Engine:
This article is about a machine to convert energy into useful mechanical motion. An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical motion Heat engines, including internal combustion engines and external combustion engines (such as steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat which is then used to create motion. Electric motors convert electrical energy in mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air and others, such as wind-up toys use elastic energy. In biological systems molecular motors like myosins in muscles use chemical energy to create motion.
Mercedes V6 DTM Rennmotor 1996
001 Terminology:
Originally an engine was a mechanical device that converted force into motion. Military devices such as catapults, battering rams are referred to as siege engines. The term "gin" as in cotton gin is recognized as a short form of the Old French word engine.
In modern usage, the term is used to describe devices capable of performing mechanical work, as in the original steam engine.
In most cases the work is produced by exerting a torque or linear force, which is used to operate other machinery which can generate electricity, pump water, or compress gas.
In common usage, an engine burns or otherwise consumes fuel, and is differentiated from an electric machine (i.e., electric motor) that derives power without changing the composition of matter
A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover, a component that transforms changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy.
An automobile powered by an internal combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps, but ultimately all such devices derive their power from the engine.
The term motor was originally used to distinguish the new internal combustion engine-powered vehicles from earlier vehicles powered by steam engines, such as the steam roller and motor roller, but may be used to refer to any engine
002 Automobiles:
The first commercially successful automobile, created by Karl Benz, added to the interest in light and powerful engines. The lightweight petrol internal combustion engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has been the most successful for light automobiles, while the more efficient Diesel engine is used for trucks and buses.
Increasing power:
The first half of the 20th century saw a trend to increasing engine power, particularly in the American models. Design changes incorporated all known methods of raising engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the speed at which power is generated. The higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight- line arrangements.
Combustion efficiency:
The design principles favored in Europe. Because of economic and other restraints such as smaller and twister roads, leant toward smaller cars and corresponding to the design principles that concentrated on increasing the combustion efficiency of smaller engines. This produced more economical engines with earlier four-cylinder designs rated at 40 horsepower (30 kW) and six-cylinder designs rated as low as 80 horsepower (60 kW), compared with the large volume V-8 American engines with power ratings in the range from 250 to 350 hp (190 to 260 kW).
003 Engine configuration:
Earlier automobile engine development produced a much larger range of engines than is in common use today. Engines have ranged from 1 to 16 cylinder designs with corresponding differences in overall size, weight, piston displacement, and cylinder bores. Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW) were followed in a majority of the models. Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models were built while most engines had straight or in-line cylinders. There were several V-type models and horizontally opposed two- and four-cylinder makes too. Overhead camshafts were frequently employed. The smaller engines were commonly air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively low. The 1970s and '80s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy which brought in a return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with as many as five valves per cylinder to improve efficiency. The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 operates with a W16 engine meaning that two V8 cylinder layouts are positioned next to each other to create the W shape sharing the same crankshaft.
The largest internal combustion engine ever built is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C, a 14-cylinder, 2-stroke turbocharged diesel engine that was designed to power the Emma Maersk, the largest container ship in the world. This engine weighs 2300 tons, and when running at 102 RPM produces 109,000 bhp (80,080 kW) consuming some 13.7 tons of fuel each hour.
004 Combustion engine:
Internal combustion engine:
Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat of a combustion process.
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (generally, fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to components of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by moving it over a distance, generates useful mechanical energy.
Four stages of the 4-stroke combustion engine cycle
1. Induction (Fuel enters) 2. Compression3. Ignition (Fuel is burnt) 4. Emission (Exhaust out)
005 External combustion engine:
An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine where an internal working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine produces motion and usable work. The fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle), or (less commonly) dumped, and cool fluid pulled in (open cycle air engine).
"Combustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat. Engines of similar (or even identical) configuration and operation may use a supply of heat from other sources such as nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not involving combustion; but are not then strictly classed as external combustion engines, but as external thermal engines.
The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engine, or steam as in a steam engine or an organic liquid such as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine Cycle. The fluid can be of any composition; gas is by far the most common, although even single-phase liquid is sometimes used. In the case of the steam engine, the fluid changes phases between liquid and gas.
006 Gas turbine:
A gas turbine is internal combustion in the sense that the combustion takes place in the working fluid, but external combustion in the sense that the combustion is not fully closed in and is outside the actual moving turbine section. Traditionally, "internal combustion" usually includes gas turbines, jets and rockets.
The Gas turbine from MGB 2009
A typical axial-flow gas turbine turbojet, the J85, sectioned for display. Flow is left to right, multistage compressor on left, combustion chambers center, two-stage turbine on right
007 Environmental effects:
Operation of engines typically has a negative impact upon air quality and ambient sound levels. There has been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing features of automotive power systems. This has created new interest in alternate power sources and internal-combustion engine refinements. Although a few limited-production battery-powered electric vehicles have appeared, they have not proved to be competitive owing to costs and operating characteristics. In the 21st century the diesel engine has been increasing in popularity with automobile owners. However, the gasoline engine, with its new emission-control devices to improve emission performance, has not yet been significantly challenged.
Air quality:
Exhaust from a spark ignition engine consists of the following: nitrogen 70 to 75% (by volume), water vapor 10 to 12%, carbon dioxide 10 to 13.5%, hydrogen 0.5 to 2%, oxygen 0.2 to 2%, carbon monoxide: 0.1 to 6%, unburnt hydrocarbons and partial oxidation products (e.g. aldehydes) 0.5 to 1%, nitrogen monoxide 0.01 to 0.4%, nitrous oxide <100 ppm, sulfur dioxide 15 to 60 ppm, traces of other compounds such as fuel additives and lubricants, also halogen and metallic compounds, and other particles. Carbon monoxide is highly toxic, and can cause carbon monoxide poisoning, so it is important to avoid any build-up of the gas in a confined space. Catalytic converters can reduce toxic emissions, but not completely eliminate them. Also, resulting greenhouse gas emissions, chiefly carbon dioxide, from the widespread use of engines in the modern industrialized world is contributing to the global greenhouse effect – a primary concern regarding global warming.
008 Reciprocating engine:
A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the common features of all types. The main types are: the internal combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles; the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution; and the niche application Stirling engine.
Internal combustion piston engine:
Components of a typical, four stroke cycle, internal combustion piston engine.
E - Exhaust camshaft
I - Intake camshaft
S - Spark plug
V - Valves
P - Piston
R - Connecting rod
C - Crankshaft
W - Water jacket for coolant flow
Common features in all types:
There may be one or more pistons. Each piston is inside a cylinder, into which a gas is introduced, either already hot and under pressure (steam engine), or heated inside the cylinder either by ignition of a fuel air mixture (internal combustion engine) or by contact with a hot heat exchanger in the cylinder (Stirling engine).
009 The hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. The piston is returned to the cylinder top (Top Dead Centre) either by a flywheel or the power from other pistons connected to the same shaft. In most types the expanded or "exhausted" gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke. The exception is the Sterling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas.
Sterling piston engine:
Rhombic Drive – Beta Sterling Engine Design showing the second displacer piston (green) within the cylinder which shunts the working gas between the hot and cold ends, but produces no power itself.
1 – Hot cylinder wall 2 – Cold cylinder wall 5 – Displacer piston 6 – Power piston 7 – Flywheels
010 Crankshaft:
The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation. To convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder attach.
It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the torsion vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.
Crankshaft (red),
Pistons (gray)
In their cylinders (blue),
Flywheel (black)
011 Poppet valve:
A poppet valve (also called mushroom valve) is a valve consisting of a hole, usually round or oval, and a tapered plug, usually a disk shape on the end of a shaft also called a valve stem. The shaft guides the plug portion by sliding through a valve guide. In most applications a pressure differential helps to seal the valve and in some applications also open it.
Presta and Schrader valves used on pneumatic tires are examples of poppet valves. The Presta valve has no spring and relies on a pressure differential for opening and closing while being inflated.
Operation:
The operating principle of poppet valves is described in "How Poppet Valves Work".In most cases it is beneficial to have a "balanced poppet" in a direct-acting valve. Less force is needed to move the poppet because all forces on the poppet are nullified by equal and opposite forces. The solenoid coil has to counteract only the spring force
Applications:
Poppet valves are used in many industrial processes, from controlling the flow of milk to isolating sterile air in the semiconductor industry. However, they are most well known for their use in internal combustion and steam engines, as described below.
012 Camshaft:
A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms.
Uses:
In internal combustion engines with pistons, the camshaft is used to operate poppet valves. It then consists of a cylindrical rod running the length of the cylinder bank with a number of oblong lobes protruding from it, one for each valve. The cams force the valves open by pressing on the valve, or on some intermediate mechanism as they rotate.
Material:
Camshafts can be made out of several different types of material. These include:
Chilled iron castings: this is a good choice for high volume production. A chilled iron camshaft has a resistance against wear because the camshaft lobes have been chilled, generally making them harder. When making chilled iron castings, other elements are added to the iron before casting to make the material more suitable for its application.
Billet Steel: When a high quality camshaft is required, engine builders and camshaft manufacturers choose to make the camshaft from steel billet. This method is also used for low volume production. This is a much more time consuming process, and is generally more expensive than other methods. However the finished product is far superior. When making the camshaft, CNC lathes, CNC milling machines and CNC camshaft grinders will be used.
013 Bearing (ball, roller, and spherical shown) (n) The part of a machine within which a rotating or sliding shaft is held. In some bearing types, balls or rollers are used between the bearing surfaces to reduce rolling friction.
Bell crank (n) a pivoting double lever used to change the direction of applied motion.
Burnish (v) To smooth or polish by a rolling or sliding tool under pressure.
014 Casting (n) Any object made by pouring molten metal into a mold.
Idler (n) A mechanism used to regulate the tension in belt or chain. Or, a gear used between a driver and follower gear to maintain the direction of rotation.
015 Applications – Chassis & Suspension – Steering system
4 Steering system
4.1 Introduction
The steering system is the key interface between the driver and the vehicle. The main requirement is that the steering should be precise, with no play. In addition, the steering system should be smooth, compact and light. It must also provide the driver with a perfect feel for the road surface and help the wheels return to the straight-ahead position.
The standard steering arrangement is to turn the front wheels using a hand-operated steering wheel via the steering column. The steering column may contain several joints to allow it to deviate somewhat from a straight line. These joints may also be part of the collapsible steering column design to protect the driver in frontal crash situations.
4.1.1 Operating mechanisms
There are two basic steering mechanisms: - Rack and pinion steering - Recirculating ball steering. Most modern cars use the rack and pinion steering mechanism. The recirculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater torque multiplication, thus it was originally used on larger, heavier vehicles while the rack and pinion was limited to smaller and lighter cars. But with the almost universal adoption of power steering, this is no longer an important advantage, leading to the increasing use of the rack and pinion mechanism on new cars. However, power-assisted recirculating ball steering systems are still applied today in dynamic sports cars, upper class cars, off-road vehicles and vans. Despite the ability to safely transmit high torques, the recirculating ball system is characterized by low system friction, high efficiency and good noise performance.
In the rack and pinion system, a pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft, i.e. turning the steering wheel turns the pinion gear which then moves the rack. The rack and pinion gear is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the tube. It does two things: It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion needed to turn the wheels. It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels.
A tie rod at each end of the rack connects via the swivel ball joint to the steering arm which finally moves the wheel. The specific advantage of the rack and pinion design is a good feedback and a direct steering "feel".
In a recirculating ball steering box, a box is clamped over a worm drive that contains dozens of ball bearings. The ball bearings loop around the worm drive and then out into a recirculating channel where they are fed back into the worm drive again. As the steering wheel is turned, the worm drive turns and forces the ball bearings to press against the channel inside the nut. This forces the nut to move along the worm drive. The nut itself has a couple of gear teeth cast into the outside of it and these mesh with the teeth on a sector gear which is attached to the cross shaft.
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4.1.2 Power steering systems
1. Electronic speedometer in the vehicle 2. Electronic control unit (ECU) 3. Electro-hydraulic transducer 4. Rack and pinion power steering gear 5. Engine-driven steering pump 6. Oil reservoir with fine filter 7. Anti-vibration expansible hose
Configuration of a modern hydraulic steering system (Photo: ZF Lenksysteme)
As vehicles have become heavier and switched to front wheel drive, along with an increase in tire width and diameter, the effort needed to manually turn the steering wheel has increased. Therefore power steering (or rather power-assisted steering) was introduced to assist the driver. A specific advantage of power steering is speed adjustable steering, where the steering is heavily assisted at low speed and lightly assisted at high speed. This feature is gradually becoming commonplace across all new vehicles.
There are two types of power steering systems - hydraulic and electric/electronic. Also hydraulic-electric hybrid systems are possible.
The dominating steering solution for today’s vehicles is rack and pinion hydraulic steering. In a hydraulic power steering system, a part of the rack contains a cylinder with a piston in the middle. The piston is connected to the rack. Supplying a higher pressure fluid to one side of the piston forces the piston to move, which in turn moves the rack. The hydraulic power steering system uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to assist the turning motion of the steering wheel. This system offers good value and functionality, a high level of reliability, and has a proven safety record. Major components, aside from the rack and pinion, include the pump providing the hydraulic pressure, the valve assembly, the rack tube housing as well as flexible bellows and pressure lines.
Hydraulic power steering system Source: ZF Lenksysteme)
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Hydraulic-electric hybrid systems allow a conventional hydraulic steering system to run without an engine-driven hydraulic pump. The hydraulic pressure is supplied instead by an electric motor pump unit independent of the engine. This concept is particularly useful in vehicle platforms that utilize conventional hydraulic steering as a base technology, but are also offered for hybrid electric vehicle variants.
Electrically powered hydraulic steering system Source: TRW Automotive
Nowadays, however, electrically assisted power steering is gaining more and more market share. Electric power steering works by using an electronically controlled electric motor which replaces the conventional hydraulic system. It is superior to conventional hydraulic power steering in many respects. The ride characteristics of the car are considerably enhanced because the electrical control perfectly responds to vehicle dynamics and handling. It is also more efficient than the hydraulic power steering, since the electric power steering motor only provides assistance when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump runs constantly. Thus the introduction of electric power steering allows a fuel saving of 3 – 4 %.
In electrically assisted steering, the assist level is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even driver preference. An additional benefit is the elimination of potential environmental hazards posed by leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering fluid. Also in the event of the engine cutting out, steering assist will not be lost - whereas hydraulic will stop working, making the steering doubly heavy as the driver has to turn the power-assist mechanism on top of the steering system itself. Furthermore, apart from the servo unit, there are no additional components: steering valve, steering pump, oil reservoir and high-pressure hoses are unnecessary. This saves weight and facilitates installation in the vehicle. Finally, electronically controlled electric steering systems also work in tandem with other driver assistance systems and thus make an active safety contribution.
Depending on the vehicle class, there are three basic types of electric power steering systems. The servo unit is either mounted: on the steering column, on a second pinion or in parallel to the steering rack, depending on the available installation space, the vehicle power supply and the required steering rack force.
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For small to medium cars, where the steering efforts are relatively low, the servo unit and its electronic control unit are integrated in the steering column. They are connected to the mechanical rack and pinion steering gear via the intermediate shaft with universal joints. The torque produced by the electric motor is converted, via a worm gear, into an assistance torque and transmitted to the intermediate shaft. The result is an extremely lightweight design that requires very little space. The location of the servo unit and the electronic control unit in the passenger compartment saves space in the closely packed engine compartment and enables reduced temperature as well as sealing requirements compared with systems situated under the hood.
Electric power steering system with the servo unit on the steering column Source: ZF Lenksysteme
Electric power steering systems with the servo unit on a second pinion are designed for mid- size or upper midsize cars. The assist power is applied directly to the rack. This design allows for lower inertia, lower friction and more direct steering feel, as well as superior response. The physical separation of the sensor and the drive unit offers the opportunity for a performance- optimized configuration and improved crash safety thanks to optimum use of the available installation space.
Electric power steering system with the servo unit on a second pinion Source: ZF Lenksysteme
Electric power steering systems with paraxial drive are designed for high performance applications. They are characterized by low system friction and high efficiency. Due to the combination of recirculating ball gear and toothed belt drive, systems with paraxial drive are ideally suited for differing high performance requirements. The wide range of positioning possibilities of the servo unit allows optimum use of the installation space on the vehicle and helps to meet the highly demanding crash safety requirements of the automotive industry.
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Electric power steering system with paraxial drive (Photo: ZF Lenksysteme)
In the past fifty years, car steering systems haven't changed much. But there will be significant advances in car steering in the next decades. Of particular interest is the introduction of "steer-by-wire" or "drive-by-wire" systems. Such systems completely eliminate the mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the steering mechanism at the wheel, replacing it with a purely electronic control system. The steering wheel will essentially only contain sensors that tell the car what the driver is doing, whereas some motors in the steering wheel will provide the driver with feedback on what the car is doing. The output of the sensors will be used to control a motorized steering system. “Steer-by-wire” will reduce the vehicle weight, free up space in the engine compartment by eliminating the steering shaft and also reduce vibration inside the car.
4.2 Aluminium components of the steering system
Safety and driving comfort are the characteristic requirements for the mechanical components of the steering system. Materials selection and product design are determined by the requirements regarding inertia forces, vibration damping, strength and crashworthiness of the components.
The steering system has all along been an area for the application of different aluminium alloys and manufacturing technologies, including both cast as well as wrought alloy components. In particular, the aluminium steering column has been the domain of innovative technologies such as impact extrusion (followed by secondary forming operations) or rotary swaging of aluminium tubes. Aluminium components within the steering system offer excellent examples for the potential of massive forming methods for the production of safety- critical lightweight components.
020 4.2.1 Steering wheel
Steering wheels for passenger cars are generally circular, and mounted to the steering column by a hub connected to the outer ring by one or more spokes. The steering wheel is also the usual location for a button to activate the horn. In addition, the driver airbag is integrated into the steering wheel. Furthermore, electronics capabilities are becoming increasingly important. Thus more and more electronic buttons and features are integrated within the steering wheel. Newer developments include fixed hub steering wheels that offer major advantages to the traditional steering wheel. Because the hub is fixed, it can contain an asymmetric airbag to give the driver improved protection. It can also hold a large number of controls which are more visible and easily accessible to the driver.
Steering wheels are generally manufactured as a single unit. Aluminium (or magnesium) die castings are normally used for the frame. The die cast frame is then over-molded with flexible polyurethane foam. Additional production processes include leather and wood processes, one shot and two shot plastic injection (for plastic parts like airbag covers) and electronic component assembly.
But metallic steering wheel frames are today strongly challenged by high performance plastics, e.g. glass-filled polycarbonate-siloxane copolymer resins. Reported benefits of high performance plastics claim up to 20% system cost reduction and a 40% reduction in mass compared to a magnesium or aluminium alloy steering wheel.
021 4.2.2 Steering column
Steering columns are usually standardized assemblies that can be installed in a variety of vehicles. Their main function is: to flawlessly transform steering movements through the lifetime of the car, and to protect at any time the driver in case of an accident.
In terms of design, the steering column has to be light and stable, but also readily collapsible to minimize the risk of injury in the event of a crash.
Nowadays, fixed, non-adjustable steering columns are found relatively seldom. The ability to adjust the steering wheel for height and reach is today a standard comfort requirement of the driver. Therefore fixed steering columns have been largely replaced by electrically or mechanically adjustable steering columns.
Fixed, non-adjustable steering column (above) and steering column which is electrically adjustable for height and/or reach (below) Source: ThyssenKrupp Presta
Adjustable steering columns require a relatively complex console. The parts of the console which serve as a sled for the steering shaft are often designed as aluminium high pressure die castings. The application of the aluminium high pressure die casting technology ensures a low weight, high stability and good collapsibility, factors that reduce the overall weight of the
022 vehicle and maximize passive safety. But it also offers a cost-effective solution for the production of the intricately shaped component.
Manually adjustable steering column with a continuously variable clamping mechanism (above) and an electric variant (below) with memory function Source: ZF Lenksysteme)
Traditionally, the steering shaft, i.e. the inner shaft of the steering column which conveys the torsional moment, has been produced from thin-walled steel tubes. However, today, lightweight solutions made from wrought aluminium alloys are more and more used too. The individual parts of the steering shaft are characterized by relatively complex geometries due to the different joints and other features necessary because of the different functional requirements, the geometrical boundary conditions and the safety considerations.
Steering shaft elements are produced in different variants including for example also vibration damping elements Source: ThyssenKrupp Presta
023 A specific manufacturing option for steering columns is cold rotary swaging of aluminium tubes. Rotary swaging is a technology highly suitable to produce the characteristic elements of steering shafts such as closely controlled variations of the outer diameter or the introduction of internal gears.
Figure 1: Characteristic elements formed by rotary swaging of aluminium tubes Source: HMP
Figure 2: Steering column element produced by rotary swaging Source: HMP
Impact extrusion is another forming process that is particularly suitable for the fabrication of near-net-shape or net-shape cylindrical parts. In general, the cold impact extrusion technology is applied to form complex aluminium shapes with close dimensional tolerances, although, in particular for larger parts, also warm impact extrusion is possible. As impact extrusions leaves the fibre orientation undisturbed and results in a non-porous microstructure, it is a manufacturing method ideally suited for the production of safety-critical components. The geometrical shape of typically impact extruded components has generally a rotational symmetry. But to a certain extent, also attachment geometries like yokes, etc., are possible.
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Through successive cold processing steps, also convolutions and splined sections can be realized.
Figure 3 shows some steering shaft components, figure 4 an example of a one-piece aluminium tube with convolutions, compared to a four-piece assembly in steel. The convolutions help the tube to meet the requirements on compressible forces and to bend, but the part will still keep its integrity in a crash situation.
In order to avoid tensile stresses when forming such complex extremities by cold impact extrusion, the material must be put under high compression forces. High capacity presses are necessary to keep the work pieces under pressure. The extreme forces also ask for the development of special tool designs, which can withstand the high impact forces in large series production.
The alloy EN-AW 6082 is mainly used for its good overall performance. The alloys EN-AW 7108 and EN-AW 7021 are used where high strength is required, i.e. in steering shafts. The products are used in the engine compartment without surface protection.
Figure 5 shows some other steering shaft components of various geometries, of particular interest are the inner splines and the fork legs. The specific benefit of impact extruding is the excellent grain-flow combined with the smallest possible overall dimensions.
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Impact extruded steering shaft components of different geometry
Also a range of linkage products, including the control rod of the steering gear, the track rod ends, the control arms, etc., are possible aluminium components.
4.2.3 Components of the power steering system
Further aluminium applications can be found in power-assisted steering systems. In hydraulic power steering systems, the hydraulic components such as the steering pump and the hydraulic tubes are preferred aluminium applications offering an excellent balance between minimum weight and maximum performance.
Steering pump for hydraulic power steering system Source: ZF Lenksysteme
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The electric power steering system requires an electric drive consisting of motor and control unit. These components can be integrated into a module (“PowerPack”) which needs little installation space and has a high power density. The housing shown below made from an aluminium extrusion with a specifically designed cross section is an excellent example for an optimized lightweight solution.
PowerPack for an electric power steering system Source: ZF Lenksysteme
Further aluminium parts are found in the rack and pinion power steering gear, where aluminium high pressure die castings provide cost-effective possibilities.
Rack and pinion power steering gear, an aluminium die casting Source: ZF Lenksysteme
027 1) Abnormal combustion 21) Air cleaner
2) Accessory drive pulley 22) Absolute pressure
3) Alternator bushing 23) Air filter
4) Antifriction bearing 24) Actuator
5) Axis 25) Accelerator pedal
6) Aluminum piston 26) Anti knock agent
7) Adjusting screw 27) Accelerator pump system
8) All season oil 28) Auto ignition
9) Anti corrosion 29) Air flow sensor
10) Anti wear 30) Air temperature sensor
31) Actuator 11) Armature 32) Accumulator 12) Anti-freeze 33) Air-fuel ratio 13) Atmospheric pressure 34) Annular groove 14) Air flow 35) Agglomeration 15) Anti rust
16) Anti boil 36) Amplifier
17) Anticorrosion 37) Ammeter
18) Air mix door 37) Ammeter
19) Air-fuel mixture 38) Alternator
20) Air 39) Advance
028 58) Blocker ring
59) Brake cone 40) Anti seize compound
41) Advanced spring 60) Bevel gear
42) Advanced weights 61) Baffle
43) Asbestos fibers 62) Ball joint (tuber)
44) Axle shaft 63) Bias
64) Bead 45) Absorber 65) Balance 46) Axle 66) Brake 47) Anti roll bar (stabilizer bar) 67) Bleeding 48) Air spring 68) Booster 49) Adjusting sleeve 69) Bore 50) Abrasion
51) Aspect ratio 70) Belt tensioner
52) Air bag 71) Bucket tappet
53) Bulb 72) Bearing
54) Barrel 73) Bolt
55) Ball valve 74) Balance weight
56) Beam selector switch 75) Bearing diameter
57) Brush 76) Bearing lubrication
029 77) Bearing wear 97) Camshaft sprocket
78) Bottom dead center 98) Compressing stroke
79) Bronze bushing 99) Compressing ignition engine
80) Ball pivot 100) Cylinder block 81) Base circle 101) Crankshaft 82) Bypass tube 102) Cylinder head 83) Battery 103) Cylinder head gasket 84) By pass 104) Crankcase ventilation regulator valve 85) Boiling point 105) Crankcase ventilation oil separator
86) Bimetal 106) Cam bearing
87) Blower motor 107) Coolant inlet
88) Bleed valve 108) Clutch disc
89) Back pressure 109) Clutch plate
90) Boost control valve 110) Connecting rod bearing
91) Baffle 111) Clutch pilot bushing
92) Bellows 112) Camshaft thrust plate
113) Connection rod 93) Brake drum 114) Connection rod journal 94) Crankshaft sprocket 115) Compressing ring 95) Cylinder 116) Concave piston 96) Camshaft
030 117) Cup depth 137) Coil
118) Compression ring groove 138) Carburetor
119) Compression distance 139) Cost iron
120) Centerline 140) Catalytic convertor
121) Chrome rail 141) Coated ceramic beads
122) Coolant 142) Convertor shell
123) Cam 143) Carbon soot
124) Cam lobe 144) Complete combustion
125) Cylinder wall 145) Carbon monoxide
126) Conical spring 146) Carbon dioxide
127) Coolant passages 147) Cup seal
128) Chain tensioner 148) Choke system
129) Cotter pin 149) Charcoal canister
130) Crude oil 150) Camshaft position sensor
131) Core clean-out holes 151) Crankshaft position sensor
132) Conduction 152) Control relay
133) Convection 153) Closing spring
134) Cooling fins 154) Compressing ratio
135) Combustion leak detector 155) Compression ignition
136) Coefficient of conductivity 156) Control sleeve gear
031 157) Control rack 177) Constant mesh gear
158) Control sleeve 180) Chain
159) Cir clip 181) Cage
160) Cell divider 182) Cross member
161) Condenser 183) Cantilever
162) Capacitor 184) Column
163) Conductors 185) Constant ratio
164) Coil tower 186) Carcass
165) Coil wire 187) Cetane number
166) Collopison 188) Coil spring
167) Ceramic 189) Counterweight
168) Couple 190) Detent spring
169) Cushion spring 191) Detent
170) Cone clutch 192) Downshift
171) Carrier bearing 193) Drive sprocket
172) Counter shaft 194) Dowel
173) Clutch shaft 195) Disengage
174) Cone surface 196) Drum
175) Coupling sleeve 197) Driving axle
176) Case 198) Drier
032 199) Damping force 219) Dipstick
200) Dive 220) Drive shaft
201) Diagonal 221) Driven gear
202) Dynamic balance 222) Drive gear
203) Dual system brake 223) Detergents
204) Dehumidification 224) Dispersants
205) Dampener 225) Diesel engine oil
206) Driven plate 226) Dowel pin
207) Distributor bushing upper 227) Dual exhaust system
208) Distributor bushing lower 228) Dual bed catalytic convertor
209) Distributor thrust plate 229) Discharge air
210) Dome piston 230) Detonation (spark knock)
211) Dome height 231) Diaphragm spring
212) Direction of rotation 232) Diaphragm
213) Dowel hole 233) De-choke tab
214) Double overhead camshaft 234) Digital fuel gauge
215) Decarbonizing 235) Detonation sensor
216) Drilled crankshaft passages 236) Dust seal
217) Drain plug 237) Duty cycle
218) Drain 238) Distributor type pump
033 239) Direct injection 259) Emergency
240) Diesel engine 260) Engage
241) Delivery valve 261) End plate
242) Diagnostic connector 262) Eared disc
243) Dwell angle 263) Even wear
244) Diode 264) Equalizer
245) Dual coil 265) Exhaust stroke
246) Delta winding 266) Exhaust manifold
247) Differential 267) Engine life hood
248) Drive shaft 268) Expansion slot
249) Drain valve 269) Expansion
250) Defroster (de-icer) 270) Exhaust valve
251) Efficiency 271) Electrical terminals
252) Eddy current 272) Engine oil additives
253) Electrode 273) Eccentric
254) Engage 274) Expansion tank
255) External spline 275) Electric fan motor
256) Eyebolt nut 276) Engine warm-up
257) External teeth 277) Ethylene glycol
258) External splines 278) Electric throttle control
034 279) Electronic muffler 299) Full floating piston pin
280) Exhaust turbine 300) Flat top piston
281) Emulsion well 301) Face (valve face)
282) Electronic control unit 302) Fulcrum seat
(ECU) 303) Fulcrum
283) Engine speed sensor 304) F-head
284) Epoxy filter 305) Flash point
285) Excess fuel button 306) Foam inhibitor
286) Effective plunger stroke 307) Filter bypass
287) Eccentric shaft 308) Force feed lubrication
289) Fuel rail 309) Fins
290) Flywheel 310) Folded paper element
291) Front oil pan seal 311) Fuse
292) Flat engine 312) Fan belt
293) Front cover (timing cover) 313) Flat belt
294) Flanged main bearing 314) Fan shroud (fan cowling)
295) Fan thrust plate 315) Filler neck
296) Front oil seal 316) Fan
297) Fillet 317) Finned cylinder
298) Flat piston 318) Filler cap
035 319) Flow 339) Fully transistorized regulator
320) Flexible hose 340) Field coils
321) Float 341) Friction ring
322) Fuel 342) Fork
323) Filter element 343) Free travel
324) Fuel injector 344) Free play
325) Fuel supply hose 345) Fourth gear
326) Fuel filter 346) First gear
327) Fuel tank 347) Front pump
328) Fuel return hose 348) Front suspension
329) Fuel system 349) Force
330) Fuel vapor line 350) Fiberglass
331) Fossil fuels 351) Frame
332) Float level adjusting lip 352) Forward
333) Fast idle cam rod 353) Foot print width
334) Float bowl 354) Floating
335) Fast idle screw 355) Flasher
336) Fuel cut off valve 356) Freezing point
337) Fuel distributor 357) Grommet
338) Fly weight 358) Gasket
036 359) Gear 379) Gasoline
360) Groove clearance 380) Ground clearance
361) Groove width 381) Glazing
362) Guide 382) Glass
363) Gear type oil pump 383) Helix
364) Ground 384) Horn system
365) Gas flow 385) Horns
366) Gasoline vapor 386) Hex nut
367) Graphite seal 387) Hazard flasher
368) Governor vent screw 388) Helical spring
369) Gear pump 389) Hydraulic line
370) Governor 390) High gear
371) Generator 391) Hydraulic pump
372) Gap 392) Height sensor
373) Ground 393) Hanger bracket
374) Gear teeth 394) Housing
375) Gear shift 395) Humidity control
376) Gear ratio 396) Head bolt
377) Governor 397) Horizontal engine
378) Gas 398) High compression engine
037 399) Hub 419) Ignition distributor
400) Heat dam 420) Induction stroke
401) Hydraulic valve lifter 421) Ignition stroke
402) Hemispherical combustion chamber 422) Inlet tube assembly
403) Head (valve head) 423) Internal combustion engine
404) Heel 424) In-line engine
405) Hollow stud 425) Intermediate main bearing
406) High speed engine 426) Inner ring
407) Helical drive gear 427) Intake valve
408) Heater core 428) Intake port
409) Heater hoses 429) Inner valve spring
410) Heat exchanger (oil cooler) 430) Integral seat
411) Heat transfer 431) Idler pulley (flat-head)
412) Hose clamp 432) I-head (overhead valve)
413) Heat energy 433) Inner rotor
414) Hose 434) Ignition switch
415) Heat capacity 435) Indication light on dash
416) Hot air pipe 436) Inlet tank
417) Hanger 437) Impeller
418) Hydro carbon 438) Insulator
038 439) Inside air 459) Input shaft
440) Intake air 460) Impeller
441) Induction system 461) Input planetary gear set
442) Insulation 462) Independent suspension
443) Instrument panel unit 463) Insulator
444) Instrument voltage regulator 464) Inflation pressure
445) Idle air bleed 465) Inter cooler
446) Idle port 466) Intake manifold heater
447) Idle mixture screw 467) Jackshaft
448) Idle stop screw 468) Journal diameter
449) Injector filter 469) Junction block
450) Inner platinum electrode 470) Joint pin
451) Ignition delay 471) Jam nut
452) Indirect injection 472) Key
453) In-line injection pump 473) Keyway
454) Insulator 474) Knock sensor
455) Ignition timing 475) Key (shifting plate, insert)
456) Iron core 476) Knuckle
457) Insulator 477) Knee bolster
458) Internal spline 477) Laminated iron
039 478) Lining 498) L-head
479) Locking gear teeth 499) Lead
480) Low gear 500) Lag
481) Load 501) Lubricant
482) Lever 502) Linkage
483) Lubricant level 503) Lid
484) Leaf spring 504) Lead particles
485) Lower control arm 505) Low octane gasoline
486) Longitudinal torsion bar 506) Leaded gasoline
487) Load range 507) Light switch
488) Lower intake manifold 508) Lighting system
489) Low oil level sensor 509) Lead-acid battery
490) Low compression engine 510) Laminations
491) Length 511) Main bearing
492) Locating lug 512) Main bearing cap
493) Lock washer 513) Multi cylinder engine
494) Lock nut 514) Mark
495) Lifter (tappet) 515) Minor thrust face
496) Lift 516) Major thrust face
497) Low speed engine 517) Manufacturers mark
040