence and consequences minimized by:

 Leak prevention through a proper system design, selection of adequate equipment (some further testing and investigation may be required), allowing for tolerance of shocks and vibrations, locating a pressure relief device vent, protecting the high pressure lines, installing a normally closed solenoid valve on each tank feed line, etc.  Leak detection by either a leak detector or by adding an odorant to the hydrogen fuel (this may be a problem for fuel cells);  Ignition prevention, through automatically disconnecting battery bank, thus eliminating source of electrical sparks which are the cause of 85% gasoline fires after a collision, by designing the fuel supply lines so that they are physically separated from all electrical devices, batteries, motors and wires to the maximum extent possible, and by designing the system for both active and passive ventilation (such as an opening to allow the hydrogen to escape upward).

The risk is typically defined as a product of probability of occurrence and consequences. The above mentioned study by Directed Technologies Inc. includes a detailed risk assessment of several most probable or most severe hydrogen accident scenarios, such as:

 Fuel tank fire or explosion in unconfined spaces  Fuel tank fire or explosion in tunnels  Fuel line leaks in unconfined spaces  Fuel leak in garage  Refueling station accidents

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In a collision in open spaces, a safety-engineered hydrogen fuel cell car should have less potential hazard than either natural gas or a gasoline vehicle. In a tunnel collision, a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle should be nearly as safe as a natural gas vehicle, and both should be potentially less hazardous than a gasoline or propane vehicle, based on computer simulations comparing substantial post collision release of gasoline and natural gas in a tunnel. The greatest potential risk to the public appears to be a slow leak in an enclosed home garage, where an accumulation of hydrogen could lead to fire or explosion if no hydrogen detection or risk mitigation devices or measures are applied (such as passive or active ventilation).

5.12 Safety Issues for Refueling Station:

A refueling station will comprise of either 1). Reformer or Electrolyser with hydrogen compressors, storage and dispenser or 2). Tanker delivery, hydrogen storage, pumps /compressors and dispenser. Following potential accident scenarios may emerge:

a) Reformer inside a closed container i. Hazard

 Leakage from natural gas line  Rupture of reformer tube

 Pipe rupture due to H2 Embrittlement  Rupture of hydrogen line to compressor

ii. Safety Requirement

 Ventilation inside the container  Detectors for Hydrogen and NG and proper isolation  Restricted access to the container  Venting surfaces on the container  Regular inspection of Reformer tubes as done in refineries

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b) Electrolyser inside closed container i. Hazard

 Lye leak through cells due to overpressure or gasket failure  Oxygen leak inside the container, leading to fire enhancement

 Large H2 ingress into container by backflow of hydrogen from storage

ii. Safety Requirement

 Preventing a mixture of H2 and O2 inside the electrolyser  Detectors for Hydrogen and oxygen with isolation system  Restricted access to the container  Regular inspection  Venting surfaces on the container c) Compressor inside container i. Hazard

Since hydrogen will be pressurized to very high pressures upto 700 bars leakage and backflow from the storage are important scenarios. Further there can be issues of leakage of hydrogen due to vibrations can also be an issue.

ii. Safety Requirement

Proper pressure controls, vibration control and detectors for hydrogen with forced ventilation can be installed as safety measures d) Buffer storage in Open Air i. Hazard

It will contain the major hydrogen inventory which needs to be handled. The main hazards are hydrogen leakage with explosion. Due 142

to high pressures and volumes of hydrogen bursting of hydrogen bottles may take place which may trigger failure of other bottles in the quad.

ii. Safety Requirement

The main safety barriers against above is to limit the hydrogen leak rates, to isolate the leaky cylinder and to discharge the hydrogen inventory in a safe way. e) Dispenser in Open Air i. Hazard

Dispenser will consist of refueling unit and a dispenser hose. The use of flexible hose and regular connection/disconnection action increases the chances of hydrogen leakage or line rupture. The dispenser scenarios are critical for whole safety evaluation of filling station as customers will be involved and located near to release location.

ii. Safety Requirement

Safety measures can include hydrogen leak detectors, good and regular hose maintenance. As far as automatic filling system can be installed actuating emergency shutdown in case of leaks / hazards. f) Compressed Hydrogen Gas in open air i. Hazard

Instead of onsite production the scenario of hydrogen delivery by trucks involves transfer of huge quantities of hydrogen at high pressures. For a 700 bar filling station the delivery pressures of well above 1000 bars will be required for reasonable discharge and time. Hose failure or leaks are the possible accident scenarios.

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ii. Safety Requirement

Hydrogen leak detection before, during and after tanker connections, loading of hydrogen tanks in separately protected area and emergency shut down procedures can be important safety measures.

In conclusion, hydrogen appears to poses risks of the same order of magnitude as other fuels. In spite of public perception, in many aspects hydrogen is actually a safer fuel than gasoline and natural gas. As a matter of fact, hydrogen has a very good safety record, as a constituent of the “town gas” widely used in Europe and USA in the 19th and early 20th century, as a commercially used industrial gas, and as a fuel in space programs. There have been accidents, but nothing that would characterize hydrogen as more dangerous than other fuels.

Nevertheless, further research may be needed in exploring and quantifying both causes and consequences of hydrogen leaks, development of new materials and couplings less susceptible to hydrogen leaks, lifetime and failure modes of fuel cells, etc. and CFD analysis of leaking hydrogen scenarios can be very useful tool. The results should be disseminated throughout the scientific community and used to generate the codes and standards for hydrogen use in the vehicles. Selected information should be fed to media and general public, in order to change the image of hydrogen as a dangerous fuel. Practical demonstrations may be extremely valuable in that aspect.

5.13 Hydrogen Codes and Standards:

Several organizations are involved in new standards activity in response to the growth of interest in hydrogen as a fuel. The National Hydrogen Association has created Codes and Standards Working Groups on topics such as hydride storage, electolysers for home use, transportation infrastructure issues and maritime applications. The Society of Automotive Engineers, through a Fuel Cell Standards Forum Safety Task Force is collaborating with the NHA on 144 the transportation issues. Much of this standards writing is taking place at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) level in ISO Technical Committee 197 (Hydrogen Technologies) with input through the national organizations. The International Electro technical Committee, IEC TC 105 (Fuel Cells}, ISO TC 197, and ISO TC22 SC 21 (Electric Vehicles) are all involved in fuel cell standards activities.

ISO TC 197 is one of the more active standards writing groups for hydrogen. Since new standards are being developed rapidly, ISO TC 197 and the other organizations should be checked for possible new standards when considering some of these newer systems. ISO/TC 197, Hydrogen technologies, is actively developing consensus-based International Standards that will facilitate the market entry of these new technologies. Working together, we can help to make hydrogen a sustainable energy solution.

5.14 Most of the work of ISO TC 197 is dedicated to mobile applications.

Canada, USA, and Germany are the most active countries in these working groups. IEC TC 105 has also been very active, even though it was established as late as in 1998. So far, ISO standards have been published on product specifications for hydrogen as a fuel (ISO14687) and vehicle fuelling interfaces for liquid hydrogen (ISO 13984). Documents close to being published by both IEC and ISO cover basic safety considerations for hydrogen systems, fuel cells and airport fuelling applications.

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GAP IDENTIFICATION & ANALYSIS

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6.0 Gap Analysis

There is large gap between international and national status of the vehicles based on fuel cell technology. As mentioned above these vehicles are on the verge of commercialization in many developed countries. Cost-wise these vehicles do not compete in the market with the existing vehicles. Therefore, the governments of respective countries are supporting development and promotion of these vehicles at various stages/levels. Many automotive companies have taken initiatives individually and on cooperative basis for the development of infrastructure for re-fuelling in cities, where good market for such vehicles is expected. The good market places are those, where vehicle density is more and environment is comparatively more polluted than neighboring cities.

6.1 Proposed Strategy

 A national strategy for alternative fuels should be developed. This strategy should identify long term objectives and targets, and supporting policies for reducing fleet GHG emissions and fuel consumption. Efforts should be focused on developing the technologies which have the potential for significant reductions in petroleum consumption and GHG emissions.  The policy shall address the need for developing production capacity distribution infrastructure and compatible vehicles for the most promising alternative fuels, rather than focusing narrowly on one or even two of challenges  Government should mandate the portfolio of solutions required to decarbonizes transport and adopt technology-neutral approach for supporting low and ultra-low carbon vehicle technologies.  Constitute The Automotive Council which identifies Roadmap and pathway for commercial realization of fuel cell and battery electric vehicles.  Constitute Indian Hydrogen Mobility together with Various Ministries: Commerce, Science & technology, MNRE, MORTH and IOCL, BPCL and

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HP, TML, AL, M&M, Bajaj and TVS and other OEMs and jointly issue letter of understanding for identification bottlenecks.  Once the plan is prepared, the government may formulate the policies based on the directions contained therein by the respective Ministries to support various activities for the promotion of hydrogen vehicles based on the IC engine/fuel cell technology in the country.  Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles share a large proportion of the electric motor and drive train technology with other electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles; hence identify areas and Identify consortium projects for funding for development of critical components or else encourage industry for import of these critical technologies and production of these components in India.  A purely market-driven approach alone will not enable the introduction of clean technologies and Government initiatives and support required in the initial stage of market introduction.  Public Private Partnership, as the appropriate structure to support the technologically shift, may be considered while making policies pertaining to the following areas: . Hydrogen vehicles and refueling stations, for sustainable mobility sustainable hydrogen production and preparation for the transition to clean energy carriers. . Joint public/private effort needed for FCH technology breakthrough across sectors to reach targets Investment focus: Improving the competitiveness of FCH technology solutions and increasing the share of renewable sources in the hydrogen production mix. . Combined public and private investment is needed for all stages of the innovation cycle, from R&D to first-of-a-kind commercial references. . New financial instruments are needed to finance first-of-a-kind commercial applications and support market introduction. . Fuel Cell and Hydrogen technologies should benefit from various Government programmes. . Funding for system analysis across coach, integrator, and fuel cell provider. 150

. Holistic approach across all elements of the vehicle including driving profiles, energy management, electric drive and fuel cell module options. . Funding for development of low cost, highly reliable, long lasting components. . Fuel cell stack and module components. . Energy storage –fuel and electrical. . Electric drive systems

6.2 The following pathway is proposed to bridge the gap in the shortest time:

(a) A study may be instituted for the assessment of (i) Direct economic costs (both capital and operating) (ii) Environmental, safety, and health effects, and (iii) Other aspects, such as customer convenience and societal impacts. (b) Developed technology may be sourced for adoption and fleet demonstration trials may be undertaken. (c) In parallel, the technology may be developed in-house and required human resources may be developed. (d) Global Standards for different components / systems may be adopted and modified for indigenous conditions. (e) A centralized Centre of Excellence may be developed with satellite testing and development facilities at different locations in the country. The CoE to be declared as a nodal centre for certification of fuel cell technologies in India. It should be mandatory for the foreign / indigenous suppliers to get the stack / system / vehicle approved before deploying in field in-line with the certification testing undertaken for the vehicles. (f) Infrastructure for indigenous production of various components / stacks / systems of fuel cells may be created / supported.

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(g) Interim solution such as HCNG, fuel cell range extended vehicles, diesel - hydrogen based solutions shall be researched, developed and deployed. (h) Skill development program to be initiated in the area of hydrogen and fuel cell with different Central and State universities.

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ACTION PLAN, FINANCIAL

PROJECTIONS AND TIME SCHEDULE

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7.0 Action Plan and Financial Projections

Based on the Gap Analysis and the strategy mentioned to overcome the gap areas, the following action plan has been identified by the Committee to execute time bound projects in the area of fuel cell and hydrogen based IC engines.

A. Mission Mode Project : Hydrogen for Transportation through Research & Innovation driven Program – HyTRIP

B. Initiatives on other Technologies: HCNG, Fuel Cell Range extended Vehicles and Hydrogen energy based retrofitment solutions

C. New Assessment Studies

7.1 Action Plan for Mission Mode Project:

A. Hydrogen for Transportation through Research & Innovation driven Program - HyTRIP

 Preamble:

In its quest to stay in tune with the changing times, India as a country is recognizing that innovation in each and every sector is the key solution to achieve the desired progress. Following a top driven approach for fostering a culture of innovation built on the foundations of a strong scientific acumen, engineering experiences and dynamic human resource, the country has set the targets of reducing 10% energy imports by 2022.

While the stationary power can be generated through the technologies like solar / wind, the energy appetite of the mobility sector has to be satisfied by storing on- board an energy carrier which must drive the vehicles in a more efficient and cleaner way as compared to IC engines.

The sub-committee on the “Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles in India” was formed to recommend the future course of action within the ambit of following key terms of reference: 155

. To specify the technologies to be developed within the country for niche transport applications and strategy to be adopted for the same. . To identify gaps and suggest strategy to fill-up the gaps and quickly develop in-house technologies with involvement of industries or acquiring technologies from abroad. . To suggest demonstration projects to be taken up with industry and infrastructure development required to be created for such projects.

The committee concluded that efforts on the development & demonstration of hydrogen based Fuel Cell Vehicles may be accelerated in-line with global progress. It is apparent that the current cost of fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen are on a higher side, but if the technology is developed in-house, the cost can come down significantly.

Based on the series of discussions and interactions, the Committee recommends the project “HyTRIP” to be undertaken with support from different stakeholders including the Govt. Ministries, Oil Companies, Automotive OEMS, Regulatory bodies like PESO, ARAI etc. The project is aimed to provide end-to- end deliverables and consist of several activities / sub-projects which are mutually exclusive and can be initiated in parallel to each other.

 Project Scheme:

The project is aimed to provide end to end solution for supply, transportation & dispensing of hydrogen gas for the fuel cell vehicles developed indigenously based in imported / in-house designed stacks and then subjecting the vehicles for field trials to assess the performance, operating characteristics through long term durability studies.

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Hydrogen Production Transportation Hydrogen dispensing in Fuel cell /IC engine based vehicles

 Objectives of the Project:

The primary objective for this project is to validate hydrogen FCEVs and hydrogen infrastructure in a real-world operation and identify the current status and evolution of the technology over the project duration. It would be strived to provide the Government and Industry with maximum value from the data produced by this “learning through demonstration.” Efforts would be put in to objectively understand the technological challenges, market aspirations, price targets and safety requirements for commercializing the fuel cell technologies for mobility sector.

This project has been conceived to benchmark following key technical targets for hydrogen FCEVs and infrastructure: • Driving range for different category of vehicles

 Performance optimization of balance of plant • Maximizing the fuel cell durability, life assessment of various components •Optimizing the hydrogen production & transportation cost (based on volume production)  Recommending country specific safety practices based on the “on-field learnings”

Also the data would be processed further for planning Research and Development (R&D) activities and in recommending Hydrogen Mobility & Infrastructure Plan for the country. Once prepared, the plan would assist the 157

Government in formulating the policies based on the directions contained therein for the promotion of hydrogen vehicles based on the fuel cell/IC engine/technology in the country.

 Approach:

The Sub-committee’s approach to accomplish the project’s objectives is structured around a highly collaborative relationship among all stakeholders. Following stakeholders have been identified to participate in the program.

 Ministry of New & Renewable Energy – Nodal body for Administrative decisions  Indian Oil R&D Centre  Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM)  Automotive Research Association of India  Petroleum & Explosives Safety Organization

The above-mentioned core-stakeholders can rope in sub-partners to assist them in planning, executing and troubleshooting activities at different stages of the project. The broad responsibility matrix of each of these organizations is proposed as under:

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To protect the commercial value of the data generated from the above studies, it is proposed to establish the Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Data Center (HFCDC) at IOC R&D or at a proposed MNRE/IOC Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen & Fuel Cell to house the entire data and perform independent data analysis in consultation with different stakeholders. To ensure that the project information is percolated to key stakeholders, and institutes, it is proposed to publish Hydrogen Data Report twice a year for discussions / publishing at several conferences / seminars and workshops.

Year 1 2 3 4 5 Total

Cost (Crores)

Project HyTRIP 12 88 165 110 15 390

a. Design of fuel cell drivetrains 5 45 75 65 7.5 197.5 for each category of vehicle and Development of 50 fuel cell vehicles by OEMs including field trials of fuel cell vehicles for 3,000 hours of fuel cell operation b. Design of hydrogen DI engine 2 23 30 15 7.5 77.5 based vehicles and Development of 20 vehicles for long term durability studies for 30,000 kms c. Design & Deployment of 10 5 20 60 30 115 Dispensing station for fuelling vehicles on hydrogen fuel at 350 bar

Centre of Excellence 200

d. Setting up of Centre of 50 20 30 50 50 200 Excellence (CoE) for testing & certification of fuel cell stack / fuel cell and hydrogen engine based vehicle / hydrogen storage cylinders

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Other Activities ‘e’ & ‘f’ 80

e. Initiatives in other 70 Technologies  HCNG activities  Fuel cell range extenders  Hydrogen based Retrofitment solutions for IC engines f. New Assessment Studies 10

Grand Total 680 crore

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Phase-wise Financial Projections Plan – HyTRIP and Time Schedule

Year 1 2 3 4 5 Total

Cost (Crores)

Activity

1. Design of Dispensing station for fuelling vehicles on hydrogen fuel at 350 bar 5 5

2. Deployment of dispensing stations at recommended sites

20 60 30 110

3. Design of fuel cell drivetrains for each category of vehicle and prototype development of FC vehicles by OEMS 5 5 10

4. Development of 50 fuel cell vehicles by OEMs including integration and control strategy, selection of battery pack, Battery Management system (BMS) and drive train design including motor selection

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40 75 65 180

5. Design of hydrogen DI engine based vehicles and prototype development 2 3 5

6. Development of 20 hydrogen IC engine based vehicles for durability studies 20 30 15 65

7. Durability studies of fuel cells & IC engine protoypes / driving cycle simulation studies on test bench 10 10

8. Field trials of fuel cell vehicles for 3,000 hours and 30,000 kms for hydrogen IC engine based vehicles 2 3 5

Phase-wise Financial Projections Plan – Centre of Excellence

9. Setting up of Centre of Excellence (CoE) for testing & certification of fuel cell stack / fuel cell and hydrogen engine

based vehicle / hydrogen storage cylinders 50 20 30 50 50 200

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1. Four dispensing stations shall be designed for fuelling 50 vehicles per day and another 6 to be designed for 10 vehicles per day 2. Deployment cost of dispensing station for fuelling 50 vehicles is considered to be ~17 crores each while the cost of dispensing station for fuelling 10 vehicles is considered to be around 7 crores per station. 3. Rs. 10 crores has been allocated for designing the fuel cell based powertrains 4. Out of 50 fuel cell vehicles, 10 vehicles are for each category including two-wheelers, 3-wheelers, Passenger cars, SUV and Buses 5. Rs. 5 crores have been allocated for design of hydrogen DI engine based vehicles 6. 20 hydrogen IC engine based vehicles include 5 vehicles each in 3-wheeler, passenger car, SUV and heavy-duty category. 7. Durability studies to be conducted at IOC R&D and ARAI 8. Assumptions for fields trials include:  Landed Hydrogen price: Rs 500/kg (Hydrogen to be sourced from different industries including refineries)  2 wheeler for 10,000 kms 80 km/kg of hydrogen  3 W for 20,000 kms : 60 km/kg of hydrogen  Passenger Car for 30,000 km: 40 km per kg of hydrogen  SUV for 30,000 km: 25 km per kg of hydrogen  Buses for 30,000 kms: 10 km per kg of hydrogen

CoE include the land cost of 50 crores and 150 crores as infrastructure development cost distributed for the next 4 years.

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7.2 Other Projects

D. Initiatives in other technologies – Proposed Budget Rs. 70 crores

While the development of the dedicated fuel cell vehicles would be a case of disruptive innovation, Govt. of India may also encourage the following initiatives of incremental innovation:

. Upon the success of the HCNG studies on different categories of vehicles, Govt. of India may support the setting up of 5 nos. of Compact Reformers based on technology developed by IOC R&D. Proposals may be invited from different State Transport Undertakings for running 20 buses on HCNG fuel for 20,000 kms to assess the operational costs and fuel economy benefits and mass emissions. . Fuel cell based range extended battery electric vehicles may be encouraged for city driving conditions especially in the 13 most polluted cities of the country identified by WHO. Proposals may be invited for development of 20 nos. of fuel cell range extended vehicles for Delhi to understand the technological challenges, durability issues, re-fuelling issues & cost of operation etc associated with these vehicles. . The retrofitment devices for on-hydrogen generation & usage in diesel engines may be encouraged in order to achieve cleaner environment. The proposals may be sought and supported by MNRE to develop on-board hydrogen generation technologies for IC engines & demonstrate the same on 10 vehicles for improving the exhaust emissions and the fuel economy from the conventional engines which are already on the road.

E. New Assessment Studies – Proposed Budget Rs. 10 crores

 Well to Wheel analyses of fuel cell & hydrogen IC engine based vehicles using hydrogen produced from different sources  Direct economic costs (both capital and operation for new fuel cell electric vehicles and conversion cost for on-road vehicles)  Environmental, safety, and health effects of hydrogen based IC engine / fuel cell vehicles vis-à-vis conventional IC engine based vehicles  Mapping / techno-economic assessment of hydrogen retail outlets for setting of supply & distribution infrastructure in metro cities.  Other aspects, such as safety, drivability, customer convenience and societal impacts  Compatibility of existing CNG cylinders for storing upto 20% v/v HCNG blends.

Other Initiatives required from different stakeholders / R&D institutes and Regulatory agencies in the area of Hydrogen & Fuel Cells

F. Activities / Initiatives to Foster Commercial Use of Hydrogen Fuel Cells a) R&D Projects i. Optimization of fuel cell control system and electric power train. ii. Reduce the cost of fuel cell power system by indigenization or import of technology and produce at Indian costs. iii. Developing local vendors for supply of components. iv. Indigenous manufacture of fuel cell stacks in India. b) Fuel cell technology i. Optimization of controller of fuel cell-battery hybrids. c) Government support i. Government support required in de-bottlenecking for import of technology. ii. Government subsidy for indigenization of components and development of technology. iii. Creation of infrastructure for certification of fuel cell vehicles. d) Government notification i. Notification of Hydrogen as an automotive fuel.

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e) PESO Approvals 1. Establish standards for certifying refueling stations and Hydrogen storage containers of type III and Type IV for fuel cell vehicles. f) Indian Standards i. Indian Standards for Hydrogen purity for fuel cell applications. ii. Indian Standards for pressure regulators, SV, Pressure relief valves, solenoid valves. g) Strategy to bridge the gap i. Adopt technology and go for demonstration and fleet trials. ii. Develop technology in house and create required human resources. iii. Adopt global Standards for  Hydrogen storage systems.  Hydrogen safety systems.  Pressure regulators/solenoid valves/ relief valves.  Fuel cell/battery electric vehicles.  Electric traction components.  Traction batteries.  Fuel Cell stacks components.  Hydrogen DI injectors  Infrastructure for production of  Carbon fabric/carbon support material  Carbon, Membrane, Pt/C –catalyst  Light weight thin Composite bipolar plates  Light weight end plate assembly  Balance of power plant components  Continuously voltage monitoring kits  Air compressors/turbines  Hydrogen recirculation pumps/hydrogen diffusers/hydrogen purging & venting systems  Humidifiers  DC/DC converters, controllers  Temperature, humidity, pressure sensors 166

 End plate assembly  Bipolar plate assembly  Stack manifolds  Cost-effective high power density fuel cell stacks for transportation  Balance-of-Power systems for fuel cell stacks h) Technologies to be developed within the country for niche transport applications and strategy to be adopted for the same. i. Li-Ion Battery technology. ii. Battery management system technology for battery packs. iii. Fuel cell stack technology. iv. Fuel cell bipolar plates. v. CO tolerant fuel cell electrode catalysts. vi. Light weight composite storage containers. vii. Air and Hydrogen blowers. viii. Engineering expertise for integration of fuel cell, stack and electric traction system components. ix. Handling Hydrogen safely on-board bus. x. Hydrogen safety components. xi. Hydrogen based IC engines xii. Encourage industries to design and develop battery packs for various applications by offering project and funding the project. xiii. Use commercially available cells for making battery modules. xiv. Encourage industry to import technology and manufacture in India. i. Funding by the government for generation Hydrogen from renewal energy sources. i) Various stakeholders for implementation of projects.

Three groups of general characteristics required to be assessed for fuel cell technology options for vehicle capacity and performance comparable to the baseline vehicle before implementation:

i. Direct economic costs (both capital and operating) 167

ii. Environmental, safety, and health effects, and iii. Other characteristics, such as customer convenience and societal impacts.

During the transitional period, the following major stakeholders are to considered ad their issues are to be addressed:

 Vehicle Purchasers  Fuel Manufacturers  Fuel Distributors  Vehicle Manufacturers (including raw materials and parts)  Vehicle Distributors (including maintenance, repair, and recycling/ scrap page)  Government (at all levels)

Future work will be needed to analyze significant opportunities or barriers for introduction of promising technologies in order to identify research needs or consider alternative implementation pathways.

Here is a summary list by stakeholder of the major transitional issues that may be important: j) Vehicle Purchaser i. Increases in costs and/or decreases in performance/amenities. ii. Problems with availability and refueling convenience of new fuels (especially in early introduction, although first introduction with fleet applications would reduce this problem). iii. Safety of new vehicle in existing vehicle fleet. iv. Uncertainty about technology reliability and serviceability. v. Interest in pioneering new technology. k) Government (at all levels) iii. International and national policy actions on GHG reduction. iv. Implementation of GHG reduction mandates, if used, by locale, sector, etc. v. Economic impacts/shifts related to new infrastructure investment. 168

 Major investments (Hydrogen production)  Significant investments (debottleneck or expand natural gas or electric infrastructure, build clean methanol infrastructure) vi. Impacts on competitiveness in global markets. vii. Safety management.  Highway safety (crashworthiness, fleet size, traffic management).

 Fuel safety (new standards for H2).  New local safety and zoning requirements for fueling stations. viii. Environmental stewardship and social equity issues. l) Vehicle Manufacturer ii. Marketing challenges (cost, performance, amenities) – constrained by future government requirements? iii. Technological challenges  Clean diesel technology  Hybrid and Fuel Cell system refinements  Sulfur guards for Fuel Cell

 H2, and battery energy storage improvements  Advanced control systems to optimize performance iv. Recycling challenges (if driven by government requirements)  Alloys, plastics  Platinum group metals for fuel cells and specialized catalysts in advanced after treatment systems v. New suppliers (more electrical systems, system integrators, fuel cell suppliers, etc.)

(o) Vehicle Distributor/Servicing/Recycling/Disposal

i. New investment (by smaller companies?)  New service and inspection equipment for new technologies  New fuel facilities for servicing ii. Component recycling (batteries, Platinum group metals, etc.) iii. Hiring/training to meet different and higher skill levels for employees 169

(p) Fuel Manufacturer

i. Major new offshore investment (Hydrogen )

ii. Infrastructure expansion and debottlenecking (H2, electricity)

(q) Fuel Distributor

i. Significant investments (by smaller companies?)  New distribution infrastructure for ultra clean Hydrogen  Fuel station storage and transfer facilities for Hydrogen

 Reforming, storage and transfer facilities for H2 ii. Increased safety concerns

 H2 facilities including pressure transfer

iii. Longer fueling times ( H2, Electricity) iv. Loss of fuel business (electricity)

(r) Continuing Impacts of fuel cell Technologies

Assuming that the vehicle and fuel alternatives to support fuel cell technology are in place, then the major residual impacts of the change rest with the vehicle purchaser and the government. It is likely that the vehicle production and service companies, as well as the fuel producers and distributors, will have incorporated the impacts of transitional changes into their cost and operational structures. Thus, the major differences that will impact car purchasers and the government appear to be:

a. Vehicle purchaser  Cost of transportation per km (or cost of new vehicle)  Safety (crashworthiness of lighter vehicle bodies; fueling)  Performance (including acceleration, load and towing capacity, noise, odor, comfort, style, and level of amenities)  Fuel availability and refueling convenience  Reliability and convenience of servicing

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b. Government  Level of GHG reduction and economic impacts  Reduction in local pollution problems  Change in petroleum dependence  Changes in public safety (fueling, vehicle)  PESO approvals for Hydrogen storage and Hydrogen dispensing  Indian Standards  Involve Non-Government Organization for preparation reports, safety audits, preparation of reports and standards  Servicing of refueling stations, fuel cell vehicles  Man power creation  Manufacturing industry- Infrastructure to be created, Material recycling  Fuel suppliers- Standards-quality adherence, Generation, transportation, well to wheel analysis, Action plan for implementation with timeline  Legal issues

(s) Examination of regulatory issues related to transport sector such as

Notifying hydrogen / hydrogen blended fuel as automotive fuels, on-board storage of such fuels, use of composite cylinders for storage of fuels as per international practices, type approval of vehicles using such fuels, setting-up of refueling stations of such fuels etc.

i. Notification of Hydrogen as automotive fuel ii. Approval of use of Type III and Type IV storage containers iii. Creation of facility of testing and validation of Hydrogen storage containers iv. Standards for Fuel cell vehicle v. Standards for fuel cell power system and batteries vi. Type IV storage containers approval process vii. Creation of facility for evaluation of storage containers viii. Indian standards for regulators, pressure relief valves ix. Preparation of policy document and setting target dates for approval

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INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOP- MENT OF THE PRODUCTS / PROCESSES AND INFRASTRUCTURE TO BE CREATED

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8.0 Institutions Involved in the Development of the Products / Processes and Infrastructure to be created

In India, majority of R&D activities in the area of hydrogen and fuel cells is being undertaken by CSR labs, IITs and Public Sector Undertakings. However, for transiting the fuel cell technology to the next level, stakeholders like vehicle manufacturers, oil/gas marketing companies, regulatory bodies, and certification agencies are required to participate in collaborative research / demonstration projects.

8.1 Institutes recommended for Mission mode Project

For executing the mission mode project mentioned by the Committee, the following institutes are recommended to participate in this initiative.

 Ministry of New and Renewable Energy – for coordinating the projects  Leading Automotive OEMs like Tata Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, Maruti Suzuki India Limited, Ashok Leyland, Bajaj Motors, Hero Honda etc. through Society of Indian Automobile manufacturers - for development of fuel cell and hydrogen IC engine based prototypes and vehicles  Indian Oil R&D through its planned Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen & Fuel Cells (iCARE) supported by Ministry of New & Renewable Energy – to augment the fuel infrastructure, handle the supply chain management and to create infrastructure and hydrogen safe labs for fuel cell stack, system and vehicle & hydrogen engine testing.  Petroleum and Safety Organization - Certification of Hydrogen storage cylinder, container for bulk transportation and Valves.  Indian standards- Pressure regulators/Solenoid valves/Hydrogen purity/Pressure relief valves/Hydrogen Material compatibility.  Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) - Creation of facility for qualification of various components  Vehicle Research & Development Establishment. 175

 National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRIP)  IITs for undertaking the fundamental research on the design optimization and controller development for fuel cell vehicles in collaboration with OEMs

8.2 Infrastructure to be created:

To accomplish a successful transition to a hydrogen powered vehicles, it is critical to match as precisely as possible—in time and space—the available hydrogen supply with emerging hydrogen demand. The projects which have been proposed would need infrastructure for development of fuel cell vehicles, hydrogen engines, controllers, lab set ups for testing & validation, fueling stations, hydrogen storage infrastructure etc.

During the course of the project, the following infrastructure will be created: 1. Hydrogen dispensing stations: 10 hydrogen dispensing stations will be created during the course of mission mode project. These stations will be used to refuel 70 vehicles running hydrogen based technologies. Moreover, fuel cell range extended vehicles proposed under “Other Technologies” would also be refueled from these stations. 2. Vehicles: 50 fuel cell vehicles alongwith 20 hydrogen IC engine based vehicles would be developed as a part of mission mode project 3. Lab Infrastructure to be created at Centre of Excellence a. Stack Testing  Hydrogen Safe Stack Testing facility for sizes ranging from 5 to 100 kW – 3 nos.  Programmable Test Stations for testing for effect of contaminants in fuel air and stack materials (bi-polar plates, seals, etc.) – 2 nos.

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b. Hydrogen Engine Testing ranging from single cylinder research engine upto commercial engines upto 100kW  Test bench for testing for performance & combustion analysis of hydrogen engines

c. Hydrogen Safe Environment Chamber for Integrated Product Testing transportation (2-3 wheeler/automotive/ bus) products.  Vehicle testing facilities for 3-wheelers / Passenger cars, SUVs upto 50kW and, LDVs / LCVS / Buses Commercial Vehicles up to 200kW – 2 Nos..  Temperature range: -40°C to +60°C  Relative Humidity range: 5% to 95%  Altitude Range: 0 to 3000m (70 kPa absolute pressure)  Solar Loading / integration with solar hydrogen generation  Chassis Dynamometers of approx. 30kW & 200 kW for simulating various drive cycle testing on FCEVs d. Component testing facilities e. Motor evaluation & drivetrains testing facilities f. Controller development and validation lab g. HIL setup for fuel cell vehicles

8.3 The following partners / collaborations are proposed for undertaking different projects as mentioned above:

S. No. Project Probable Partners 1 Mission Mode Project: Automotive Manufacturers Like Hydrogen for Transportation through Tata Motors Ltd. (TML), M&M, Research & Innovation driven Ashok Leyland (AL), Bajaj, Program - HyTRIP Hero Motors, Maruti Suzuki India Ltd., Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), IOC R&D, Automotive

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Research Association of India (ARAI), Petroleum Explosives and Safety Organization (PESO) and Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE), Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Ol Marketing Companies 2. Use of HCNG produced through State Transport Undertakings Compact Reforming for Buses (STUs), IOC R&D, OEMs like TML and AL etc. 3. Development & Evaluation of Fuel Bajaj, M&M, Centre for Fuel Cell Range Extended vehicles Cell Technologies, IITs, IOC R&D etc. 4. Hydrogen based retro-fitment Automotive OEMS like M&M, solutions for IC engines TML, MSIL etc alongwith IOC R&D 5. Well to Wheel analyses of fuel cell & IIT-Chennai, Central Road hydrogen IC engine based vehicles Research Institute, IOC R&D, using hydrogen produced from Central Institute of Road different sources Research (CIRT)

6. Direct economic costs (both capital IIT-Delhi, Automotive OEMs & and operation for new fuel cell electric ARAI, Central Road research vehicles and conversion cost for on- Institute road vehicles) 7 Environmental, safety, and health Centre for Science and effects of hydrogen based IC engine / Environment, TERI & SIAM fuel cell vehicles vis-à-vis conventional IC engine based vehicles 8. Mapping / techno-economic IOCL, HPCL, BPCL & GAIL assessment of hydrogen retail outlets

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for setting of supply & distribution infrastructure in metro cities. 9. Other aspects, such as safety, IIT-Bombay, NEERI, TERI drivability, customer convenience and societal impacts

10 Compatibility of existing CNG ARAI, PESO, NMRL, CGCRI, cylinders for storing upto 20% v/v IIT-Kharagpur, IOC R&D HCNG blends.

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CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

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9.0 Conclusions & Recommendations

Hydrogen has been considered as green fuel for futuristic transportation as an alternative to the petrol / diesel oil without / with reduced environmental concerns like emission of harmful gases and global warming effect. The modes of transportation may be hydrogen fuelled vehicles based on IC engine / fuel cell technologies. Such vehicles have attracted more attention by the automakers, Governments and the customers despite the limitations (i) Safety regulations are to be followed during handling hydrogen (its transportation, storage and use as gaseous fuel) since hydrogen being flammable and explosive gas (ii) hydrogen being produced from the sources other than primary fuel sources is expensive, (iii) fuel cells having higher efficiencies but presently too expensive and (iv) absence of infrastructure that delivers / dispenses hydrogen or its precursors. Fuel cell vehicles can’t be commercialized till they become cost-wise competitive in the market and infrastructure for dispensing hydrogen is established.

9.1 Hydrogen IC Engines a) The Internal Combustion (IC) engines are the backbone of the present vehicular system. For transition to hydrogen economy, various options for hydrogen in IC engines viz. neat hydrogen, hydrogen supplementation like hydrogen + gasoline, hydrogen + CNG and hydrogen + diesel. The existing IC engines may be modified by optimizing various operating parameters like fuel induction mechanism, compression ratio, spark timing, injection timing, and injection pressure and injection duration. India may go ahead with hydrogen blending in CNG and graduating to neat hydrogen, because of the availability of CNG infrastructure available in the country. Combination of diesel with hydrogen was not pursued in developed countries, however it is important in India, since diesel is being used in decentralized manner for transportation and power generation. The IC engines may be modified as detailed below and commercialized with some incremental cost:

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 Hydrogen fuelled SI engines can be developed for high power outputs and low emissions by direct injection of hydrogen into the cylinder. These injectors have to be developed. Engine control units also have to be developed. Hydrogen enhanced biogas can be studied for stationary applications and also for mobile applications like locomotives where biogas can be an option.  The dual fuel Hydrogen-diesel/biodiesel engine with common rail engine controller is capable of varying fuel injection quantities of diesel/biodiesel and hydrogen as per the demand without knock. Direct injector of hydrogen could be developed and integrated with a suitable controller. Hydrogen may also be used along with biogas or other low grade gaseous fuels in the dual fuel mode. The niche applications in such a mode may be in locomotives and stationary power generation.  Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engine

operate with high thermal efficiencies and low NOx emissions with hydrogen as fuel. However, the load range is limited. The range is higher in the case of hydrogen-diesel is used as dual fuel. Hydrogen can be a good additive to biogas-diesel as it raises efficiency and extends the load range. It also enables operation at low charge temperatures.  Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai is planning to work with combustion in hybrid mode of HCCI engine. It can start with diesel at very low loads. It will shift to hydrogen & diesel mode and later again to diesel mode depending upon the operating conditions. Such engine may be useful for gen-set, so that it may recognize the load and change the operating mode accordingly. b) The Society of Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) implemented a project on the use of Hydrogen (up to 30%) as Fuel Blended with Compressed Natural Gas in Internal Combustion Engines in collaboration with automobile companies. Seven vehicles (two buses of different makes, one jeep, one car, 184

one passenger three wheeler, one cargo three wheeler and one cargo truck) were modified for the use of hydrogen-CNG blend and field tried. This project was supported by the Government of India. The hydrogen-CNG blend was optimized and arrived at an appropriate common blend ratio i.e. 18% hydrogen with CNG for all type of vehicles (under consideration) in view of its implementation in actual practice. It has been found that CO has been reduced in exhaust gases with the use of 82% CNG (18% hydrogen) in comparison to the use of 100% CNG in all vehicles. Hydrocarbons have also

been reduced in most of the vehicles but nitrogen oxide (NOx) has gone up.

It may be due to the facts that engines are psychometric in India. These NOx can be reduced by burning lean or deploy a catalyst as in US and get these

NOx be reduced. Overall behavior is consistent. The engine can be cooled down with exhaust gas recirculation. Thus, this problem can be solved by undertaking R&D. Material (metallic and non-metallic) compatibility of CNG gas kit components / parts have been studied for different sets of H-CNG blends (10%, 18% and 30% hydrogen content) by the Automobile Research Association of India, Pune under a project sponsored by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Project report has been submitted along with seven draft standards on hydrogen. The Standing Committee on Emissions (SCoE) under Ministry of Road Transport and Highways) is looking after the implications of storage of Hydrogen blended CNG up to 20% in Type-1 CNG cylinder. IOCL observed no degradation in these cylinders after H-CNG project was over. The SCoE will also consider declaration of hydrogen as fuel in vehicles. c) Mahindra and Mahindra modified CRDI diesel engine with electronic control unit of its SUV for the use of Diesel-Hydrogen Dual fuel and optimized blend ratio for hydrogen & diesel. This project was supported by Government of India. A fleet of five vehicles has been built and ready for field trials to cover a distance of 1,00,000 Km.

185 d) UNIDO/ICHET sponsored a project on ‘Del-hy-3W’ (Delhi-Hydrogen- 3Wheelers) to a consortium of Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi (for engine optimization, performance, durability validation), Mahindra & Mahindra (for field trials, vehicular optimization and maintenance), Air Products (for setting up fuelling Station to dispense hydrogen), India Trade Promotion Organization Delhi (for trial management in the area of ITPO) for

the development and demonstration of H2-fuelled three-wheelers in New Delhi. Under this project 15 hydrogen powered 3-Wheelers were developed and demonstrated at Pragati Maidan, New Delhi. The MNRE sanctioned this project to continue demonstration of these 3-wheelers for evaluation of performance, durability, cost of the technologies on the hydrogen power engine and fueling technology. Field Trial and Demonstration are to be done for 15,000 km of each vehicle. There are a few challenges like these 3- wheelers are giving less mileage & consume more hydrogen. It is practically very difficult to manage continued experimentation, because transported hydrogen is exorbitantly costly. Tube Trailers and Bullets need to be introduced for making delivered hydrogen cheaper. e) The Banaras Hindu University modified IC engines of motorcycles and three wheelers for demonstration of hydrogen storage in solid phase and its recovery from the thermal energy of the vehicles exhaust.

9.2 Fuel Cell Vehicles f) The Governments in many countries USA, United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, and China are very active in the development of fuel cell vehicles and providing support to the developers. As a result a number of companies have come forward to develop such vehicles. Electric mobility programme have been launched on large scale in many countries with the aim to reduce pollution in the crowded cities and also from the angle of futuristic foresightedness i.e. after the exhaustion of the petroleum sources, these vehicles may be coupled with the electricity generation from hydrogen fuel cell or from natural / renewable resources like solar, wind, biological sources

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etc., so that transportation mode remains unhindered. India is also considering launching such a programme on Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020. Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles share a large proportion of the electric motor and drive train technology. g) Fuel cells (which generate electricity with hydrogen as fuel) have been commercialized in many countries but their cost is still high. This makes vehicles based on fuel cell costly. Efforts are being made world over to reduce cost of the fuel cells. In India, many industries, OEMs and academic institutes are involved in the fuel cell research. h) The Government of India sanctioned a project for the development and demonstration of ten fuel cell buses to the Tata Motors Limited. Since the fuel cells are not being manufactured in the country, these have been imported for the deployment in these buses. The Government of India alongwith other stakeholders is making efforts to indigenize the manufacturing of the components and the system. The auto companies desire that Government of India should formulate policies to provide financial support and other incentives for the promotion of fuel cell vehicles in the country till the time it becomes self-sustaining. i) Purity of hydrogen is another issue. Purity of hydrogen does not matter for the use in the IC engine vehicles, since hydrogen is burnt in the presence of air in the cylinder. No pollutants other than hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides are emitted. These pollutants have no erosion / corrosion or any other effect on the material of construction of the vehicle. But in case of fuel cell vehicles, very hydrogen of the order of 99.999% purity is required, because the noble metal (platinum) poisons by the presence of carbon monoxide. Hydrogen available as byproduct in Chlor-Alkali unit is 99.999% pure and may be used as fuel for the fuel cell vehicles. So there is requirement for creating infrastructure re-filling facility to different kinds of on-board storage vessels at different pressures say from 200 to 700 bar. Very pure hydrogen

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may also be produced by the electrolyser. Technology has been developed to produce pure hydrogen at high pressures. The storage tanks of the vehicles may refilled by the pressure difference. No extra compressor is required and hence no requirement of electricity for filling the storage tank. In case hydrogen is produced through the carbonaceous sources like coal, petroleum products, biomass etc. other products are also produced together with hydrogen. These are need to be separated out. Hydrogen capacities in refineries can be leveraged to initiate the fuel cell program in the country j) The Government of India may constitute an Automobile Council with various stakeholders as members. This Council may look into and address all concerns for the research, development, commercialization and market penetration of the hydrogen fuel vehicles in the country.

9.3 Infrastructure development for supply and Distribution k) Delivery technology for hydrogen infrastructure is currently available commercially, and several companies deliver bulk hydrogen in some countries. Some of the infrastructure is already in place in the country, because hydrogen has long been used in industrial applications, but it's not sufficient to support widespread consumer use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Hydrogen having relatively low volumetric energy density costs significantly for its transportation, storage, and delivery to the point of use. Options and trade-offs for hydrogen delivery from central, semi-central, and distributed production facilities to the point of use are complex. The choice of a hydrogen production strategy greatly affects the cost and method of delivery. For example, larger, centralized facilities can produce hydrogen at relatively low costs due to economies of scale, but the delivery costs for centrally produced hydrogen are higher than the delivery costs for semi- central or distributed production options (because the point of use is farther away). Thus, creation of infrastructure needs appropriate planning, so that cost of hydrogen delivery is minimum forever. Huge amount of hydrogen is

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required for the development, demonstration and commercialization of hydrogen fuelled vehicles based on the IC engine or fuel cell technology, since the devices/systems work initially very inefficiently during the development phase. Therefore, hydrogen cost is the major player in the promotion of hydrogen fueled vehicles based on internal combustion engine and fuel cell technologies. l) In order to ensure safety of hydrogen fuelled vehicles regulations and standards are required to be followed. These regulations and standards are key requirement for commercialization of the technology. Regulations and standards will help to overcome technological barriers to commercialization, facilitate manufacturers’ investment in manufacturing such vehicles and facilitate public acceptance by providing a systematic and accurate means of assessing and communicating the risk associated with the use of hydrogen vehicles.

9.4 In view of above, the Committee on Transportation through Hydrogen concludes the following: a) A study may be initiated for the assessment of (a) Well to Wheel analyses of fuel cell using hydrogen produced from different sources, (b) Direct economic costs (both capital and operation for new fuel cell electric vehicles and conversion cost for on-road vehicles), (c) Environmental, safety, and health effects of hydrogen based IC engine / fuel cell vehicles vis-à-vis conventional IC engine based vehicles, (d) Other aspects, such as safety, drivability, customer convenience and societal impacts, and (e) Mapping / techno-economic assessment of hydrogen retail outlets for setting of supply & distribution infrastructure in metro cities. b) Considering global developments, issues of energy security and environmental concerns, hydrogen may be promoted as fuel for automobiles operating on engines / fuel cells. Risk assessment & safety hazop studies to be undertaken at the vehicular level as well as at dispensing stations.

189 c) Unless hydrogen is declared as an automotive fuel, hydrogen fuelled vehicles can’t be plied on the public roads. The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways may look after this issue. d) Standards and regulations may be developed for handling hydrogen during transportation, storage and utilization. e) Priority is to be given to utilize hydrogen produced in Chlor-Alkali units and the refineries by installing purification, compressing and dispensing facilities for filling compressed gas. f) Corridor for trial and demonstration of vehicles may be planned and permitted in the nearby areas of hydrogen outlets. g) After utilization of available hydrogen, captive use of hydrogen for heating purposes may be replaced by other locally available fuels like biomass, solar energy etc. to use hydrogen for high grade usage in automobiles. h) Target oriented policy may be formulated by the Government of India to support different activities at different stages till the entire value change becomes self-sustaining. Once the technology is ready for commercialization, taxes and duties may be waived off for hydrogen fuelled vehicles for the initial period. i) Constitution of a Council or Steering group with all stakeholders as members, to identify problems being faced for the development, testing, field trials and commercialization of IC engine / fuel cell vehicles. j) Preparation of Hydrogen Mobility & infrastructure Plan for the country to be developed upon consultation among various stakeholders like concerned Ministries, oil companies and automotive manufacturers. Once the plan is prepared, the government may formulate the policies based on the directions contained therein by the respective Ministries to support various activities for the promotion of hydrogen vehicles based on the IC engine/fuel cell technology in the country.

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9.5 Recommendations

9.5.1 Fuel Cell Vehicles The following are recommended for fuel cell vehicles:

a. Design & development of a fleet comprising of 10 passenger cars, 10 two- wheelers, 10 SUVs, 10 three-wheelers, 10 buses operating on fuel cell technology may be taken-up as a Mission Mode Project alongwith the 10 dispensing stations at different sites. MNRE may support this initiative through proposed Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen & Fuel Cells being set-up by IOC R&D. b. Fleet demonstration trials of the fuel cell buses run by STUs. c. R&D institutes and leading research labs may undertake Simulation studies of BoP components & hydrogen storage & supply system to be installed in the vehicle leading to indigenize development of the same. d. Development & demonstration of Fuel cell Range Extended vehicles & their performance evaluation. Optimization of control system & fuel (hydrogen) quality for maximization of durability with minimal operating cost. e. Establishment of test facilities for fuel cell components, stacks and systems. f. Establishing the hydrogen safe labs for fuel cell / hydrogen vehicle testing at ARAI, NATRIP and proposed MNRE/IOC Centre of Excellence for Hydrogen & Fuel cells. g. Development & standardization of fuel cell vehicle and stack testing standards for Indian conditions. h. Understanding the global quality control standards for different stack components / systems and their modification for indigenous conditions. i. Undertake the contamination studies both on fuel side as well as on air side to establish the long term durability impact on the fuel cell vehicle performance

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j. Development of required human resources for various activities like carrying out further RD&D activities, indigenous production, repair & maintenance services etc.

9.5.2 Hydrogen Fuelled IC Engine

The following Work has been proposed for the research, development, demonstration and commercialization of Hydrogen Fuelled IC Engine Technology:

a. 20 vehicles based on Hydrogen direct injection technology to developed and demonstrated as a part of Mission Mode project discussed above. b. Pilot studies to be initiated for conversion of CNG buses may be converted into H-CNG buses in the initial phase based on the Compact Reformer technology developed by IOC R&D. Performance monitoring of the buses to be carried out for establishing the on-field long term durability c. Combustion chamber designs and cylinder head designs for direct injection SI engines running on hydrogen have to be developed. d. Engine control units for dual fuel, HCCI and direct hydrogen injection engines with effective control strategies in some cases to switch between modes have to be developed. Academic institutions could do the initial part of working out modes of operation and strategies using experiments and simulation models. However, industry partners have to take it to the level of making ECU hardware and software that matches industry standards. e. Strategies to combine HCCI operation with dual fuel and CI modes to extend the load range can be developed. This will enable the effective use of HCCI for applications like generator sets and locomotives. Here academic institutions can do the basic experimental work and perform simulation studies while industries may implement the strategies in the field for evaluation.

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f. Development of after treatment device for NOx reduction (Lean NOx trap,

SCR etc.), which will help to reduce NOx emission while operating the engine at a higher equivalence ratio to improve the power output. This is relevant for development of heavy duty engines with hydrogen. g. Application of hydrogen blends with various fuels like CNG, LPG, Diesel, Biogas in the existing SI engines etc. h. Combustion research to be undertaken by the leading labs and institutes to establish the performance of hydrogen fuelled engines

9.5.3 Hydrogen infrastructure

The establishment of hydrogen infrastructure may be planned in the following steps:

a. Hydrogen supply must be ensured at the workshop / industry / testing facility, where prototype hydrogen vehicle is developed and tested. Therefore, Oil Companies may set-up 10 additional hydrogen dispensing stations and supply hydrogen from refineries as a part of Mission mode project to facilitate the pilot studies to be conducted on hydrogen IC engine based as well as fuel cell vehicles b. Studies on understanding the purity of hydrogen required for both IC engines and fuel cells must be carried out by the research institutes to be ensured as per its application as fuel for the IC engine / fuel cell based vehicles. c. Opportunities to use hydrogen produced in Oil Refineries and Chlor-Alkali plants may be explored. Inter-ministerial group may be formed to expedite the supply of hydrogen from refineries for different hydrogen applications. d. The delivered cost of hydrogen through steel cylinders at 200 bar is too high. It is therefore required to have alternate means of transportation of hydrogen like compressed hydrogen tube trailer or cryogenic liquid hydrogen trailer. The fuel cell buses use composite cylinders for storing hydrogen on-board at 350 bars. These cylinders are not manufactured in 193

the country. Efforts should be made to have indigenous production of these cylinders. e. The composite cylinders, which are imported, can withstand upto 350 bar pressure, but the valve deployed on the cylinder is Indian and can withstand only upto 200 bar pressure. In case of cylinder and valve are imported and have test certificate upto 350 bars, the same shall be allowed in our country. f. Research activities on pipeline to be undertaken for examining the long term efficacy of hydrogen transportation through pipelines and the utilization of existing pipeline network. g. Adequate establishment of test facilities for cylinders and other components of the hydrogen fuelled vehicles in any Government / autonomous institutions to for timely testing and certification of the vehicles. h. Creation of following test facility for certification of the hydrogen fuelled vehicles (like passenger cars and light duty vehicles, motorcycles and heavy duty vehicles (on/off road)) and their components:

i. Safety bunker for stationary & cyclic testing facility upto 800 bar ii. Laboratory for sensor testing iii. Dispersion / explosion modeling iv. Laboratory for storage capacity characterization v. Refueling stations vi. Environmental and vibration testing of fuel cell systems and their performance vii. Efficiency measurement, engine performance evaluation and emission testing h. The institutions like, ARAI, and MNRE / IOC R&D’s proposed CoE for Hydrogen & Fuel Cells to provide support by creating the following:

i. Certification test facilities for stacks and fuel cell sub systems

194 ii. Facilities for Evaluation of Balance of Plant components iii. Hydrogen safe labs for Testing & performance evaluation of fuel cell electric vehicles / dual fuel vehicles / hydrogen engines / vehicles.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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10.0 Bibliography

10.1 Hydrogen Application in IC Engines

1. Karim G A. Hydrogen as a spark ignition engine fuel. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 28, Issue 5, May 2003, Pages 569 – 577. 2. White CM, Steeper RR and Lutz AE. The hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine: a technical review. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 31, Issue 10, August 2006, Pages 1292 – 1305. 3. Verhelst S and Wallner T. Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, Volume 35, Issue 6, December 2009, Pages 490 –527. 4. Subramanian V, Mallikarjuna JM and Ramesh A. Intake charge dilution effects on control of nitric oxide emission in a hydrogen fueled SI engine. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 32, Issue 12, August 2007, Pages 2043 – 2056. 5. Subramanian V, Mallikarjuna JM and Ramesh A. Effect of water injection and spark timing on the nitric oxide emission and combustion parameters of a hydrogen fuelled spark ignition engine. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 32, Issue 9, June 2007, Pages 1159 – 1173. 6. Porpatham E, Ramesh A and Nagalingam B. Effect of hydrogen addition on the performance of a biogas fuelled spark ignition engine. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 32, Issue 12, August 2007, Pages 2057 – 2065. 7. Das LM and Mathur RB. Exhaust gas recirculation for NOX control in a multi-cylinder hydrogen-supplemented S.I. engine. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 18, Issue 12, December 1993, Pages 1013-8. 8. Das LM. Hydrogen engines: a view of the past and a look into the future. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 15, Issue 6, December 1990, Pages 425-43.

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9. Z. Liu and G.A. Karim. Knock characteristics of dual-fuel engines fuelled with hydrogen fuel. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 20, Issue 11, November 1995, Pages 919-924. 10. Murari MR, Eiji T, Nobuyuki K, Yuji H and Atsushi S. An experimental investigation on engine performance and emissions of a supercharged H2-diesel dual-fuel engine. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 35, Issue 2, January 2010, Pages 844-853. 11. M. Mohamed Ibrahim and A. Ramesh. Investigations on the effects of intake temperature and charge dilution in a hydrogen fueled HCCI engine. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 39, Issue 26, 3 September 2014, Pages 14097–14108. 12. M. Mohamed Ibrahim and A. Ramesh. Experimental investigations on a hydrogen diesel homogeneous charge compression ignition engine with exhaust gas recirculation. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 38, Issue 24, August 2013, Pages 10116 – 10125. 13. Hongsheng Guo, Vahid Hosseini, Stuart Neill. W, Wallace L. Chippior, Cosmin E. Dumitrescu. An experimental study on the effect of hydrogen enrichment on diesel fueled HCCI combustion. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 36, Issue 21, October 2011, Pages 13820 - 13830. 14. Stenlaas. O, Christensen. M, Egnell. R and Johanson, B. Hydrogen as Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engine Fuel, SAE paper 2004-01-1976. 15. Antunes Gomes. J. M, R.Milkalsen and A.P.Roskilly. An investigation of hydrogen-fuelled HCCI engine performance and operation. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 33, Issue 20, October 2008, Pages 5823-5828. 17. Caton. P. A and Pruitt. J. T. Homogeneous charge compression ignition of hydrogen in a single-cylinder diesel engine International Journal of Engine Research, Volume 10, pages 45-63, 2008. 18. Shudo Toshio and Hiroyuki Yamada. Hydrogen as an ignition- controlling agent for HCCI combustion engine suppressing the low- 200

temperature oxidation. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 32, Issue 14, September 2007, Pages 3066-3072. 19. Yap. D, Megaritis. A, Peucheret. S and Wyszynski. M. L, Homngming Xu. Effects of Hydrogen Addition on Natural gas HCCI Combustion, SAE paper 2004-01-1972. 20. A. Tsolakis and A.Megaritis. Partially premixed charge compression ignition engine with on-board H2 production by exhaust gas fuel reforming of diesel and biodiesel. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 30, Issue 7, July 2005, Pages 731-745. 21. Hagar Alm El-Din, Medhat Elkelawy and Zhang Yu-Sheng. HCCI Engines Combustion of CNG Fuel with DME and H2 Additives, SAE paper No.2010-01-1473. 22. Verhelst S. Recent progress in the use of hydrogen as a fuel for internal combustion engines, International Journal of Hydrogen energy 39 (2014) 1071-1085.

10.2 Hydrogen fuelled vehicles based on Fuel Cell Technology

1. www.toyota.com/ 2. www.nissan-global.com/ 3. Fuel Cell industry review 2013 (www.fuelcelltoday.com) 4. Linden, David. Handbook of Batteries and Fuel Cells. New York: McGraw- Hill, about 1984 5. Satyapal, S. “U.S. Update,” Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program, U.S. Department of Energy, presented at the International Partnership for a Hydrogen Economy Steering Committee Meeting, November 20th, 2013, Fukuoka, Japan 6. US Department of Energy, Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program “Pathways to Commercial Success: Technologies and Products Supported by the Fuel Cell Technologies Program,” Department of Energy, September 2012.

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7. Ogden J.M. and L. Anderson, Sustainable Transportation Energy Pathways, Institute of Transportation Studies. University of California, Davis, Regents of the University of California, Davis campus. 8. Fuel Cell today – London taxis 7. Nguyen, T., J. Ward, K. Johnson, “Well-to-Wheels Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Petroleum Use for Mid-Size Light-Duty Vehicles,” Program Record (Offices of Bioenergy Technologies, Fuel Cell Technologies & Vehicle Technologies, US Department of Energy 8. California Fuel Cell Partnership, “A California Road Map: Bringing Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles to the Golden State,” describing the infrastructure necessary to successfully launch commercial FCEVs. http://cafcp.org/RoadMap 9. Greene, D. L., Leiby, P. N., James, B., Perez, J., Melendez, M., Milbrandt, A., Unnasch, S., and Hooks, M., “Analysis of the Transition to Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles and the Potential Hydrogen Energy Infrastructure Requirements,” RNL/TM-2008/30. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2008 10. National Research Council, Transitions to Alternative Transportation Technologies: A Focus on Hydrogen, ISBN-13: 978-0-309-12100-2. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2008 11. UKH2 mobility: Synopsis of Phase 1 results, February 2013

10.3 Testing, Standards, Codes and Regulations for Hydrogen Vehicles

1. ISO TC 197 Website 2. Presentation from Mr. Srivastava, PESO 3. Presentation from Dr. Thipse, ARAI 4. US NHTSA Hydrogen Vehicle Safety Report 5. UNIDO-ICHET Report on Hydrogen Vehicles 6. UNECE-GRSP-49-28 7. Presentation from Clean Cities, US DOE 8. BIS Website

9. Website of H2 Training, USA 10. Presentation from SIAM 202