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University of Saskatchewan UniversityUniversity ofof SaskatchewanSaskatchewan GeologicalGeological EngineeringEngineering GEOEGEOE 498.3498.3 IntroductionIntroduction toto MineralMineral EngineeringEngineering LectureLecture 22 •• UndergroundUnderground MiningMining MethodsMethods – Bulk vs. Selective – Reasons for Selection (Geotechnical, Geometry, Value, Grade, Dilution Control, Skill of work force, health and safety, etc) – Mining Equipment (mobile) – Tunneling Methods UndergroundUnderground MiningMining MethodsMethods • MINING METHOD Is defined as the manner of extraction of an ore deposit underground and depends on many factors. • Different Methods are used for Hardrock and Softrock as well as Bulk and Selective Mining FactorsFactors toto ConsiderConsider •• GeologicalGeological andand GeotechnicalGeotechnical ConsiderationsConsiderations –– StrengthStrength ofof OreOre –– StrengthStrength ofof hosthost rockrock –– StressStress fieldfield –– StructuralStructural GeologyGeology (faults,(faults, contacts,contacts, joints,joints, folds,folds, etc.)etc.) –– DimensionsDimensions ofof orebodyorebody (thickness,(thickness, strikestrike length,length, height)height) –– OrientationOrientation (dip,(dip, plunge)plunge) –– DepthDepth FactorsFactors toto ConsiderConsider •• EconomicEconomic andand LogisticalLogistical – Availability of Skilled Labour – Availability of Equipment – Availability of backfill – Legacy issues – Health and Safety factors – Economics • Production Requirements • Value of ore • Operating Cost • Capital cost • Processing cost CommonCommon RequirementsRequirements forfor allall MiningMining MethodsMethods •• AccessAccess forfor equipment,equipment, personnel,personnel, servicesservices (electricity,(electricity, water,water, compressedcompressed air,air, ventilation).ventilation). •• ArteriesArteries forfor thethe transporttransport ofof oreore && wastewaste outout ofof thethe minemine andand possiblypossibly backfillbackfill intointo thethe mine.mine. •• DrainageDrainage •• safesafe workingworking conditionsconditions ClassificationClassification ofof MiningMining MethodsMethods 7 Choice of Mining Method will impact • Orebody recovery and Dilution • Amount of development needed • Capital requirement and operating costs • Type of equipments required • Cycle time and sequence of operations • Production (tonnes per year) • Risk Classification of Underground Mining Methods • Two main Classes of Underground Mining Methods: –Bulk Mining (Caving, Open Stoping, VCR) –Selective Mining (Cut and Fill, Room and Pillar, Shrinkage) Sub-Classifications •• OverhandOverhand StopingStoping –– BottomBottom UpUp MethodMethod •• UnderhandUnderhand StopingStoping –– TopTop DownDown MethodMethod •• LongitudinalLongitudinal StopingStoping –– LongLong axisaxis ofof stopestope isis parallelparallel toto orebodyorebody strikestrike •• TransverseTransverse StopingStoping –– LongLong axisaxis ofof stopestope isis perpendicularperpendicular toto orebodyorebody strikestrike Sub-Classifications •• UnderhandUnderhand StopingStoping – Stability of the Orebody is very poor or there is no access to the lower part of the orebody – Examples: Underhand Cut and Fill used in narrow veins at depth or underhand Blast hole open stoping used for bulk mining. – Workers are always standing on solid ore and below supported or filled back. •• OverhandOverhand StopingStoping – Stoping operation start a the bottom of the orebody and proceeds to upward – Most popular method of stoping. Example: Shrinkage stoping, Cut and Fill stopes, Room and Pillar, Caving Methods, VCR Method of Mining, Sub Level Stoping HardHard RockRock SelectiveSelective MiningMining MethodsMethods •• RoomRoom andand PillarPillar •• CutCut andand FillFill •• ShrinkageShrinkage •• AlimakAlimak MiningMining •• RaiseRaise borebore andand BoxBox holehole MiningMining RoomRoom andand PillarPillar • Applicable to relatively flat orebodies and employ natural support (rock pillars). The orebody is excavated as completely as possible leaving ore/waste as pillars to support the hanging wall (back). Dimensions of the stopes and pillars depend upon factors such as the stability of the back, stability of the ore, thickness of the deposit and rock stresses. – Horizontal Mining is the most commonly used room and pillar method. It is applicable to horizontal or near horizontal deposits (< 5° dip) and to inclined deposits of greater thickness, with the floor arranged for a moderate slope that allows for use of mobile equipment. – Inclined Mining is for inclined orebodies (20° - 30° dip). Stoping proceeds upwards along the dip direction. The steep slope precludes use of mobile equipment. – Step Mining adapts horizontal stoping to an inclined orebody (20° - 45° dip). This is a recent development in the industry for mining orebodies that would otherwise be precluded by their steep dip. It requires a special layout of stopes and a sequence of extraction resulting in the use of mobile equipment. HorizontalHorizontal RoomRoom andand PillarPillar InclinedInclined RoomRoom andand PillarPillar StepStep RoomRoom andand PillarPillar RoomRoom andand PillarPillar RoomRoom andand PillarPillar RoomRoom andand PillarPillar FeaturesFeatures • Summary of Applications – relatively flat orebodies – limited thickness – competent hanging wall and ore • Advantages ... – good productivity – moderate cost – flexible method, amenable to mechanization – Selective – minimal early development – No backfill required • Disadvantages ... – possible ground control problems – Medium to low recovery, ore lost in pillars CutCut andand FillFill • Cut and fill stoping methods excavate ore in horizontal slices or lifts, starting at the bottom of a stope and advancing upwards. • The broken ore is removed from the stope after each lift is blasted. • After a slice is mucked out, the void is filled with backfill. The fill supports the walls and provides a working platform for mining the next lift. • Fill material can consist of waste rock however, it is more common to use tailings from the mill transported to mine in slurry form. • When water in the fill is drained off a competent fill with a smooth surface is produced. In some cases the material is mixed with cement to provide a harder and more durable surface with improved support characteristics. • Suited to steeply dipping, irregular orebodies, weak host rock or large tabular steeply dipping irregular orebodies for multiple lifts or cuts CutCut andand FillFill CutCut andand FillFill CutCut andand FillFill CutCut andand FillFill LongitudinalLongitudinal MCFMCF LongitudinalLongitudinal MCFMCF TransverseTransverse MCFMCF CutCut andand FillFill CutCut andand FillFill • Summary of application – orebody width 2m - 30m – tabular shape ... good for irregular orebodies – orebody dip 35o -90o – good for low strength / high stress regions – requires safe, stable back for man entry – Expensive, generally high grade ore required for this method to be economic – good selectivity minimum dilution CutCut andand FillFill • Advantage… – moderate production and scale – good selectivity – low development cost – adaptable to mechanization – flexible method – excellent recovery with low dilution – tailings can be disposed of as fill • Disadvantage… – high production cost – fill complicates cycle – requires stope access for mechanized equipment – labour intensive – ground settlement/instability risk CutCut andand FillFill VariationsVariations • Underhand Cut and Fill or Undercut and Fill – Developed to recover pillars or to mine low strength ore bodies – Mining top down and placing a cemented/reinforced mat over the working area ... enabling mining below. • Drift and Fill – Used to mine wide, flat, thin (<6m) orebodies with poor hanging wall conditions. Mining involves a series of parallel drifts with an access heading driven along the hanging wall contact. Each mined drift is filled with cemented sand fill ... providing back support for the next drift. • Post Pillar – Hybrid between room and pillar and cut and fill – moderately thick, flat, tabular ore bodies – moderate to low strength back UnderhandUnderhand CutCut andand FillFill Underhand cut-and-fill •Weak, narrow vein orebodies •Cemented backfill required PostPost PillarPillar CutCut andand FillFill ShrinkageShrinkage •• OreOre isis brokenbroken inin horizontalhorizontal slicesslices workingworking upwards.upwards. •• SufficientSufficient oreore withdrawnwithdrawn atat thethe bottombottom afterafter eacheach sliceslice toto accommodateaccommodate swellswell (30%(30% -- 40%)40%) •• RemainderRemainder staysstays inin thethe stopestope toto provideprovide aa workingworking platformplatform ...... removedremoved atat thethe end.end. •• StopesStopes separatedseparated byby intermediateintermediate (recoverable)(recoverable) pillarspillars ShrinkageShrinkage •• orebodyorebody widthwidth 1.2m1.2m -- 30m30m •• tabulartabular orebodyorebody;; regularregular boundariesboundaries •• dipdip >50>50°° •• stablestable hanginghanging wallwall andand footwallfootwall •• uniformuniform drawdraw downdown importantimportant •• dilutiondilution generallygenerally lowlow •• OreOre mustmust bebe unaffectedunaffected byby storagestorage inin stopestope •• LabourLabour intensiveintensive method,method, limitedlimited scopescope forfor mechanizationmechanization ShrinkageShrinkage ShrinkageShrinkage ShrinkageShrinkage • Summary of Application… – Shrinkage not a common method ... too labour intensive – Employed only where mechanization not possible. – Maintaining stope full of muck increases possible stope
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