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The Roles of Erosion Rate and Rock Strength in the Evolution of Canyons

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The Roles of Erosion Rate and Rock Strength in the Evolution of Canyons The Roles of Erosion Rate and Rock Strength in the Evolution of Canyons along the Colorado River by Andrew Lee Darling A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved August 2016 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Kelin Whipple, Chair Arjun Heimsath Steven Semken Ramón Arrowsmith Duane DeVecchio ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY December 2016 ABSTRACT For this dissertation, three separate papers explore the study areas of the western Grand Canyon, the Grand Staircase (as related to Grand Canyon) and Desolation Canyon on the Green River in Utah. In western Grand Canyon, I use comparative geomorphology between the Grand Canyon and the Grand Wash Cliffs (GWC). We propose the onset of erosion of the GWC is caused by slip on the Grand Wash Fault that formed between 18 and 12 million years ago. Hillslope angle and channel steepness are higher in Grand Canyon than along the Grand Wash Cliffs despite similar rock types, climate and base level fall magnitude. These experimental controls allow inference that the Grand Canyon is younger and eroding at a faster rate than the Grand Wash Cliffs. The Grand Staircase is the headwaters of some of the streams that flow into Grand Canyon. A space-for-time substitution of erosion rates, supported by landscape simulations, implies that the Grand Canyon is the result of an increase in base level fall rate, with the older, slower base level fall rate preserved in the Grand Staircase. Our data and analyses also support a younger, ~6-million-year estimate of the age of Grand Canyon that is likely related to the integration of the Colorado River from the Colorado Plateau to the Basin and Range. Complicated cliff-band erosion and its effect on cosmogenic erosion rates are also explored, guiding interpretation of isotopic data in landscapes with stratigraphic variation in quartz and rock strength. Several hypotheses for the erosion of Desolation Canyon are tested and refuted, leaving one plausible conclusion. I infer that the Uinta Basin north of Desolation Canyon is eroding slowly and that its form represents a slow, stable base level fall rate. Downstream of Desolation Canyon, the Colorado River is inferred to have established itself in the exhumed region of Canyonlands and to have incised to near modern depths prior to the integration of the Green River and the production of relief in Desolation Canyon. Analysis of incision and erosion rates in the region suggests integration is relatively recent. i DEDICATION To Ioana Elise Hociota Our friend, a young woman whose passion for Grand Canyon may never be surpassed ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My scientific career began in earnest thanks to Rex Cole and Andres Aslan, who inspired my youthful mind to try new things and learn as much as possible. Their guidance lead to novel research before I even had a degree. Many days in the field brought their mentorship to an impactful level, and I owe them a great deal of gratitude. Karl Karlstrom and Laura Crossey took those seeds of inspiration and sky-rocketed them to new heights, expanding my thoughts through graduate school and introducing me to one of the most influential places in my life: Grand Canyon. Even after I left their direct tutelage, I looked to them for advice and support in science, in the field and in life for the following 6 years, and counting…. Getting a PhD has been a stressful and enjoyable marathon, possible only because of a fantastic advisor. I wish my repeated efforts to nominate him for advisor-ship awards were more successful. Kelin Whipple deserves many accolades for thoughtful scientific inspiration, yes, but probably more importantly, he deserves them for his balanced and kind approach to “life’s little hand-grenades”, the infinite possibilities of events that could pulverize an attempt to get a PhD into much wasted effort. Kelin, thank you for your invaluable and unwavering mentorship through the difficulties life has thrown at my wife and me in our graduate careers. My career started to steer toward research in thinking and learning thanks to Steven Semken. This new tack in life helped to spawn my first job out of graduate school, where I have the freedom to research education or geology as I wish (and can get funded). My motivation for this broadened work was to better myself as a teacher and researcher, and I hope to contribute to teaching and learning as a professional practice. Much of my excitement for getting a PhD at ASU came from my first meetings with Arjun Heimsath, who has been a key member of my committee, and has inspired much thought and enjoyment of the field of geomorphology. Ramon Arrowsmith and Thomas Sharp have been helpful and insightful committee members, helping along not only this dissertation, but also with other courses and opportunities. This appreciation especially goes to NASA space grant with Tom’s support, which gave me the iii opportunity to learn how to do education research and interact with hundreds of middle school students. I believe that experience will prove useful in my new interests in geoscience education research. Special thanks to Duane DeVecchio for last-minute inclusion in the defense process and for help in the field for the work in Desolation Canyon. The most influential experience in graduate school has been meeting and developing a relationship with my wife. At first, it was the ease and simplicity of an adventure-buddy who worked a few buildings away and started a PhD at the same time. Dr. Cameron Byerley has walked me through the toughest moments of graduate school. One might expect that the two of us writing our dissertations at the same time, and defending within weeks of each other, would be too stressful on a couple. We have found it to be cathartic to spend all of our days in a row for months, often within 5 feet of each other, writing away and chatting about how things are going and making faces at each other. I can’t imagine how I would have held myself together throughout this project without my amazing wife, Cammie. Fellow students Roman DiBiase, Byron Adams, Matt Rossi, and Matt Jungers as well as former post-doc Frances Cooper were the idols of the office. The always revered, more advanced graduate students shine the light on where to go through a career in science and life around and beyond graduate school. I hope I’ve been able to fill their shoes. I’d like to thank Marina Foster, Scott Robinson and Sayaka Araki as a great cohort to start PhD’s with. This research and my education have been made possible with grants and fellowships from the National Science Foundation, Science Foundation Arizona, and the ASU/NASA Space Grant Program. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................... x LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................ ix PREFACE .....................................................................................................................................xxiii Motivation ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Brief Geologic Background of the Colorado Plateau .................................................................... 2 Cenozoic Tectonic Setting .................................................................................................... 2 Tertiary Rivers and Basins .................................................................................................... 3 Sedimentation to Erosion, Transition through the Neogene ................................................. 5 Climate Interactions with Erosion .......................................................................................... 6 Conceptual Framework of Canyon Incision ................................................................................... 7 Chapter 2 Outline .................................................................................................................. 8 Chapter 3 Outline ................................................................................................................ 10 Chapter 4 Outline ................................................................................................................ 11 Chapter 5 Outline ................................................................................................................ 11 References ..................................................................................................................................11 Abstract........................................................................................................................................20 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................20 Motivation ............................................................................................................................ 20 Approach and Scope ........................................................................................................... 23 Background and Methods of River Profile Analysis ....................................................................23 River Canyon Formation: Lithology or Base level .......................................................................27 Amount of River Incision and Relief Production ..........................................................................30
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