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Dark Age Isles Summary

By Matt Schwoebel

Dark Age Isles: , Arthur, and the New West (337-686 A.D.) is a heuristic, generational, geographic history of the Dark Age period in the Isles – Britain (, , & ), , and () including adjacent areas of /.

Contents:

I. Introduction to Dark Age Isles Myth and Reality Page 2

II. Seven Cultural-Historical Phases Page 4

III. Generation Timeline Page 7

1 © Matt Schwoebel I. Introduction to Dark Age Isles Myth and Reality

The period and place covered by this book represent one of the least enlightened by surviving written records from the Dark Ages. Between 337 A.D. and 686 A.D, the reasonably integrated of became an early form of England (or Angleland) divided into multiple kingdoms. The imperial language of (in its vulgar form) was no longer spoken. Unusually in former western imperial lands a native language, Brythonic Celtic (Welsh), AND a conqueror language, Anglo-Saxon (English), arose to replace Latin. This linguistic situation is unique with Basque (Euskara) being the only other pre-Roman native survivor. Elsewhere a Latin dialect prevailed or a Germanic or Slavic conqueror language replaced it.

There are eight myths listed below that will be addressed by this book. It will describe seven main cultural-historical phases between the death of Emperor the Great in 337 A.D. and the death of the last Pagan Saes king in 686 A.D. (along with the great Pict victory the year before). The main portion of the book will describe the changing situation in Britannia (England & Wales), Hibernia (Ireland), Caledonia (Pictland/Scotland), and an extended Armorica (Brittany) generation by generation. There are 14 generations each 25 years long covering a time period almost equivalent to the initial English settlements in the United States of America to the present day.

This book will address several myths about this place and period.

 The Saes conquered lowland Britain in the 440’s/450’s during an initial rebellion.  The early Saes came in large numbers and overwhelmed the Britons.  Larger Briton political units fell apart in 410 after leaving the Empire.  The Britons fled to Brittany (Armorica) and the continent, instead of choosing military migration like other peoples during this period for similar push and/or pull reasons.  The initial Saes settlements abutted Anglo-Saxon solely with Brythonic Celtic (not ).  Arthur was a mythical king and not a historic Briton war leader.

2 © Matt Schwoebel  There was only one important early ‘pull’ settlement phase for the Saes and not a more important second ‘push’ settlement phase motivated by Avar expansion.

There are several peoples referenced in this book.

 Saes = the general term from Welsh for the various who settled the Isles – , Frisians, , , and – with Anglo-Saxon reserved for their language. Many of these peoples maintained lands on the continent as well.  Britons = the southern Brythonic Celtic speaking natives of the Isle of Britain influenced by Roman rule and strongest in western & northern Britannia including the intra-Vallum region (between Antonine’s and ’s Walls).  Romano-Britons = the culturally romanized Britons prior to and just after the end of the empire, some of whom spoke Vulgar Latin, and were strongest in eastern & southern Britannia.  = the northern Brythonic Celtic speaking natives of the Isle of Britain beyond Roman rule, along with the Attecoti (possibly pre-Celtic speaking), in Caledonia or Pictavia.  Scotti = the Irish settlers of northwestern Britain principally from northeastern Ireland () with some claiming descent from the oldest inhabitants, the Cruithne.  Irish = the native inhabitants of Ireland with some settling in southwestern Britain from Laiglin (Leinster), Mide, and Muma (Munster) along with the other Coiced (fifths) of Connacta and Ulster.  Armoricans = the Briton settlers of Armorica (Brittany) or Llydaw who intermixed with the Gallo- Roman natives and probably .  Gallo-Romans = the romanized, Vulgar Latin speaking natives of Gaul prior to and after the Frankish conquest.  = the Germanic conquerors of Gaul (Francia) with most settlement in the north of the diocese and eventually control of most of the former Roman dioceses and lands beyond.  Other Continental Peoples = there were several peoples with less direct influence in the Isles – Alans (Iranian nomads), Avars (second wave Turko-Mongol nomads), (Germanic conquerors of eastern Gaul), (first wave Turko-Mongol nomads), (second wave conquerors of ), (Goth conquerors of Italy), and (Goth conquerors of & southern ).  Gaul = refers to the two Roman dioceses of Galliae and Viennensis (Septem Provinciae).  West(ern) = of Gaul – Galliae, Viennensis, Britannia, and dioceses.  Central = praetorian prefecture of Italia – 2 Italia, Illyria, and dioceses.  WRE and ERE = West and East Roman Empire.

3 © Matt Schwoebel

II. Seven Cultural-Historical Phases

There were seven cultural-historical phases changing “Roman Britannia” to “Saes Angleland”. They are summarized below.

PHASE 1 – Late Roman Imperialism 337-404 (Generations 1, 2, early-3)

Division between pro-Roman Empire and pro-Independence factions; Roman suppression of revolt by Magentius in Britannia; raids increased (Picts, Irish, Saes); Theodosius created new Roman field army for Britannia under Britanniarum; rearming of favored western tribes (Cornovians & Dumnonians) by ; closer ties/integration with inter-Vallum tribes; Magnus Maximus imperial bid defeated; last major Roman military figure to visit Britannia, withdrew troops possibly beginning Briton immigration to Armorica as military colonists under Tractus Armorica; urban center decline across empire as economic rewards for service becomes more imperial, less local; many villas abandoned for safety of fortified towns or forts after Barbarian Conspiracy; began to predominate in Britannia after slow progress; of Candida Casa (Whithorn).

PHASE 2 – Independence and Initial Settlement 405-448 (Generations early-3, 4, mid-5)

Britons throw out Roman civil government; after early leadership failures, Constantine III intervened on continent (reaction against Rhine crossing); Constantine III’s imperial bid defeated; Britons divided along three factional lines – Vitalii (Valentia in the west), Ambrosii (Britannia Prima in the south), and Coelii (Britannia Secunda in the north) including Battle of Wallup (Vitalii defeated Ambrosii); Saes federates established in east and along Thames, especially by Vitalii (); initial Pict successes checked by (Dux Britannia); Niall Noigiallach (Ard Ri) dominated northern half of Ireland & establishes two Ui Neill

4 © Matt Schwoebel dynasties; Eoganacta of Cashel conquered Munster/Muma; Briton expansion in Armorica (Bacudae), conflict with Roman forces under Aetius, Alans settled along border; urban centers continued slow decline, economic changes, villas gone; Catholic vs. faction conflict within Christianity in Britannia; Christian reaction against Paganism with temple destruction; in Ireland and in Britannia.

PHASE 3 – Rebellion and Conflict 449-491 (Generations mid-5, 6, early-7)

Saes rebelled and Britons countered, fluid borderland in conflict; Flavia Caesariensis collapsed completely and carved up by incoming Angle Saes settlers (only large-scale settlement in this province); urban centers declined further & were repurposed, economy becomes more local; Briton military expeditions to continent (451 & 468-69), more Britons settled in Armorica; last imperial battles & end of ; in Gaul, Romans collapsed and Franks & Visigoths succeeded them with Britons expanding Armorica eastwards (absorbed Alans); Irish province kings (coiced ri) more powerful after dual Ui Neill & Eoganacta prominence; Scotti Irish settlement in Dal Riada; rise of monasteries as Christian power centers over urban in the Isles; Saints Patrick, of Llancarfan, and of Llantwit Fawr including College of Theodosius (Cor Tewdws).

PHASE 4 – Arthurian Dominance 492-517 (Generations early-7, early-8)

Briton identity ascendant; forceful integration of three factions by Arthur; reduction of Romano- Briton identity as Western Roman Empire had failed, Christian clergy take mantle of ‘civilized’ Rome; Cymru (countrymen, companions, compatriots) identity established; Cerdic’s mixed regime in Gewis-; Saes temporarily marginalized after series of island-wide defeats by Arthur & his Briton allies (Mons Badon, etc.); intra-Briton conflict leads to Camlann & fall of Arthur; economy still supported elite trade with continent (amphorae); Clovis dominated Gaul defeating Visigoth challengers with Armorican Briton expansion checked; further Southern Ui Neill success in Ireland; Saints Brigid of Kildare, of Ercyng (early), Finnian of Clonard, and Pedrog of Padstow.

5 © Matt Schwoebel PHASE 5 – Partition and the “Other” 518-559 (Generations early-8, end-9)

Divided land with little cultural interchange or ‘partition’; identities of Saes as rightful settlers and Britons as Welsh (foreigners) established amongst Saes; plague hits Britons, reduced density, & without three factions’ leadership the Britons fracture further; more Saes settlers/warriors arrived from continent increasing density within their zone of control; expansion of in far north under Ida displaced Briton Bryneich; Armorican Briton limited expansion-consolidation, Armorica first called Britannia; conflict between Picts and Scotti Irish; Christianity strong majority amongst Britons, Mediterranean paganism dies out in Isles; Saints Ciaran of Clonmacnoise, Columba (Colum Cille early) of Kells & Derry, David (Dewi early), and moralizing .

PHASE 6 – Second Settlement Expansion 560-626 (Generations end-9, 10, 11, mid-12)

Saes conquer most of the lowlands & fall of Briton Ebrauc bulwark in north; Second Wave of Saes settlement from continent result of Avar expansion (strong push); expanding frontier Saes kingdoms versus civilizing static Saes kingdoms; Briton failures cause crisis for cultural identity as the Cymru; most Saes royal dynasties founded during this phase (or re-founded); Ceawlin’s Saes regime in Wessex-Gewis; last significant number of Briton immigrants arrived in Armorica pushing Briton territory further east in conflict with Franks & Gallo-Romans; Angle Saes rapid expansion in north against Britons, Scotti Irish, and Picts after seesaw battles including the fall of Briton , Saes elite takeover; first tentative Christian conversions of Saes kingdoms (by Irish in north, by Papal/Franks in east, possible by Britons for /Gewissae); Irish missions to Picts meet limited success under Columba (Colum Cille) & successors; Saint Augustine of (first Archbishops of Canterbury).

PHASE 7 – Christianization and Incorporation 627-686 (Generations mid-12, 13, 14)

Saes dominance over Britain firmly established; ‘full’ Christian conversion of Saes reduces cultural boundary; Synod of Whitby moved Saes into Roman Church orbit compared to Celtic Church; Saes ecclesiasts established in Christian hierarchy; last Briton bid for dominance under Cadwallon failed; Welsh (Cymru Britons) marginalized in west, far southwest, & far north;

6 © Matt Schwoebel the last ‘Romano-Briton’ town falls to Saes; beginning of Scotti Irish and Pict merger including Christian unity (finalized by Viking Heathen Other); growing strength of Letavii (Llydaw) Britons in Armorica effectively independent of divided Francia; signal victory of Picts against Saes at Dunnichen ended expansion by conquest in the north, but Anglo-Saxon language slowly expanded from this point onwards; last pagan Saes king of Wight overthrown; Saint Aedan of .

III. Generation Timeline

This book will be primarily organized into 14 chapters based on 14 generations. These 25 year generations will start with the death of in 337 A.D. and end with the defeat of the last pagan Saes king of Wight in 686 A.D. (and Pictish victory of Dunnichen the year before). The generations are briefly discussed below. All dates are A.D.

Generation 1 (337-361):

The death of Constantine I the Great, the last emperor of Rome to rule alone for more than a few years, resulted in the empire being split between his sons and the renewal of the system of multiple senior () and junior () emperors. Britannia saw the last Central emperor campaign by , son of Constantine I, in 342-343. Constans was slain when usurped the West after being elevated by the legions. Britannia supported Magnentius and was subsequently punished harshly in the 350’s after Magnentius’s twin defeats at Mursa Major and Seleucus at the hands of Imperator Constantius II. This may have begun the process of dividing the population between pro- imperial and pro-independence factions. Imperator the last outwardly pagan emperor (‘the Apostate’) ends the generation with his inauguration. During this generation, Britannia was still a typical Roman frontier province with a fully functional economy integrated with the rest of the empire. Slow urban decline had already begun in the empire as the wealthy were better rewarded by imperial service and the political prestige network of their praetorian than local, Civitates service.

7 © Matt Schwoebel

Generation 2 (362-386):

A rough generation for Britannia as the ‘Great Barbarian Conspiracy’ of Picts, Attecoti, Scotti Irish, and Saes raid the province, while the exiled Roman nobleman Valentinus rebelled from within. The Comes Saxonici Litorica and Dux Britannia were killed, both major military commanders of troops. Comes Theodosius arrived in Britannia with fresh troops and quickly restored order. He reorganized the province including adding the province of Valentia (the fifth in the diocese). Britannia received its own small field army (comitatus) under the Comes Britannia. Magnus Maximus, likely the first Comes Britannia, worked to further restore order and the arming of native Britons in less Romanized areas likely began during this generation in Valentia (roughly Wales, the tribe), (southwest England, the tribe), and in the North (, the Brigantes tribe). It is likely the Deisi Irish were settled as federates in Dyfed by Magnus Maximus. The villa system collapsed in large areas of Britannia as the wealthy Romano-Britons moved from the ravaged countryside to less vulnerable towns or even refurbished hill forts. Magnus Maximus (Macsen Wledig) rebelled, was proclaimed in Britannia, and became a temporarily successful, Western usurper emperor after having defeated the Imperator . He became Augustus in the West with control of all dioceses except Italia and Illyria. On the continent, the Eastern Empire was suffering from the advance of peoples ahead of the Huns with the Vesi & Tervingi (Visigoths) defeating and killing the Imperator in 378 at Adrianople.

Generation 3 (387-411):

Imperator Magnus Maximus was defeated and killed in 388 by the Imperator , son of Comes Theodosius, along with Arbogast (a Frank). In Armorica, Britons contingents from Magnus Maximus were settled under the Dux Tractus Armoricani et Nervicani (Dux Armorica). Imperial rule in Gaul was short-lived with Arbogast supporting Western usurper Imperator from 392 to 394 (both killed by Theodosius I at Battle of Frigidus). For a handful of months, the WRE and ERE halves of the empire were united under Theodosius I before being permanently split upon his death. This generation saw imperial contraction away from the frontier in the WRE. The capital of Gaul moved from (Magnus Maximus’s imperial capital) to and the Emperor moved from to more defendable . Magister Militum Stilicho visited Britannia and combated around 398- 400, the last Central authority to do so. Stilicho defeated the Goths of Alaric and then the Goths of thus protecting Italia, while Gaul and the Rhine frontier were overrun by , Suevi, and Alans. Loyal Franks were unable to stop these invaders. In reaction, Britannia declared three usurper

8 © Matt Schwoebel with the last Constantine III crossing to the continent and successfully taking Gaul and competing in Hispania in 407. Imperator had Magister Militum Stilicho executed along with barbarian soldiers’ families and acknowledged Imperator Constantine III as a Western co-emperor. Alaric invaded Italia with his Goths and rebelling survivors of Radagaisus. They sacked Rome in 410. Constantine III was defeated in 411 as was his disloyal General Gerontius and a new usurper (former senator) raised in Gaul with some Alan (under ) and Burgundian support. The other invaders – Vandals, some Alans, and Suevi – had moved to Hispania. Roman government was expelled from Britannia and most of Gaul including Armorica. The situation was complex in Britannia with some supporters of Rome asking Honorius for aid. There were at least two factions – one pro-Roman, one pro- independence – at work. It is likely some military commanders appointed by Constantine III remained in place like Dux Britannia Coel Hen in northern Britannia along Hadrian’s Wall (the Vallum). One of the major contributors to woe in Britannia was the Irish king Niall Noigiallach (of the Nine Hostages) as he expanded Ui Neill dynasty rule to Mide and raided Britannia. The Coiced (fifths) of Ireland began to form during this period under Ui Neill (north) and Eoganacta (south) dominance. This generation saw the frontier province of Gaul undergo a crisis of identity and lose its loyalty to Rome as the central imperial system lacked the willingness or ability to defend it from barbarians. Britannia leaving the imperial orbit had four main consequences:

1. Reduction in trade as Britannia was no longer part of the imperial military supply network. 2. Reduction in full-time professional soldiers as lack of imperial funds increased reliance on part- time, seasonal soldiers/militia. 3. Roman-Briton landowning class had to choose between their holdings in Britannia and Roman territory with some choosing to leave Britannia, sometimes for opportunities in Armorica. 4. Native Briton landowning class became more predominant with armed retinues.

Generation 4 (412-436):

Gaul was largely returned to Roman rule through the military efforts of Flavius Constantius III the Magister Militum (per Gallias 410-421, briefly Imperator in 421). The Visigoths moved into Gaul as troublesome allies of Rome in 412 and defeated the usurper Imperator Jovinus in 413. Loyalist Briton and Romano-Briton military colonists migrated to western and northern Armorica during this generation with at least tacit Roman approval to shore up imperial defenses and likely included Constantine III survivors. Britannia may have split along factional lines based on three rival families – the independent Vitalii of the center & west, the loyalist Aurelii of the southwest & Armorica, and the pragmatic Coelii of the north. Drust (Drest) Mac Erp of the Picts was the main opponent of the Britons along with raiding

9 © Matt Schwoebel Irish and Saes. The Visigoths acted on behalf of Rome effectively fighting against the Suevi and Vandals in Hispania with Aquitania formerly ceded to Wallia of the Visigoths in 417-418. The first Saes (federates) in Britannia were settled during this generation with the early contenders being the Gewissae Saxon along the western Thames (Oxford), Jutes of , Jutes near Clausentum (southeastern ), East Angles in Iceni lands (), and Angles in . The Imperator Honorius died and was briefly replaced by a usurping civil servant (423-425) who sent Aetius to the Huns as an emissary thus starting his long association with them. The child emperor Valentian III was raised to the purple in 425 and Joannes was defeated by the ERE. Aetius succeeded Constantius III as Magister Militum (per Gallias) after having been rewarded the position by Galla (regent 423- 437 for Valentian III) and defeated the Visigoths and Franks 425-428. In 429 Comes asked for Vandal aid in Africa. The Vandals migrated and then rebelled taking the western portion of the province (modern Morocco). Celestine sent several missions to Britannia and Hibernia (Ireland) to combat spreading Pelagianism (officially condemned in 431). In 429-430 Palladius went to southern Hibernia, Patrick to northern Hibernia, and Germanus of to Britannia. Germanus (a former Legate/general) won a battle against raiders and may have been an envoy for Magister Militum Aetius as well as Pope Celestine. He promoted St. Alban’s shrine (Verulamium) and his visit showed some civic and urban life remained in Britannia. As Saes Foederati were being settled in areas vulnerable to raiding in Britannia – coastline & riverine – it is likely Votandi from the Manaw (cockpit of Scotland) were also settled in northwestern Wales to defend against Irish-Scotti raids and to retake land occupied by Irish settlers. These Votandi led by may have been forced from the Manaw by the Picts of Drust Mac Erp. Magister Militum Aetius strengthened his position with battles against barbarian and Roman opponents including against Comes Bonifacius at Ravenna (loss for Aetius, but Bonifacius mortally wounded). Around 432 Armorican Bacudae revolted against Roman rule led by Tibatto. This was likely a conflict between expanding Briton military colonists under the Dux Armorica and Aetius. It may also have indicated the arrival of more native Briton elements (Cornailles, Leon) over Romano-Briton elements (Domnonee, ). Possible second visit by Bishop Germanus to Britannia in 436. With the Bacudae uprising, this visit could have been to Armorica as well.

Generation 5 (437-461):

Two battles occurred in 437 with only one well remembered. The lesser Battle of Wallup pitted the independent Vitalii faction of Vortigern against the Roman loyalist Aurelii faction of Ambrosius the Elder. Vortigern was victorious likely using Saxon Foederati troops (Gewissae of the upper Thames). The more notorious battle resulted in the destruction of the first Burgundian kingdom of

10 © Matt Schwoebel Gundahar at Worms by the Huns. Aetius had ordered his Hunnic allies to destroy the Burgundians and this was later remembered in the Nibelung saga. In 439 the Vandals took and ruled the Diocese of Africa, thus depriving the city of Rome of its grain supply. Aetius became WRE Magister Militum in 440 and moved to Italia. He chose to use Alans against the Armorican Bacudae. Bishop Germanus successfully appealed to Aetius and to Goar of the Alans for leniency. Alans were settled in eastern Armorica as a buffer between Britons and Gallo-Romans. Burgundians were settled in Sabaudia (Savoy) in 443 as Foederati by Aetius (initiating the 2nd Burgundian kingdom). About 446 Britons appealed to Aetius for aid likely by the Aurelii loyalist faction. The final possible Bishop Germanus visit in 448 could have been in response to this letter. In 446 at the Battle of Mag Femin the Southern Ui Neill (Mide) defeated Ui Enechglaiss (Leinster) under Mac Cairthinn and took Brega continuing the conquest of Mide from the Erainn started by Niall Noigiallach. The year 449 is the traditional dating of the Jute Saes revolt in Kent (Cantii) with the Night of the Long Knives resulting in the death of the last Comes Saxonici Litoris (probably Gwyrangon a Vitalii) and Briton leaders of the south coast defenses. , an ally of Aetius, became Magister Militum (per Gallias) in 450. After having raided ERE territory, and his Huns campaigned in Gaul with Ostrogoth and Gepid allies in 451. Aetius met and defeated the Huns at Chalons (Catalaunian Plains) with a conglomeration of allies in the last Central act to defend the West. Perhaps a third of the forces were Roman & Gallo-Roman, a third Visigothic under their King Theodoric I (died in the battle), and a third other allies including Alans, Britons (Armorican with insular possible), Burgundians, and Franks. This was the last gasp of the Old West. The next year in 452, Attila attacked Italia until convinced by Pope , disease, and famine to withdraw. Attila died in camp in 453 and his Hunnic Empire broke apart in 454 when his son was killed in a rebellion of allied/suppressed Germanic tribes led by the at the . Imperator Valentian III assassinated Magister Militum Aetius in 454, pretty much the doom of the WRE as many military commanders and barbarian allies were loyal to Aetius. under Magister Militum (per Illyricum) Marcellinus (454-468) declared independence. Valentian III was killed in 455 and briefly replaced by Imperator (Gallic noble). Rome was sacked by the Vandals for two weeks. In Britannia circa 455 (Vitalii) defeated the Jutes of Kent at Aylesford, killed Horse, and drove the Jutes to Thanet Island. (Arian Suevi-Visigoth) became Magister Militum (455-472) and filled the power vacuum left by the death of Aetius in the WRE. The Jutes under Hengist defeated the Britons at the Battle of Crayford in 457 and took Kent. In general the gains of the Saes were over-estimated in continent sources with the Jutes of Kent and Meonwara Jutes of Wight & adjacent coastline the main victors. Other areas of Britannia were certainly raided, but only coastal Saes enclaves established (excepting the Gewissae of the upper Thames). A brief WRE military resurgence under Imperator from 457 to 460 led to the defeat of raiding Allemani and to the temporary subduing of the Visigoths. The first Roman attempt to retake

11 © Matt Schwoebel Africa from the Vandals was unsuccessful in 460 (WRE Imperator Majorian assisted by the ERE). Aegidius, last Magister Militum per Gallias, defected from Rome and created independent Domain of in northern Gaul in 461 after death of Imperator Majorian. The WRE effectively no longer ruled any part of the West except bits of Provence and Hispania (being conquered by Visigoths). In Britannia, this generation saw the initial rebellion of Saes with limited long-term gains in the south (Jutes), but more substantial gains in Flavia Caesariensis province in the central-east with initial Angle settlement around the Wash. The Gewissae of the Thames were likely a mixed Saxon-Briton dynasty at this time.

Generation 6 (462-486):

The 460’s saw the return/rise of the Younger or Emrys (Aurelii) to Britannia. He led counterattacks against the Saes with mixed success and allied with the Dumnonians under to defend the south coast. Aesc of Kent led the Jutes to a major victory against eastern Britons in 465 likely adding territory along the south bank of the Thames. The Votandi of in 470 defeated the last Irish dynasty on Ynis Mona (Anglesey). In Gaul the independent Gallo-Roman Domain of Soissons passed from Aegidius to his son in 464. The last major military collaboration between the remnants of the WRE and the ERE launched a second assault on Vandal Africa and were defeated by King Geiseric in a colossal sea battle. (Aurelii, possibly Emrys) led Briton-Armorican expedition (cited at 12,000) in support of Imperator , defeated the Saxons, and was then decimated by the Visigoths under . The Praetorian Prefect of Gaul – (Gallo-Roman) – was later found to have betrayed Riothamus and Imperator Anthemius. Britons continued to settle Armorica, but also coastal regions farther afield including in (Hispania) founded at this time. Despite having been independent of the Empire for 2 generations (4-5), Romano-Britons still intervened on the imperial side of continental disputes. The number 12,000 for the Briton contingent of Riothamus is likely inaccurate, but certainly indicated a sizeable force and one probably including insular Britons as well as Armorican Britons. The years 472-480 saw the collapse of the last of the Western Roman Empire. The last rulers were Magister Militum Gundioc (Burgundian 472-474), Imperator Augustus (d. 476), Imperator Julian Nepos (Dalmatia 474-480), and King of Italia ( 476-493). The fall of Romulus Augustus and rise of Odoacer in 476 represented the effective end of the WRE and the Visigoths took advantage to take Provence in SE Gaul. Rex Romanorum Syagrius of the Domain of Soissons was defeated by of the Franks in 486 ending Gallo-Roman rule. In Britannia Aelle of the South Saxons made initial conquests in Regni lands (Sussex) in 477. The major story of this generation was the collapse of effective Briton rule in Flavia Caesariensis province with

12 © Matt Schwoebel small groups of Angles taking lands from Norfolk around the Wash to Lindsey. A status update for the 5 provinces of Britannia at the end of this generation:

 Maxima Caesariensis (SE) = Jute takeover of Kent/ (only true Saes kingdom), South Saxon initial gains in Sussex, East Saxon federates, and otherwise still in divided Briton hands possibly with some Vitalii influence.  Flavia Caesariensis (CE) = Angle settlement from Lindsey to northern East Anglia especially in Fens, collapse of effective Briton rule allows major inroads especially along rivers or in fenlands.  Britannia Prima (SW) = Aurelii (east) and Dumnonian (west) rule with Saes limited to Meonwara Jutes (Hampshire coastline & likely Wight) and Gewissae Saxons (western Thames).  Valentia (CW) = Vitalii rule in (Viroconium) and other kingdoms with Gwynedd under settled Votandi, Dyfed under settled Deisi Irish, and no major Saes settlements.  Britannia Secunda (N) = Coelii descendants of Dux Britannia Coel Hen rule multiple kingdoms (principally Ebrauc & Rheged) with Deiran Angle federates only Saes settlers.

Generation 7 (487-511):

This generation could be termed the generation of Clovis I in Gaul (Francia by the end of his reign), Theodoric in Italia (Ostrogoth), and Arthur in Britannia (last of the Romano-Britons, first of the Cymru). Two are better documented in historical sources and the other has had considerably more pages written about him. Kent passed from Hengist to Aesc (Oisc) in a first transition of power in a Saes kingdom. Clovis I defeated the Armorican Britons in 489 outside Rennes and obtained their theoretical submission. Like all previous attempts since Aetius and future attempts up until , the strongly Briton western half of Armorica (roughly a line from modern Dinard to Lorient) consolidated over 4 generations (3-6) was not touched by invasion. The borderlands of eastern Armorica were disputed between expanding Armorican Britons with remnant Alan & Gallo-Roman allies and the Franks with Gallo- Roman & remnant Loire Saxon allies. Aelle of the South Saxons besieged and torched Anderida (Pevensey) likely the last Briton holdout in coastal Sussex thus creating the kingdom of Sussex. Aelle’s kingdom was unlikely to extend deeply into the Anderida forest. Arthur is a tricky historical subject. I believe he did fight a series of campaigns from a primary base at Cad (South Cadbury) as the war leader (Dux Bellorum) of the joint Aurelii-Dumnonian alliance across the island of Britain temporarily unifying or at least subduing the Briton factions. Grant it, the northern Arthur hypothesis (located between the Walls) has some advantage in toponym (place name) evidence, but lacks the timing as the North was unthreatened by Saes until Ida (547) and is argued in absence of surviving Briton toponyms in

13 © Matt Schwoebel areas of early Saes settlement and thus likely conflict zones. In some ways I will argue there was an Arthur-like figure during this generation and into the next generation and since we have the name Arthur from a number of later written sources (but probably spoken sources before that), let us call him Arthur instead of quibbling and assuming a person lost to history completely. The founding of Wessex is almost as complex a subject with the Gewissae of the upper Thames, the Celtic-named father-son Cerdic and as dynasty founders, the Romano-Britons of Venta Guinn (Winchester), and the Meonwara Jutes & true Saxons of the south coast & Wight. The Gewissae of the upper Thames were probably a mixed Briton-Saxon group from the days of Vortigern with the Saxons slowly prevailing, but taking Celtic names as the Britons were still predominant in the surrounding area. Cerdic and his son Cynric came from this Gewissae group and were possibly allies of Arthur and defenders (future conquerors after Arthur’s death) of the south coast. For most Gewissae/Wessex battles two leaders are listed by the Anglo Saxon Chronicle, which may point not to father & son duos but to a principle king & regional sub-king (sometimes actually father & son). In 493, became the King of Italia and succeeded Odoacer. At this time Arthur had become a military leader of the Aurelii-Dumnonians and began campaigning along the south coast. Cerdic gained control of coastal Regnes (future Wessex) with Gewissae troops as an ally of Arthur in 495 at the expense of the Meonwara Jutes. The resulting military pressure forced Aelle of Sussex acting as of the Saes (Meonwara Jutes, some Kentish Jutes, possibly Fen & Norfolk Angles, & some Gewissae) to campaign against the Britons and loyal Gewissae along the Thames. The Battle of Mons Badonicus (Badon) ensued with the location near Bad Sulis (Bath/Aquae Sulis) likely. Arthur as Dux Bellorum leading a few thousand Britons and loyal Gewissae defeated Aelle leading a few thousand Saes. Aelle would pass Sussex to his son Cissa, but the South Saxons were largely forgotten or subdued by stronger neighbors after Badon. The preferable battle year is 496 for Badon with the Allemani being defeated by Clovis I at the and absorbed into Francia the same year. With the south coast subdued or at least under command of ‘loyal’ Cerdic, Arthur campaigned against the Middle Angles in Linnius. The Middle Angles were the most divided group with numerous small entities according to the Tribal Hideage. This diversity points to an early, small-scale group settlement era (just before to not long after the Revolt of 449) and an inability to unify under a single leader, possibly due to the damage done during the Linnius campaign of Arthur. Caer Cad (South Cadbury) fortress was reinforced around the year 500 as a significant military site. There is some evidence the next few decades saw a contraction of Saes and return to the continent (push migration from Briton victories and/or pull of better opportunities). The Scotti Irish settled or at least gained control of Dal Riada in Caledonia ( & adjacent islands) at this time. The Southern Ui Neill defeated the Dal Cormaic of Mide in a series of battles from 498 to 503 adding to the Ui Neill Gael takeover. Arthur possibly campaigned against Lot of , the Picts, and some elements of the Coelii faction in the

14 © Matt Schwoebel north with other elements as allies (perhaps and Rheged). The fight against the Coelii may have been the ‘Roman’ War, especially if against Ebrauc (/York). The Armorican Britons continued to expand eastward into Vannes, Redon, and Rennes areas. A landing occurred in Portsmouth of Saxons with a Briton leader slain, but most likely limited gains. Clovis I of the Franks defeated the Visigoths of Alaric II at the Battle of Vouille and took in 507. The year 508 saw ERE recognize Clovis I as Prefect of Gaul at the same time as Theodoric of the Ostrogoths appointed Liberius Praetorian Prefect of Gaul (rather gloriously titled) to rule Provence from Arles. Liberius kept this title until 536 with the Ostrogoths of Italia controlling Provence. Cerdic and Cynric in 508 were busy defeating and killing the Briton Natanleod as they won a great battle. Arthur was possibly embroiled in the Boar Campaign in the vicinity of against the Irish of Brecon and/or Vitalii with his son Amhar killed during the conflict and then around Deva (, formerly base of the Boar legion aka Valeria Victrix XX) against Votandi and/or Vitalii. Clovis conquered the in 509 and became first to unite all Franks. He died at the end of this generation and his kingdom of Francia was divided between his 4 sons.

Generation 8 (512-536):

Theodoric the Great was now Regent of the Visigoths as well and at the height of his prestige. Britons experienced a brief few years of unity as the Cymru (compatriots, countrymen) under Arthur. In 514 West Saxons arrived in Britain led by Stuf and Wihtgar. They were probably folded into Cerdic’s expanding operation in the south. The Southern Ui Neill defeated the Oflaige of northern Leinster at the Battle of Druim Derge and took the Plain of Mide in 516. The Battle of Camlann in 517 was a Pyrrhic victory for Arthur and loyal Britons against rebellious Britons with their Saes allies under Modred of Loegres and Cerdic of the Gewissae. The mention the “three-fold dividing by Arthur of his men with Medrawd (Modred) at Camlann” and this could be Modred betraying Arthur in a battle against increasingly powerful Cerdic. The battle took place at a ‘crooked ford’ (Camlann) possibly along the Thames with Arthur seriously wounded and Modred killed. Modred is also listed in a triad as one of the Dishonored Men for Camlann. Arthur was disabled, unable to command, and later died of his wounds during ‘’ exile with possible locations including Candida Casa (Whithorn), Manau (), Ynis Witrin (Glastonbury), or Ynis Byr (Caldey Island). Arthur’s campaigns had temporarily partitioned the Saes into the eastern portion of Britannia. He was replaced by Constantine ap Cador as Dux Bellorum, but Constantine was unable to gain wide support of even fellow Dumnonians. In 519 Cerdic and Cynric took over the West Saxon government and likely were ceded Venta Guinn (Winchester). The Angles slowly advanced in the midlands towards the end of this generation as Briton civil wars became

15 © Matt Schwoebel common while the remnants of the three factions broke apart (Aurelii, Coelii, & Vitalii). Theodoric the Great died in 525. Cerdic and Cynric defeated Britons at Cerdic’s lea (Chearsley) in 527 and then conquered the (Vectis) from the Meonwara Jutes in 530 ending Jute rule along the south coast. Cerdic died in 534 and was succeeded by Cynric. The Franks absorbed the Burgundians in the same year. In 535 the long, costly began between the Ostrogoths of Italia and the Eastern Roman Empire ruled by Imperator . The Franks conquered Provence (SE Gaul) from the Ostrogoths at the end of the generation and controlled most of Gaul (except and Visigoths in [Narbonne]). A event led to crop failures and famine in 536 as well.

Generation 9 (537-561):

About 540 Sanctus Gildas Sapiens born in the year of the Badon victory wrote a letter (De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae) castigating leading Britons of his day including Pendragon Maelgwyn (Gwynedd), Constantine III or Erbin Custennyn (Dumnonia), Cynan Aurelius Caninus (Gwent & Cerin), Vortepor the Protector (Dyfed), and Cuneglasus (Pengwern & ). The generation was a period of divide with a partition between Saes and Britons surviving Arthur’s death and the Britons dividing further. A plague hurt the Britons in the 540’s, killed Maelgwyn of Gwynedd, and affected the Saes less. Ida became Cyning of Bernicia in the north and expanded Angle (Frisian?) territory with Bamburgh (formerly Dinas Guairi) as capital. Small numbers of Saes existed along the north coast before Ida. He brought greater numbers, unity, and the first strong pressure on the Gwyr Y Gogledd (Men of the North) from a militant, independent Saes leader. Any Foederati ties died with Ida’s rise. The real Saes breakout for Wessex occurred in 552 with Sarum () falling to Cynric, which left Dumnonia more vulnerable to attack. The Eastern Roman Empire campaigned in southern Iberia (552) and defeated the Ostrogoths of Italia (554). About this time Briton Loegres – (), Verulamium (St. Alban’s), and Camulodium () – fell to the East Saxons and Kent (Jutes & Franks?). A Gewissae victory occurred as they expanded westward against Britons at Beranburgh/Beranbyrig (Barbury Castle) along the Icknield Way in 556. After the death of Childebert I, son of Clovis I, in 558 relations between the Bretons and Franks soured. Likely more Britons moved from Britannia to Armorica following Saes victories adding pressure to Breton expansion. Ceawlin replaced Cynric as leader of the Wessex in 560. Sanctus Dewi (David) rose to prominence at the Synod of Brefi in Ceredignion the same year.

Generation 10 (562-586):

16 © Matt Schwoebel The opening year of this generation marked the emergence of the Avars into northwestern Europe with the Franks eventually stopping them. The Avar push triggered renewed Saes immigration (second wave) to Britannia as the Hun push (with Roman collapse pull) had the first wave. The Northern Ui Neill defeated seven Cruithin kings of Ulaid and expanded Ailech at the Battle of Moin Dairi Lothair in 563, which is the same year Sanctus Columba (Colm Cille) founded Iona Monastery on the Isle of Hii on land granted by Conall mac Comgall of Dal Riada. Imperator Justinian died in 565 widely considered the last Eastern with the state henceforth being Byzantine Greek. In 567 the Avar Khaganate was founded on the future Hungarian Plain after destroying the Gepids with Lombard aid. In 568 Ceawlin and Cutha of Wessex defeated Athelbert of Kent in the same year as the Lombards began their conquest of Italia under creating Langobardia. Synod of Victory was held in 569 at Caerleon by Sanctus Dewi to believe it or not condemn Pelagianism (a very long lived heresy in Britannia). Most of the Saes royal dynasties are founded this generation with the exceptions of Kent, Gewissae-Wessex, Bernicia (barely), and discontinuous Sussex. This indicates the second wave immigration of the Avar push being substantial. The renewal of Germanic settlers pushed to the frontier also created a wave of German only speakers replacing the more Brythonic-tinged Anglo-Saxon speakers on the borders. These border kingdoms increased in size for military protection & to conquer/reward ‘foreign’ (aka Welsh) land to followers. In 571 Cuthwulf of the Gewissae defeated Britons at Bedford, which finally ended Briton rule in eastern Britannia (Loegres) with the fall of Calchfyneth and the Atrebates of Calleva (Silchester). From 572 to 581 Baetan mac Cairill of the Dal Fiatach of Ulaid took Manau from Dal Riada and claimed tribute in Hibernia and Caledonia. happened in 573 with Briton Strathclyde and Ebrauc (Efrog) defeating Briton Rheged and killing Gwenddoleu with his bard Myrddin going mad and fleeing into the . of Rheged became effective leader of the Briton Gwyr Y Gogledd thereafter and his campaigns almost destroyed Bernicia. Convention of Druim Cett in 575 allied Northern Ui Neill and Dal Riada against Ulaid of Baetan mac Cairill. The Battle of Dyrham (Deorham) took place in 577 where Dumnonian Britons lost to Ceawlin of Wessex (with Cuthwin) and the towns of Glevum (Gloucester), Bad Sulis (Bath), and Corinium (Cirencester) fell, included the deaths of 3 Briton leaders – Conmail, Condidan, and Farinmail. Chilperic of the Franks fought Waroch of Vannes Bretons for 3 days in 578. Waroch submitted, but promptly broke the terms. In 580 the Adda leading the Bernicians defeated and killed the Briton Kings & Gwrgi at the Battle of Caer Greu with Briton Ebrauc being taken over by the Deirans shortly thereafter. This may have been a less hostile takeover, as battles between the Deirans and Britons are not recorded. King Guntram of the Franks appointed Dux Beppolen to rule an area around Rennes, , and Angers, which was a precursor to the Breton March in 580-590. At the Battle of Tintern (Fretherne) in 584 Gwent led by Tewdig (mortally wounded) and his son Meurig defeated Wessex led by Ceawlin and Cutha (died) and retook Glevum (Gloucester) region.

17 © Matt Schwoebel 584 was also the approximate founding of the Kingdome of along the River Tame. In 585 Visigoths defeated the Suevi and their kingdom ended. This generation saw the Britons lose the last of the eastern lowlands, the important northern kingdom of Ebrauc, and

Generation 11 (587-611):

The last Arians Christians, the Visigoths, were converted to Catholic Christianity under their King Reccared I. Waroch of Brittany owed 1,000 solidi tribute to Chlothar & Guntram of Francia in 588. He failed to pay and the Franks were unwilling or unable to enforce payment. In 590 Urien of Rheged was assassinated by fellow Britons, while besieging the Bernicians on Lindisfarne. In the same year Sanctus began Irish Christian missionary-monastic activity in Francia. In 591 or 592 Ceolric forcefully took Wessex from Ceawlin and was followed by Ceolwulf in 597, which may have meant the failure of Cerdic’s dynasty. Aethelfrith, grandson of Ida, succeeded to the Bernician throne at expense of Hussa’s family in 592-593. Sanctus Augustine arrived from the continent as a missionary from Francia to Kent in 597. In 600 Gododdin attacked the Deirans at Catterick and were defeated, weakening Gododdin and likely resulted in permanent loss of Briton Bryneich to Angle Bernicia. This defeat was remembered in the still extent epic poem of the bard . In 601 Athelbert of Kent became the first Christian Seas king. At the Battle of Degsastan in 603 Athelfrith of Bernicia crushed the combined army of Aedan of Dal Riada (Scotti Irish) with Hibernian Irish under Mael Umai Mac Baetain (although Athelfrith’s brother Theodbald was killed by him) and Strathclyde Britons. In 604 Athelfrith united Bernicia and Deira into , a first. Athelbert of Kent published the first Saes law codes around 605.

Generation 12 (612-636):

Chlothar II, originally of , unified the Franks from 613 to 629. The Battle of Bampton (Beandun) in 614 occurred with and Cwichelm of Wessex defeating Briton Durnovara () led by Tewdwr ap Peredur following a siege. Dorset was then incorporated into Wessex. In 615 the Battle of Chester pitted the Northumbrians under Athelfrith against the Britons of Powys under Selyf and Gwynedd under Iago. Many monks from Bangor Monastery were slaughtered, Iago killed, and Chester (Deva) taken by Athelfrith. Edwin of Deira with support from Bretwalda Raedwald of East Anglia defeated and killed Athelfrith of Northumbria at the Battle of River Idle in 616. The Aetheling of Bernicia and his brothers went into exile in Dal Riada after Athelfrith’s death. Oswiu became a Christian, spoke Gaelic, and married Ui Neill princess Fin. From 619 to 625 both Briton Elmet under Ceretic and Southern Rheged under fell to . Cadwallon of Gwynedd exiled to

18 © Matt Schwoebel Hibernia after being defeated by Edwin at this time. Bretwalda Raedwald of East Anglia was buried in 624 in an elaborate grave at with the funeral style likely Geat. In 626 Penda became King of Mercia. Edwin of Northumbria accepted baptism by Bishop Paulinus in 627. Wessex under Cynegils and Mercia under Penda fought at Cirencester (Corinium) and entered a treaty in 628. Congal Caech of the Cruithne Dal nAraidi defeated and killed Connad Cerr of Dal Riada and exiled Osric of Bernicia at the in 629. Saes See of Domnoc (Walton Castle) founded in in 630 by Bishop (Francia) with support of Sigeberht, King of the East Angles. Congal Caech claimed Ard Ri of Tara (High King) in 630’s. In 632 Cadwallon returned to Britannia and defeated Edwin of Northumbria. In 633 Christian, Briton Cadwallon of Gwynedd allied with Pagan, Saes Penda of Mercia to defeat Christian, Saes Edwin of Northumbria at Hatfield Chase. This represented the last chance for Briton- Cymru-Welsh victory in the north. Cadwallon ravaged Northumbria in 634 until being defeated and killed by Oswald of Bernicia with Dal Riatan assistance at Heavenfield (Oswald had been in Dal Riatan exile for 17 years). Lindisfarne Monastery founded by Sanctus Aedan of Iona with Scotti monks in the heart of Northumbria in 634. Cynegils of Wessex baptized by Bishop Birinus (Frank-Roman) at Dorchester-upon-Thames in 635, long the capital of the Gewissae. This same year Dagobert I of Francia asserted Frankish dominion over the Bretons led by Judicael and likely founded the Breton (March) in Rennes and Nantes. Judicael arrived at Dagobert I’s court and submitted, but also insulted the king by refusing to eat at his table. The Britons of Gwent in 636 were defeated by Saes (Hwicce?) at the Second . In the same year the Byzantines led by Basileus were defeated by the Muslim Arabs led by Khalid ibn al-Walid at the pivotal 6-day Battle of Yarmouk and lost the Levant.

Generation 13 (637-661):

The year 637 included the final defeat of the Dal Riada in Hibernia and fall of Ulaid to Ulster. of Dal Riada and Congal Caech of the Dal nAraidi Cruithne were defeated by Ard Ri Domnall II (mac Aed) of the Northern Ui Neil at Mag Rath (Moira) confirming Ui Neill Ulster dominance. The next year Gododdin probably fell to the Angles of Bernicia when its capital Din was besieged, although it may have lived on as a subservient kingdom to the Picts for a short period. In 642 the Mercians under Penda (brother Eowa slain) won the Battle of Maes Cogwy (Maserfield) against the Northumbrians under Oswald (slain). The Britons of Powys-Pengwern led by ap Cyndrwyn sided with Mercia. In 643 Domnall Brecc of Dal Riada was killed fighting Briton Strathclyde of Eugein ap Beli and Kenwal (Cenwealh) became Cyning of Wessex. He was driven out of Wessex by Penda two years later. Kenwal returned to Wessex in 648 and granted land to his nephew Cuthred. In 653 Penda of Mercia defeated the East Angles with their King Anna being killed and Penda’s son Peada was placed over the Middle

19 © Matt Schwoebel Angles. Penda of Mercia died at the Battle of Winwaed in 655, the last major Pagan Saes king (succeeded by his son Wulfhere, a Christian). Oswiu of Northumbria won the battle after Penda’s ally Cadafael (the battle shirker) of Gwynedd left the field before the battle. The next year Bishop Diuma (Irish) formed the Christian Diocese of Mercia at Repton. In 657 Chlothar II of Francia gave the Bishop of Le Mans the power to appoint secular rulers (Dux, Comes) in Neustria (land between Seine & Loire rivers) probably including the Limes (March) against the Bretons. In 658 Kenwal of Wessex defeated the Dumnonians (West Welsh) at the Battle of Pen and took eastern ( of Gwynedd supported the Dumnonians). The same year saw Briton Pengwern annexed by Mercia. Wulfhere led Mercia to a victory against Kenwal of Wessex at Ashdown in Gewissae territory (Cuthred killed) in 661. About this time the West Saxon See moved from Dorchester-on-Thames to Winchester. This move put it further out of Mercian reach, but may have also represented the final dynastic dominance of the West Saxon over Gewissae elements. This generation saw the Briton dynasties as dependent allies of more powerful Saes dynasties.

Generation 14 (662-686):

In 663 the East Anglian Princess Aethelthryth married Princeps (sub-king) Tondbert of the South Gyrwe (Middle Angles of the Ely fenland). The Synod of Whitby was held by Oswiu in 664 and moved the Northumbrian church from Celtic (Irish) to Roman orbit. Abbot appointed to Glastonbury Monastery in 667, the first Saes ecclesiastical in this position. The Mercians moved the Diocese See from Repton to Litchfield in 669 by Bishop Chad. The year 670 saw Ecgfrith become Cyning of Northumbria, Kenwal of Wessex defeat the Britons of Somerset again, and the compilation (rough date) of the Tribal Hideage during the reign of Wulfhere of Mercia. In 671 Ecgfrith of Northumbria defeated the Picts at the Battle of Two Rivers and created the sub-kingdom of Lothian. This event was likely the final defeat of the Votandi Britons of Gododdin as well. Princess Aethelthryth of South Gyrwe (East Anglian) founded Ely Monastery in 673 the same year the Venerable was born in Northumbria. Wulfhere of Mercia was defeated in consecutive years by Ecgfrith of Northumbria in 674 (gained Lindsey) and then by Wessex. See of Hereford established by Bishop Putta (Saes) in 676 and Hereford Cathedral refounded. In 679 the Battle of Trent ended Northumbrian rule south of the Humber when Aethelred of Mercia regained Lindsey by defeating Ecgfrith of Northumbria. This year the Franks were again temporarily unified, this time by Theuderic III (originally of Neustria & Burgundy). In 680 Pippin II the Middle of the Carolingians became Mayor of the Palace in Australasia, he later added Neustria & Burgundy, was known as Duke & Prince of Franks, and effective replacement of Merovingians by Carolingians began. Centwine of Wessex was benefactor of Glastonbury Monastery (Briton founded) and West Saxons in

20 © Matt Schwoebel control of (Isca) by this time. Ecgfrith of Northumbria sanctioned raid on Ireland in 684 led by Berhtred, Dux Regius (sub-king), likely due to Ui Neill harboring Oswiu’s half-Irish son Aetheling Aldfrith. Several events occurred in the year 685. The Dumnonian Britons with Armorican naval support defeated Wessex and regained some lost ground. Carlisle, last Romano-Briton town with working aqueduct, fell to Northumbria and with it Briton Rheged. The Picts led by Bridei ap Beli crushed the Northumbrians of Ecgfrith at the Battle of Nechtansmere (Dunnichen). This victory secured the Highlands from Saes rule for almost a millennium. Aldfrith, half-Saes & half-Irish, succeeded to the Northumbrian throne. Lastly Caedwalla of Wessex began his quick conquest of Sussex and Kent. The year 686 saw Arwald, the last Pagan Saes King of Wight, defeated and killed in battle against Caedwalla of Wessex.

21 © Matt Schwoebel