Normans saxons danes

Continue This article is about historical events in Anglo-Saxon England. For early stages of this history, see the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. For Anglo-Saxon culture and society see Anglo-Saxons. For an academic journal, see Anglo-Saxon England (magazine). The history of England since the 5th and 11th edi-year history of the It consisted of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until 927, when King Æthelstan (927–939) united him as England. It became part of the short-lived North Sea Empire Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway in the 11th century. Anglo-Saxon members of Germanic-speaking groups who moved to the southern half of the UK island from nearby north-west Europe. Anglo-Saxon history thus begins during the period of sub-Roman Britain after the end of Roman control, a century (conventionally identified as the seven main kingdoms: , , East Anglia, Essex, , Sussex and ), their Christianity during the 7th and ending the Normandy conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066. Anglo-Saxon identity survived even after the conquest of Norman,[1] became known as the English under Normandy rule, and through social and cultural integration with the Celts, the Danes and Normans became modern English people. Terminology Bede completed his book Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English) around 731. Thus the term for English (Latin: gens Anglorum; Anglo-Saxon: Angelcynn) was at the time used to distinguish Germanic groups in Britain from those on the continent (Old Saxony in northern Germany). [1] [a] The term Anglo-Saxon came into use in the 8th century. Historian James Campbell suggested that it wasn't until the late Anglo-Saxon period that England could be described as a nation state. [2] It is certain that the concept of Englishness has evolved only very slowly. [3] [4] Historical context Main articles: Sub-Roman Britain and the end of Roman rule in Britain As The Roman occupation of Britain comes to an end, Constantine III withdrew the remains of the army in response to the Germanic invasion of Gaul with the passage of the Rhine in December 406. [5] [6] Roman-British leaders faced a growing security challenge from naval raids, in particular picts on the east coast of England. [7] adopted by Roman-British leaders was to ask for the help of Anglo-Saxon mercenaries (known as foederati) to whom they sent territory. [7] [8] In about 442 Anglo-Saxons mutinied, apparently because they were not paid. [9] The Roman- British responded by appealing to the Roman commander of the Western Empire, Aëtius, for help (a document known as the Moaning of the British), although Honorius, the Western Roman emperor, wrote to the British civitas or about 410 telling them to look at their own defenses. [10] [11] [12] [13] This was followed by several years of fighting between the British and the Anglo-Saxons. [14] The fighting continued until around 500, when, at the Battle of Mount Badon, the British inflicted heavy defeat on the Anglo-Saxons. [15] Migration and creation of kingdoms (400-600) Main articles: Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain and See also: Migration period 2. It is believed that the oldest Germanic visitors were eight cohorts of Batavians connected to the 14th [16] [17] [18] There is a recent hypothesis that some of the original tribes identified by the Romans as British may have been speakers of the Germanic language, but most scholars disagree with this due to the lack of recording of local languages in Roman artifacts. [19] [20] [21] It was quite common for Rome to swell its legions with foederati recruited from the German homeland. [22] This practice has extended to the army serving in Britain and the graves of these mercenaries, together with their families, can be identified in Roman cemeteries during this period. [23] Migration continued with the departure of the Roman army when the Anglo-Saxons were recruited to defend Britain; and also during the period of the Anglo-Saxon first uprising in 442. [24] If the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is to be believed, the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that eventually merged to become England were founded when a small fleet of three or five ship invaders arrived at different points around the coast of England to combat sub-Roman British, and conquered their lands. [25] The language of migrants, , came over the next few centuries to prevail throughout what is now England, at the expense of British Celtic and British Latin. Map of British ossues in the 6th century In the same period there has been a migration of Britons to the Arms Peninsula (Brittany and Normandy in the modern-day initially around 383 during roman rule, but also c. 460 and in the 540. 460s migration is thought to be a response to the fighting during the Anglo-Saxon revolt between about 450 to 500, as well as migration to Britonia (modern Galicia, in northwestern Spain) around the same time. [26] Historian Peter Hunter-Blair explained what is now seen as a traditional view of Anglo-Saxon arrival in Britain. [27] He proposed mass immigration, with the proceeds of fighting and managing sub-Roman Britons from their lands and into the western limbs of the islands, and into the Breton and Iberian peninsulas. [28] This view is based on sources such as Bede, who mentions Britons who have been killed or go into eternal non-resution. [29] According to Härke, there is a more modern view of coexistence between The British and the Anglo-Saxons. [30] [31] [32] He suggests that several modern archaeologists now re-evaluate the invasion model, and have developed a co-existence model largely based on the laws of Ine. The laws contain several clauses that provide six different wergild levels for Britons, four of which are lower than freeman's. [33] Although it was possible for Britons to be rich free in an Anglo-Saxon society, they generally appear to be in a lower position than the Anglo-Saxons. [32] [33] Discussions and analyses are still ongoing on the size of migration and whether it was the small elite Group of Anglo-Saxons that came and took over the leadership of the country, or the mass migration of people who had overwhelmed the British. [34] [35] [36] [37] The emerging view is that there could be two scenarios, with large-scale migration and demographic changes in key areas of settlement and elite dominance in peripheral regions. [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] South Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing the division into several small kingdoms according to Gildas, the initial vigorous British resistance led by a man named Ambrosius Aurelianus,[46] since then victory has fluctuated between the two nations. Gildas records the final victory of the British at the Battle of Mount Badon in c. 500, and this could mark the point at which Anglo-Saxon migration was temporarily stemmed. [15] Gildas said that this battle was forty-four years and one month after the arrival of the Sasov, and was also the year of his birth. [15] He said a time of great prosperity followed. [15] But despite the calm, the Anglo-Saxons took control of Sussex, Kent, East Anglia and parts of Yorkshire; while the Western Saxons established the Kingdom of under Cerdic, around 520. [47] It was supposed to be 50 years before the Anglo-Saxons made further significant progress. [47] In the meantime, the British have exhausted themselves from the civil war, internal disputes and general for Gildas' book De Excidio Britanniae (Ruin of Britain). [48] The next major campaign against the British was in 577, led by Ceawlin, king of Wessex, whose campaigns managed to take Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath (known as the Battle of Dyrham). [47] [49] [50] This extension of Wessex came to an abrupt end when the Anglo-Saxons began to fight each other and resulted in Ceawlin retreating to its original territory. He was then replaced by Ceol (who was perhaps his nephew). Ceawlin was killed the following year, but the anals don't specify whom. [51] [52] Cirencester subsequently became an Anglo-Saxon kingdom led by the Mercians and not by Wessex. [53] Heptarchy and Christianity (7th and 8th Centuries) Main articles: Northumbria, Mercia, Offa of Mercia, Heptarchy and Christianity of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms Until 600, a new order of kingdoms and subcorpocos was developed. The medieval historian Henry of Huntingdon conceived the idea of heptarchy, which consisted of seven major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (Heptarchy a literal translation from Greek: hept – seven; arks – rule). [54] Anglo-Saxon England heptarches Anglo-Saxon and United Kingdom c. 800 The four main kingdoms in Anglo-Saxon England were: East Anglia Mercia Northumbria, including and Wessex Minor Kingdom: Essex Kent Sussex Other minor kingdoms and territories Haestingas Kingdom of Iclingas, Precursor of the State of Mercia , (Wihtwara) Lindsey Magonsæte Meonwara, Meon Valley area Hampshire Pecsæte Tomsæte Wreocensæte At the end of 6 May 2004, the Commission decided not to opaquely discuss the situation. Æthelberht from Kent, whose land has spread north to the River Humber. [55] In the early years of the 7th [56] After the death of Æthelberht in 616, Rædwald from East Anglia became the most powerful leader south of the Humber. [56] Aldfrith Silver Coin of Northumbria (686-705). REVERSE: +AldFRIdUS, pellet in anulet; RUB: A lion with a fork tail standing on the left After the death of Northumbria's Æthelfrith, Rædwald provided military assistance to Deiran Edwin in his battle to take over the two dynasties of Deira and Bernicia in the united kingdom of Northumbria. [56] After Rædwald's death, Edwin was able to pursue a grand plan to expand Northumbrian power. [56] The growing power of Edwin of Northumbria forced the Anglo-Saxon Mercians under Pentpendo into an alliance with King Cadwallon of Wales and Cadfan of Gwynedd, and together they invaded Edwin's land and defeated him and killed him at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in 633. [57] [58] Their success was short-lived, as Oswald (one of the sons of the late King Northumbria, Æthelfrith) defeated and killed Cadwallon at Heavenfield near Hexham. [59] For less than Penda once again waged war against Northumbria, and killed Oswald at the Battle of Maserfield in 642. [60] His brother Oswiu was persecuted to the northern extremes of his kingdom. [60] [61] However, Oswiu killed Penda shortly afterwards and Mercia spent the rest of the 7th [60] War reaching its climax during the reign of Offa of Mercia,[60], which is commemorated for the construction of the 150-mile-long rake that formed the Wales/England border. [62] It is unclear whether this was a boundary or a defensive position. [62] The rise of the Mercians ended in 825 when they were duly beaten under Beornwulf at the Battle of Ellendun Egbert of Wessex. [63] Christianity was introduced to the British Isles during the Roman occupation. [64] Early Christian Berber author, Tertullian, writing in 3. In 313, the Roman Emperor Constantine (306–337) granted an official tolerance for Christianity with a Milanese ediect. [66] Then, during the reign of Emperor Teodosius the Great (378–395), Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. [67] Escomb Church, the restored Anglo-Saxon church of the 7th century. Church architecture and artifacts are a useful source of historical information. It is not entirely clear how many Britons would have been Christians when the pagan Anglo-Saxons arrived. [68] [69] In 431, Pope Celestine I tried to evangelise the Irish. [70] However, it was St. Patrick who is credited with converting the Irish en-masse. [70] Christian Ireland then became the evangelist remnant of the British Isles and Columba was sent to establish a religious community in Iona off the west coast of Scotland. [71] Then Aidan was sent from Iona to set his see in Northumbria, in Lindisfarne, between 635-651. [72] Therefore Northumbria was converted into a Celtic (Irish) church. [72] Bede is very unsatisfactory about Aboriginal British clergy: in his Historia Church complains about their inexcusable crimes, and that they did not preach faith angles or Saxons. [73] Pope Gregory sent Augustine in 597 to convert Anglo-Saxons, but Bede says that British clergy refused to help Augustine in his mission. [74] [75] Despite Bede's complaints, it is now assumed that the British played an important role in the transformation of the Anglo-Saxons. [76] After arriving in the South East of England in 597, Augustine received land from King Æthelberhta of Kent for the construction of the church; so in 597 Augustine built a church and founded See in . [77] Æthelberht was baptized in 601, and he then continued his mission to convert English. [78] Most of Northern and Eastern England has already been evangelised by the Irish Church. However, Sussex and the Isle of Wight remained particularly Until the arrival of St Wilfrid, the exiled Archbishop of York, who converted Sussex around 681 and the Isle of Wight in 683. [79] [80] [81] Whitby Abbey remains unclear what conversion actually means. Church writers tended to declare the territory converted simply because the local king agreed to be baptized, regardless of whether he actually accepted Christian practices; regardless of whether the general population of his kingdom did so. [82] When churches were built, they tended to include pagan as well as Christian symbols, as demonstrated by the attempt to reach out to pagan Anglo-Saxons, instead of demonstrating that they had already been converted. [83] [84] Even after Christianity was founded in all Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, there was friction between followers of Roman rites and Irish rites, especially on the day Easter fell and the way monks cut their hair. [85] In 664, a conference was held in Whitby Abbey (known as the Whitby Synod) to decide on this matter; Saint Wilfrid was an advocate of Roman rites and bishop of Colmán for Irish ceremonies. [86] Wilfrid's argument won the day and Colmán and his side returned to Ireland in bitter disappointment. [86] Roman rites were accepted by the Church of England, although they were not universally accepted by the Church of Ireland until Henry II of England invaded Ireland in the 12th [86] [87] Viking Challenge and the rise of Wessex (9th century) Main articles: , Viking Age and Alfred the Great Map of England in 878 showing the extent of Danelaw among the 8th [88] These robbers came to be known as vikings; the name is believed to come from Scandinavia, where the Vikings come from. [89] [90] The first raids in the British Isles were at the end of the 8th [89] [91] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that the holy island of Lindisfarne was released in 793. [92] The raids then practically stopped for about 40 years; but in about 835, it began to become more regular. [93] Walled defenses around the burgh. Alfred's Capital, Winchester. Sasian and medieval works on Roman foundations. [94] In the 1980s, instead of raids, the Danes mounted the invasion in its entirety. In 865 came an expanded army, which the Anglo-Saxons described as the Great Pagan Army. This was reinforced in 871 by the Great Summer Army. [93] Within ten years almost all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms fell to the invaders: Northumbria in 867, East Anglia in 869 and almost all of Mercia in 874-77. [93] The Kingdom, learning centres, archives and churches all fell before the onslaught of the Danes invasion. Kingdom of Wessex was able to survive. [93] In March 878, the Anglo-Saxon King of Wessex, Alfred, with several men, built a fortress in Athelney, hidden deep in the swamps of . [95] He used it as a base from which the Harry Vikings. In May 878, he put together an army made up of the populations of Somerset, and Hampshire, which defeated the Viking Army at the Battle of Edington. [95] The Vikings retreated to their fortress and Alfred besieged it. [95] Finally, the Danes capitulated and their leader Guthrum agreed to resign from Wessex and be baptized. The ceremony was completed a few days later in Wedmore. [95] [96] This was followed by the Peace Treaty between Alfred and Guthrum, which had various provisions, including defining the boundaries of the area to be ruled by the Danes (which became known as Danelaw) and the Wessex borders. [97] The Kingdom of Wessex controlled part of the Midlands and the whole south (except Cornwall, which was still held by the British), while the Danes held East Anglia and the north. [98] After his victory in Edington and the resulting peace treaty, Alfred was in love with the transformation of his Kingdom of Wessex into a full-time company. [99] He built the Navy, reorganized the army and established a system of fortified cities known as burhs. He mainly used old Roman cities for his burhs, as he was able to restore and strengthen their existing fortifications. [99] To maintain the burhs, and a permanent army, he established a tax system known as . [100] These burhs (or burghs) functioned as defensive structures. The Vikings were then able to cross large parts of Wessex: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that the Danish raid party was defeated when it attempted to attack the Chichester burh. [101] [102] Although burhs were primarily designed as defence structures, they were also trading centres that attracted traders and markets to a safe harbour and provided a safe place for king's money men and mints. [103] A new wave of Danish invasions began in 891,[104] beginning a war that lasted more than three years. [105] [106] Alfred's new defense system worked, however, and eventually it wore the Danes down: they gave up and scattered in mid-896. [106] Alfred is remembered as a literate king. He or his court will commission the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was written in Old English (rather than in Latin, the language of European anals). [107] Alfredo's own literary output was mainly translations, but he also wrote introductions and altered manuscripts. [107] [108] Unification of English (10th century) Edgar's Stamping Main Articles: Æthelstan and Edgar of England In the years 874–879 in the western half of Mercie ruled by Ceowulf II, who was the successor to Æthelred. [109] Alfred the Great Wessex styled himself king of the Anglo-Saxons of about 886. Inches Æthelred married Alfred's daughter Æthelflæd. [109] After Alfred's death in 899, he was replaced by his son Edward the Elder. [110] Edward, together with Alfred's grandsons Æthelstan, Edmund I and Eadred, continued their policy of resistance to the Vikings. [111] When Æthelred died in 911, his widow served mercian province called Lady of the Mercians. [109] As commander of the Mercian army, she worked with her brother Edward the Elder to recover mercian countries under Danish control. [109] Edward and his successors expanded Alfred's network of fortified burhs, a key element of their strategy, allowing them to continue the offensive. [111] [112] Edward recapified Essex in 913. Edward's son Æthelstan annexed Northumbria and forced the Kings of Wales to submit; at the Battle of Brunanbury in 937, he defeated an alliance of Scots, Danes and Vikings to become king of all of England. [111] [113] Along with the British and settled Danes, some of the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms did not like that ruled by Wessex. As a result, the death of King Wessex would be followed by a riot, particularly in Northumbria. [111] Alfred's great-grandchand Edgar, who came to the throne in 959, was officially crowned King of England and Emperor of Britain in Bath in 973. [114] EADGAR REX ANGLORUM (Edgar, King of English) was written for coinage. Edgar's coronation, the first of its kind in England, was a spectacular affair and many of its rituals and words could still be seen at the coronation of Elizabeth II. [115] The presence of Danish and northern settlers in danelaw had a lasting impact; people there saw themselves as armies a hundred years after settlement:[116] King Edgar passed a law in 962 that was supposed to include the people of Northumbria, and thus dealt with Earl Olac and all the armies that live in this earldom. [116] There are more than 3 000 words in modern English with Scandinavian roots[117][118] and more than 1 500 place names in England are of Scandinavian origin; for example, topographical names such as Howe, and Howe, North Yorkshire are derived from the old Nordic word haugr, meaning hill, knoll or hill. [118] [119] In archaeology and other academic contexts, the term Anglo-Scandinavian is often used for Scandinavian culture in England. England Under the Danes and Norman Conquest (978-1066) Viking longboat replica in Ramsgate, Kent Edgar died in 975, sixteen years after winning the throne while still in his early thirties. Some tycoons supported the succession of his younger son, Æthelred, but his older half-brother Edward was elected, aged about twelve. His reign was marked by disorder, and three years later, in 978, he was murdered by some of his half- brother's holders. [120] Æthelred succeeded, and although it ruled for In the 1990s, one of the longest reigns in English history, he earned the name Æthelred Unprepared, as it turned out to be one of the most disastrous kings of England. [121] William of Malmesbury, writing in his chronicle of the Kings of England about a century later, was scathing in his criticism of Æthelred, saying that he occupied the kingdom rather than governed it. [122] Just as Æthelred was crowned, King Gormsson of Denmark tried to force Christianity into his domain. [123] Many of his subjects disliked this idea and shortly before 988, Swein, his son, drove his father out of the kingdom. [123] The rebels, fired at home, probably formed the first wave of airstrikes on the English coast. [123] The insurgents did so well in their raids that the Danish kings decided to take over the campaign themselves. [124] In 991 the Vikings sacked Ipswich and their fleet landed near Maldon, Essex. [124] The Danes demanded that the English pay a ransom, but the English commander, Byrhtnoth, refused; was killed in the subsequent Battle of Maldon, and the English were easily defeated. [124] Since then, vikings seem to have raids anywhere on people; were contempt for the lack of resistance on the part of the English. Even alfredian systems burhs failed. [125] It appears that Æthelred has just hidden himself, out of the reach of the robbers. [125] The payment of Danegeld to the 980s kings of Wessex had a strong grip on minting the empire. It is believed there were about 300 moneyers, and 60 mints, across the country. [126] Every five or six years, coinage in circulation would cease to be legal tender and new coins would be issued. [126] The currency control system across the country was very sophisticated; this allowed the king to raise large sums of money if necessary. [127] [128] The need actually arose after the Battle of Maldon, as Æthelred decided that, rather than fighting, it would pay ransom to the Danes in a system known as Danegeld. [129] A peace treaty was drawn up as part of the ransom to stop the airstrikes. However, rather than buy the Vikings off, the payment to Danegeld only encouraged them to come back for more. [130] The Dukes of Normandy were quite happy for these Danish adventurers to use their ports for raids on the English coast. As a result, courts in England and Normandy have become increasingly hostile to each other. [123] Finally, Æthelred sought a contract with the Normans, and ended up marrying Emma, daughter of Richard I, Duke of Normandy in the spring of 1002, which was seen as an attempt to break the connection between the robbers and Normandy. [125] [131] Then, on St. Brice's Day in November 1002, Danes living in England were killed at the behest of Æthelred. [132] The rise of the Estate of Cnut Cnuta. The Norwegian countries of Jemtland, Herjedalen, Idre and Særna are not included in this map. Inches Sven Forkbeard, king of Denmark, brought the Danish fleet to Sandwich, Kent. From there, he went north to Danelaw, where locals immediately agreed to support him. He then struck south and forced Æthelred into exile in Normandy (1013-1014). However, on February 3, 1014, Sven died suddenly. [133] Capitalizing on his death, Æthelred returned to England and drove Sven's son, Cnut, back to Denmark, forcing him to leave his allies in the process. [133] In 1015, Cnut launched a new campaign against England. [133] Edmund fell out with his father, Æthelred, and struck on his own. [134] Some English leaders decided to support Cnut, so Æthelred eventually retreated to London. [134] Prior to his involvement in the Danish army, Æthelred died and was replaced by Edmund. [134] The Danish Army surrounded and besieged London, but Edmund was able to escape and 20th-century army loyalists. [134] Edmund's army was directed by the Danes, but success was short-lived: in the Battle of Ashingdon, the Danes were victorious, and many English leaders were killed. [134] Cnut and Edmund agreed to divide the kingdom into two parts, with Edmund ruling Wessex and Cnut the rest. [134] [135] In 1017 Edmund died in mysterious circumstances, presumably murdered by Cnut or his followers, and the English Council (witan) confirmed Cnuta as king of the whole of England. [134] Cnut divided England into earldoms: most of them were assigned to noblemen of Danish descent, but he made the Englishman count of Wessex. The man he named was Godwin, who eventually became part of the extended royal family when he married the king's sister-in-law. [136] In the summer of 1017, Cnut sent for Æthelred's widow, Emma, with the intention of marrying her. [137] Emma appears to have agreed to wed the King on the condition that she restricts English heritage to children born out of their union. [138] Cnut already had a wife, known as Ælfgifu, from Northampton, who gave birth to two sons, Svein and Harold Harefoot. [138] However, the Church appears to have regarded Ælfgif as cnut's co-bin and not his wife. [138] In addition to the two sons he had with Ælfgifu, he had another son with Emma, who was named Harthacnut. [138] [139] When Cnut's brother, Harald II, King of Denmark, died in 1018, Cnut went to Denmark to secure this empire. Two years later, Cnut brought Norway under his control, and gave Ælfgifu and their son Svein a job to manage it. [139] Edward became King One of the outcomes of Cnut's marriage to Emma was to hasten the inheritance crisis after his death in 1035,[139] as the throne was disputed between Cnut's son, Harald Harefoot, and Emma's son, Harthacnut. [140] Emma supported her son Cnut, Harthacnut, rather than son Æthelred. [141] Her son Edward made a failed raid on , and his brother Alfred was murdered on an expedition to England in 1036. [141] fled to Brugg when Harald Harefoot became King of England, but when he died in 1040 Harthacnut was able to take over as king. [140] Harthacnut quickly developed a reputation for iering high taxes on England. [140] He became so unpopular that Edward was invited to return from exile in Normandy to be recognized as the heir to Harthacnut,[141][142] and when Harthacnut died suddenly in 1042 (presumably murdered), Edward (known to offspring as Edward confessor) became king. [141] Edward was supported by Earl Godwin of Wessex and married the Earl's daughter. However, this arrangement is considered expediant as Godwin was involved in the murder of Alfred, the king's brother. In 1051, one of Edward's esturs, Eustace, came to stay in Dover; The men from Dover objected and killed some of Eustace's men. [141] When Godwin refused to punish them, the king, who had been dissatisfied with the Gods for some time, summoned them to justice. Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury, was chosen to deliver messages to Godwin and his family. [143] Godwins fled before facing trial. [143] Norman's accounts suggest that at this time Edward offered succession to his cousin, William (Duke) of Normandy (also known as William the Conqueror, William, or William I), although this is unlikely, given that joining the Anglo-Saxon king was an election, not an inheritance – a fact that Edward would surely have known was chosen by Witenagemot himself. Godwins, who had previously fled, threatened to invade England. Edward said he wanted to fight, but at the Great Council meeting in Westminster Earl Godwin laid down all his weapons and asked the King to cleanse himself of all crimes. [144] King and Godwin were reconciled,[144] and the Godwins thus became the most powerful family in England after the King. [145] [146] After Godwin's death in 1053, his son Harold managed to reach County Wessex; Harold's brothers Gyrth, Leofwine and Tostig were given East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. [145] Northumbrians disliked Tostig for his harsh behavior, and he was expelled into exile in Flanders, in the process of falling out with his brother Harold, who supported the king's line in supporting Northumbrians. [147] [148] Death of Edward the confessant of St Bene't's Church of , the oldest former building in Cambridgeshire; its tower was built in the late Anglo-Saxon period. On December 26, 1065, Edward was ill. [148] He went to bed and fell into a coma; at one point he woke up and turned to Harold Godwinson and asked him to protect the Queen and the Kingdom. [149] [150] On 5 January 1066 Edward the confessant died and Harold was declared king. The following day, January 6, 1066, Edward was buried and Harold crowned. [150] [151] Although Harold Godwinson grabbed the Crown of England, others claimed William, Duke of Normandy, who was a cousin of Edward the confessor through his aunt, Emma of Normandy. It is believed that Edward promised the crown to William. [141] Harold Godwinson agreed to support William's request after he was imprisoned in Normandy, Guy of Ponthieu. William demanded and received Harold's release, then during his time under William's protection normani claimed that Harold swore a solemn oath of loyalty to William. [153] Harald Hardrada (The Ruthless) of Norway was also entitled to England through Cnut and his successors. [152] He had another claim based on a pact between Harthacnut, king of Denmark (Cnut's son) and Magnus, King of Norway. [152] Tostig, Harold's estranged brother, was the first to move; According to medieval historian Orderic Vitalis, he traveled to Normandy to ask for the help of William, Duke of Normandy, later to be known as William the Conqueror. [152] [153] [154] William was not ready to get involved, so Tostig sailed from the Cotentin Peninsula, but ended up in Norway because of the storms, where he successfully enlisted the help of Harald Hardrad. [154] [155] The Anglo Saxon Chronicle has a different version of the story, with Tostig plots on the Isle of Wight in May 1066, then ravages the English coast, before arriving in Sandwich, Kent. [151] [155] The Tostig Sandwich is said to enlist and press ganged sailors before sailing north, where after battling some of the northern counts and also visiting Scotland, they eventually joined Hardrada (possibly in Scotland or at the mouth of the River Tyne). [151] [155] The Battle of Fulford and the aftermath according to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle (Manuscripts D and E) Tostig became Hadrada vassal, and then 300 or so longships sailed into the mouth of the Humber filling the English fleet in the River Swale and then landed at Riccall on the Ouse on 24 September. [155] [156] They marched towards York, where they were confronted at the Fulford Gate by English forces under the command of the Northern Counts, Edwin and Morcaro; The Battle of Fulford Gate, which was one of the bloodiest battles of the Middle Ages, ensued on September 20. [157] English forces were routed even though Edwin and Morcar fled. The winners entered the city of York, exchanged hostages and were released. [158] Hearing the news while in London, Harold Godwinson force-marched the second English Army tadcaster on the night of the 24th, and after catching Harald Hardrad by surprise on the morning of 25 September, Harold achieved an overall victory over the Scandinavian hordes after a two-day engagement at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. [159] Harold gave a quarter of the survivors, allowing them to leave on 20 ships. [159] William of Normandy Sails for England section of the Bayeux Tapestries showing Harold was killed in Hastings Harold would have been his victory at Stamford Bridge on the night of 26[160] Harold marched his army back to the south coast, where he met William's army, in what is now called the Battle of Hastings. [161] Harold was killed when he fought and lost the Battle of Hastings on 14 December [162] the Battle of Hastings virtually destroyed the Godwin dynasty. Harold and his brothers Gyrth and Leofwine were dead on the battlefield, as were their uncle Ælfwig, the abbot of Newminster. Tostig was killed at Stamford Bridge. Wulfnoth was a hostage to William the Conqueror. God's women who stayed were either dead or childless. [163] William marched through London. The leaders of the city handed the kingdom over to him, and he was crowned in Westminster Abbey, Edward confessor's new church, on Christmas Eve 1066. [164] It took William another ten years to consolidate his kingdom, during which any opposition was mercilessly suppressed; In a particularly brutal process known as Harrying of the North, William gave the order to lay waste to the north and burn all cattle, crops and agricultural equipment and poison the land. [165] According to Orderic Vitalis, an Anglo-Norman chronicler, more than a hundred thousand people have died of starvation. [166] Yield-based data for the estimate that england's population in 1086 was about 2.25 million, so the number of hundreds of thousands of deaths as a result of starvation would be a huge proportion (about one in 20) of the population. [167] At the time of William's death in 1087, it was estimated that only about 8 per cent of the land was under Anglo-Saxon control. [164] Almost all Anglo-Saxon cathedrals and abbeys of any banknote were demolished and replaced with Normandy architecture by 1200. [168] See also the Anglo-Saxon Portal of England Midlife Portal Anglo- Saxon architecture Anglo-Saxon monarchs Anglo-Saxon warfare Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England Kingdom of Cornwall Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England Staffordshire Hoard Timeline of Anglo-Saxon England Notes ^ Throughout this article, Anglo-Saxon is used for Saxon, Angle, Jute or Frisian, unless it is point-specific; Anglo-Saxon is used when culture is meant unlike any ethnicity. Citations ^ and b Higham, Nicholas J., and Martin J. Ryan. The Anglo-Saxon world. Yale University Press, 2013. p. 7 – 19 ^ Campbell. Anglo-Saxon state. p. 10 ^ Ward-Perkins, Bryan (2000). Why didn't the Anglo-Saxons become more British?. English Historical Review. 115 (462): 513-33. doi:10.1093/ehr/115.462.513. ^ Hills, C. (2003) Origin of English Duckworth, London. ISBN 0-7156-3191-8, p. 67 ^ Jones. The end of Roman Britain: Military security. p. 164 -68. The author addresses the shortcomings of The Roman army in Britain and the reasons why they eventually left. ^ Jones. The end of Roman Britain. p. 246. Roman Britain's death woes began on the last day of December 406, when Alans, Vandals, and Sueves crossed the Rhine and began the invasion of Galie ^ and b Morris. Arthur's age. p. 56-62. Picts and Saxons. ^ Myres. English settlements. p. 14. Talk about Gildas links to the arrival of three kechi (ships),... this was the number of shipping costs that led to foedus or contract settlement. Gildas also uses in the right sense technical terms, annona, epimenia, hospites, which most likely come from official documents relating to billeting and the supply of barbaric foederati. ^ Morris. Arthur's age. p. 75. – Gildas: ... The feds complained that their monthly deliveries were underpayed... - All major cities fell to their enemy.... ^ Gildas.The Ruin of Britain II.20 . What Gildas had to say about the letter to Aëtius. ^ Dark. Britain and the end of the Roman Empire. p. 29 April 2004 Referring to gildas text about the letter: British ... still felt it was possible to appeal to Aetius, a Roman military official in Gaul in the mid-440s ^ Dark. Britain and the end of the Roman Empire. p. 29 April 2004 Both Zosimus and Gildas refer to the 'Rescript of Honorius', a letter in which the Western Roman emperor told British civitas to see in his own defense. ^ Esmonde Cleary. The end of Roman Britain. p. 137 -38. The author suggests that the Rescript of Honorius may be for a place in southern Italy rather than Britain, and that chronology is wrong ^ ^ Morris. Arthur's age. Chapter 6. War ^ and b c d Gildas. The collapse of Britain. II.26 - Mount Badon is referred to as Bath-Hill in this translation of gildas text. ^ and b Myers, English settlements, Chapter 4: Roman British Hinterland and Saan Coast. Myers identifies the presence of the German people in Britain during the Roman occupation. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book LX, p417. While these events were happening in the city, Aulus Plautius, a senator of great notoriety, did campaign against Britain; for a certain Bericus who was driven from the island as a result of the uprising, he persuaded Claudius to send strength there. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, book LX p. 419.Thence Brits went to the River Thames in a place where it empties into the ocean and at a flood-tide form a lake. This was easily exceeded because they knew where the solid soil and simple passages in the region were located; but the Romans in trying to follow them were not so successful. However, the Germans swam over again and some others got over the bridge a little up-stream, after which they attacked the barbarians from several sides at once and cut many of them. ^ Forster et al. MtDNA Markers for Celtic and Germanic language in the British Isles of Jones. Traces of ancestors: a study in honor of Colin Renfrew. p. 99-111 Obtained. November 26, 2011 ^ Sally Thomason. Language log Nutty Journalists' (and others') Language Theories. Load. A gente Anglorum appellatur: The Evidence of Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum for the Replacement of Roman Names by English Ones During the Early Anglo-Saxon Period, in words in dictionaries and history: Essays in honor of R. W. McConchie, ed. Olga Timofeeva and Tanje Säily, Terminology and Lexicography Research and Practice, 14 (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2011), p. 219-31 (p. 220-21). ^ Ward-Perkins. The fall of Rome: and the end of civilization Especially p. 38 – 39 ^ Welch, Anglo-Saxon England, Chapter 8: From Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England ^ Myers. English Settlements, Chapter 5: Sasi, angles and jute on the Sas coast ^ Jones. The end of Roman Britain. p. 71. - .. repeated records of the invasion of ships in the Chronicle (three ships hengestu and horsy; three ships Aella; five ships Cerdic and ; two ships of the port; three ships Stuf and Wihtgar), which are drawn from preliteretic traditions including false eponyms and duplicates, could be considered a poetic convention. ^ and b Morris, Age of Arthur, Ch.14:Brittanny ^ Bell-Fialkoff / Bell: The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe, p. 303. That is why many scholars still underwrite the traditional view that combined archaeological, documentary and linguistic evidence suggests that a significant number of Anglo-Saxons settled in southern and eastern England. ^ Hunter-Blair, Roman Britain and Early England In particular Chapter 8: Age of Invasion ^ Bede. Ecclesiastical history of English people I.15. ^ Welch, Anglo-Saxon England. Complete analysis of Anglo-Saxon archaeology. Discussion of where the settlers came from by comparing pottery with those found in the area of origin in Germany. Funeral habits and types of buildings. ^ Myers, English Settlements, p. 24; Speaking of Anglo-Saxon archaeology: ... distribution maps show in many areas of Anglo-Saxon shows a pronounced tendency to follow the Romanesque-British pattern, in a way that indicates a considerable degree of time, as well as spatial overlap. ^ and b Heinrich Härke. Ethnicity and structures in Hines. Anglo-Saxons p. 148-49^ a b Attenborough. The laws of the first King of England. p. 33–61 ^ Jones, End of Roman Britain, Ch. 1: Population and invasion; especially p. 11-12: On the contrary, some scholars reduce the number of Anglo-Saxon attackers to a small, strong elite of only a few thousand attackers. ^ Welch, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 11: Some archaeologists believe that very few immigrants... were involved in the creation of Anglo-Saxon England ... describes the settlement of Sasian mercenaries in the eastern part of the country, their strengthening and subsequent successful uprising ... suggests more than just a handful of military adventurers. Bede felt safe in his belief that he was not of British descent... Next, his list of three principled nations who migrated here... reflected in the archaeological record. ^ Bell, The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe, p. 303: As regards migrants, three types of hypotheses have been advanced. Either it was a combative elite, few in numbers, but the dominant force of arms; or were farmers who were mostly interested in finding good agricultural land; or were refugees fleeing unresolved conditions in their homeland. Or it could be any combination of them. ^ Pattison, Is it necessary to assume an apartheid-like social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England?' in Proceedings of the Royal Society B 2008 275, p. 2423–29; (a) Integration vs Apartheid in post-Roman Britain in human biology 2011 83, p. 715-33: Opinions differ as to whether there was a substantial Germanic invasion or only a relatively small number came to Britain during this period. Contrary to the premise of limited intermartal behaviour in the apartheid simulation, there is evidence that there has been a significant mix between the British and Germanic peoples and that early legislation, such as the King Ine of Wessex Codes, may have deliberately encouraged such mixing. ^ Stefan Burmeister, Archaeology and Migration (2000): ... Immigration at the heart of anglo-Saxon settlements does not seem to be appropriately described when it comes to the elite-dominance model. For all the performances, the settlement was made by a small, agriculture-oriented kinship group. This process more closely corresponds to the classic model of the settler. The absence of the first evidence of a socially defined elite underscores the assumption that such an elite did not play a significant role. Lavish burials, as they are well known from Denmark do not have counterparts in England until the 6th century. At best, the elite model of dominance could be applied in peripheral areas of the settlement territory, where it could be supported by male-dominated immigration and the existence of hybrid cultural forms. ^ Dark, Ken R. (2003). Large population movements to and from Britain south of Hadrian's Wall in the fourth to sixth century AD (PDF). ^ Toby F. Martin, Cruciform Brooch and Anglo- Saxon England, Boydell and Brewer Press (2015), p. 174-178: large-scale migration seems highly likely, at least for East Anglia and parts of Lincolnshire... it excludes the elite dominance model in its clearest interpretation. ^ Catherine Hills, Anglo-Saxon Migration: Archaeological Case Study of Disruption, in Migration and Disruption, ed. Brenda J. Baker and Takeyuki Tsuda, p. 45-48 Coates, Richard. Celtic whispers: rethinking the problems of the relationship between Brittonic and Old English. ^ Härke, Heinrich. Anglo-Saxon immigration and ethnogenesis. Medieval Archaeology 55.1 (2011): 1–28. ^ Kortlandt, Frederik (2018). Relative Chronology (PDF). ^ Bethany Fox, P-Celtic site Names of north-east England and south east Scotland (2007): The most obvious interpretation of the data in this study is the synthesis of mass migration and elite-takeover models. ^ Gildas. The collapse of Britain. II.25 -With their unnumoured promises to burden the sky that they might not be brought to complete destruction, they took up arms under the leadership of Ambrosius Aurelianus, a humble man who was then alone in the turmoil of this troubled period, accidentally staying alive. ^ and b c Morris, Age of Arthur, Chapter 16: English Conquest ^ Gildas.The Ruin of Britain I.1. ^ Snyder.The British. p. 85 ^ Stenton. Anglo-Saxon England. p. 29 April 2004 ^ Stenton. Anglo-Saxon England. p. 30 June 2004 ^ Morris. Arthur's age. p. 299^ Wood.The Domesday Quest. p. 47 –48 ^ Greenway, Historia Anglorum, p. lx– lxi. HA (Historia Anglorum) is the story of the unification of the English monarchy. To project such an interpretation requires Henry (of Huntingdon) to exercise firm control over his material. One of the products of this control was its creation of heptarchy, which survived as a concept of historical writing to our time. ^ Bede Church History of the English People, Tr. Shirley-Price, I.25^ and b c d Charles-Edwards After-Rome: Peoples and Kingdoms, p. 38–39 ^ Snyder, British, p. 176. ^ Bede, History of English, II.20 ^ Snyder, British, p. 177 ^ and b c d Snyder.The British. p. 178 ^ Snyder.The British. p. 212 ^ and b Snyder.The Britons.pp. 178-79 ^ Stenton. Anglo-Saxon England. p. 231 ^ Charles Thomas Christianity in Roman Britain at AD 500. p. 48 – 50: Saint Alban discusses in detail how when he lived and was agonizing, suggesting the state of Christianity in Roman Britain. The dates proposed for his martyrdom are 209 or 251-259 or c. 303. ^ Snyder.The British. p. 106–07 ^ Charles Thomas Christianity in Roman Kingdom at AD 500. p. 47 ^ R. M. Errington Roman Imperial Politics by Julian and Theodosius. Chapter VIII. Theodosius ^ Jones, The End of Roman Britain, p. 174–85: Religious beliefs and political loyalty. The author suggests that britons were supporters of Pelagiian crap, and that the number of Christians was higher than Gildas reports. ^ Snyder, British, 105.In 5. ^ and b Snyder, British, p. 116 – 25 ^ Charles-Edwards. After Rome: Society, community and identity. p. 97 ^ and b Charles-Edwards. After Rome: Conversion to Christianity. p. 132 ^ Bede, History of the English, I.22 ^ Bede, History Browse, II.2 ^ Charles-Edwards, After Rome: Conversion to Christianity, p. 128–29 ^ Snyder, British, p. 135–36 ^ Charles-Edwards, After Rome: Conversion to Christianity, p. 127 ^ Charles-Edwards, After Rome: Conversion to Christianity, p. 124 –39 ^ Charles-Edwards, After Rome: Conversion to Christianity, p. 104 ^ Bede, History of the English People, IV.13 and IV.16 ^ Kirby, Church of Saxony in Brandon. South Saska, p. 160-73. Kirby suggests there would already be Christian communities in Sussex. King Æthelwealh and his wife were already Christians, he was baptized in Mercia. The already existing converts, in Sussex, would have been evangelised by the Irish Church, and Bede and Eddius (Wilfred biographer) were indifferent to the Irish Church. It was also political to play the role of Wilfrid. ^ Charles-Edwards, After Rome: Conversion to Christianity, p. 126 ^ Blair. Church in Anglo-Saxon society. Ch.1. in particular p. 51–52^ Mayr-Harting. The advent of Christianity. p. 146. Speaking of Pope Gregory's politics, he said: .. The Anglo-Saxons should be guided to Christianity step by step. The old temples should now be kept for Christian worship; Christian worship services were to be accompanied by old cattle holidays. ^ Jennifer O'Reilly, After Rome: The Art of The Office, p. 144–48^ and b c Bede. History of the English, III.25 and III.26 ^ Barefoot. The English way to Rome. p. 30 ^ Sawyer, Oxford illustrated the history of the Vikings, p. 1. ^ and b Sawyer, Oxford illustrated the history of the Vikings, p. 2–3. ^ Standard English words that have Scandinavian etymology. Viking: Northern Pirate. Literally means a stream to live in. ^ Starkey, Monarchy, Chapter 6: Vikings ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 793.This year came a terrible front- warning over the landscape of Northumbrians, terrifying people most woefully: these were huge sheets of light rushing through the air, and a whirlwind, and fiery dragons flying through firmament. These huge tokens were soon followed by a great famine: and not long after, on the sixth day before the january ides of the same year, a horrific raid by pagans made a pitiful mess in the Church of God on holy island (Lindisfarne), rapine and slaughter. ^ and b c d Starkey, Monarchy, p. 51 ^ Starkey, Monarchy p. 65 ^ and b c d Asser, Alfred the Great, p. 84-85. ^ Asser, Alfred the Great, p. 22. ^ Medieval Sourcebook: Alfred and the Guthrum Peace ^ Wood, Domesday Quest, Chapter 9: Domesday Roots. Viking Impact ^ and b Starkey, Monarchy, p. 63 ^ Horspool, Alfred, p. 102. The stash was a bit like a tax - it was the number of men needed to maintain and defend space for the king. The Burghal stash defined the measurement as one stash that is equivalent to one man. Cabinets explains that for the maintenance and defense of acres the width of the wall, sixteen Necessary. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 894. ^ Starkey, Monarchy, p. 68-69. ^ Starkey, Monarchy, p. 64 ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 891 ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 891-896 ^ and b Horspool, Why Alfred burned cakes, Last War, p. 104–10. ^ and b Horspool, Why Alfred burned cakes, p. 10–12 ^ Asser, Alfred the Great, III p. 121 –60. Examples of king Alfred's writings ^ and b c d Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England, p. 123 ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 899 ^ and b c d Starkey, Monarchy, p. 71 ^ Welch, Late Anglo-Saxon England pp. 128–29 ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 937. ASC gives a description to build into battle and battle itself. Historians, however, disagreed on the accuracy of the date. ^ Starkey, Monarchy, p. 74 ^ Starkey, Monarchy, p. 76 ^ and b Woods, Domesday Quest, p. 107 – 08 ^ Viking Network: Standard English words that have Scandinavian etymology. ^ and b Crystal, Cambridge Encyclopedia of English, p. 25- 26. ^ Ordnance Survey: A Guide to the Scandinavian Origin of Place Names in Britain ^ Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 372-373 ^ Starkey, Monarchy, p. 76. The modern ascription 'Unprepared' comes from the Anglo-Saxon word unraed, meaning poorly instructed or instructed. ^ Malmesbury, Chronicle of the Kings of England, p. 165-66. In the incarnation of our Lord 979, Ethelred ... acquiring a kingdom, occupied rather than governed by it, for thirty-seven years. The career of his life is said to be cruel at the beginning, pathetic in the middle and shameful at the end. ^ and b c d Stenton. Anglo Saxon England. p. 375 ^ and b c Starkey, Monarchy, p. 79 ^ and b c Starkey, Monarchy, p. 80 ^ a b Wood, Domesday Quest, p. 124 ^ Campbell, Anglo Saxon State, p. 160. .. it must be accepted that the kings of the early eleventh century could receive larger sums in taxes than most of their medieval successors would. Numismatic evidence for the scale of the economy is very strong, partly because it shows how many coins have been hit, and also because it provides strong indications for large-scale foreign trade. ^ Wood, Domesday Quest, p. 125 ^ Stenton. Anglo-Saxon England. p. 376 ^ Stenton. Anglo-Saxon England. p. 377. A contract has been agreed.. Archbishop Sigeric of Canterbury and Ælfric and Æthelweardom, the ealdermen of two Western Saxon provinces. ^ Williams, Aethelred Unprepared, p. 54 ^ Williams, Æthelred Unprepared, p. 52 -53. ^ and b c d e Sawyer. An illustrated history of vikings. p. 76 ^ and b c d e f g Wood, In search of dark times, p. 216 – 22 ^ Anglo Saxon Chronicle, 1016 ^ Starkey, Monarchy, p. 94. ^ Anglo Saxon Chronicle, 1017: .. Before the nails of August, the King gave an order to bring him the widow of the second king, Ethelred, the daughter of Richard, his wife. ^ and b c d Brown. Chibnal. Holding a combat conference on Studies. p. 160-61 ^ a b c Lapidge, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 108-09 ^ and b c Lapidge. Anglo-Saxon England. p. 229-30 ^ a b c d e f Lapidge, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 161–62 ^ Lapidge, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 230 ^ a b Barlow, The Godwins, p. 57 – 58 ^ and b Barlow, The Godwins, p. 64 – 65 ^ and b Woods, Dark Times, p. 229 – 30 ^ Barlow, The Godwins, p. 83 –85. The value of godwins holding can be recognized from the Domesday Book. ^ Barlow, Godwins, p. 116–23 ^ a b c Anglo Saxon Chronicle, 1065 AD ^ Starkey, Monarchy p. 119 ^ and b Starkey, Monarchy, p. 120 ^ and b c Anglo Saxon Chronicle. No. C. 1066. ^ and b c d Woods, Dark Times, p. 233 – 38 ^ and b Barlow, The Godwins, Chapter 5: Calm before the storm. ^ and b Vitalis. Church history of England and Normandy. Volume i. Bk. III Ch. 11. p. 461 -64 65 ^ a b c d Barlow, The Godwins, p. 134-35. ^ Anglo Saxon Chronicle. MS D. 1066. ^ Barlow, Godwins, p. 138 ^ Barlow, The Godwins, p. 136 – 137 ^ and b Barlow, The Godwins, p. 137 – 38 ^ Woods, Dark Times, p. 238 – 40 ^ Barlow, The Godwins, Chapter 7: The Collapse of the Dynasty. ^ Forests, Dark Times, p. 240. ^ Barlow, Godwins, p. 156. ^ and b Woods, Dark Times, p. 248 – 49 ^ Starkey. Monarchy. p. 138 - 39 ^ Vitalis. Church history. p. 28 His camps were scattered over the surface a hundred miles as a number of insurgents fell under his vindictive sword he leveled their places of shelter on the ground squandered their land and burned their dwellings with everything they contained. 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Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISBN 978-0-415-16639-3. External Links Internet Medieval Source Book by C.P. Biggam is an Anglo-Saxon study: Select bibliography of the Anglo Saxon Era - Articles on the Prosopography period of Anglo-Saxon England Find out more onWikipedia'sSister projectsMediafrom CommonsTextbooks from WikibooksData from Wikidata Obtained from

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