Seventeenth through Nineteenth scholars Hugh Barbour and J. William Frost Century Quakers as the note how “In the English Northwest, Fox and Nayler were at first violently beaten or stoned First Advocates for Insane, and called Puritans.”[1] Friends seeking to Imprisoned, and Impoverished escape religious intolerance in England clashed Populations with Puritan ideology in the early American

colonies. The average Quaker was ostracized and persecuted in England, and more so in New Joanna Riley England. Puritans carried out harsh, cruel Senior, Secondary Education/Social Studies punishments freely in the new world,

effectively stunting the spread of Quakerism in The Society of Friends, especially in the New England. As a result, Philadelphia city of Philadelphia, was the only group in the provided ample audiences who would attend seventeenth century through mid-nineteenth weekly, monthly, and annual major meetings, century to align themselves with the plight of but also to further advancement in policy and those deemed insane, imprisoned, or reform efforts. impoverished. While the connection to the Concerned with the lack of Quaker insane was seemingly decided on by those institutions for those within the Society of outside of the Society of Friends, their Friends, and excluded from English first-hand experience of being thrown into institutions, they began founding their own. prison simply for being Quaker brought to light Originally, these places were to be created by the awful conditions within. Women served not and for the Quakers themselves, in order to only as ministers and proponents within the better facilitate rehabilitation to fellow Friends. Quaker movement, but also as caregivers and Gradually, they expanded their mission to nurses within the institutions created by the include those outside the faith; Quaker or not, Friends in order to improve society as a whole. anyone was welcome into these institutions. They were also observed within these The existing asylums and prisons in England institutions as patients and prisoners. The were overcrowded, dark, and ridden with names Hannah Mills and Julia Moore may not disease; before Quaker intervention, no school yet be familiar, but the course of this research of thought championed treating each ailment or requires their experiences with the Society of situation separately. Existing research on the Friends be included. Quakers as leading humanitarian reform are In England, early Quakers were plentiful, but often only discussed in English or themselves be seen as mad, possessed by American terms, rather than both demons, and acutely radical. The popular belief simultaneously. was, the Inner Light would enter their bodies so The York Retreat, in York, England is a profoundly and cause them to literally shake; shining example of an improved asylum and hence, the term Quaker. English founder has been modeled after by other institutions on George Fox and minister James Nayler, were nearly every continent. There, the Friends' regularly victims of hate. Prominent Quaker unwavering belief of the Inner Light, regardless 1 of wealth or state of mind, allowed them to subhuman. Philadelphia, more so than any begin and continue humane treatment methods, other colonial city, was the figurative center of with the goal of reintegration back into society. the newly born . In their efforts to Some of the first, crucial Friends, found great rehabilitate anyone willing to undertake doing talents in spreading the word of George Fox so, the Society of Friends greatly reduced the and Quaker doctrines, especially women. stigma directed at these disadvantaged groups Within the institutions set up to serve the in America. The benevolence of Philadelphia insane, imprisoned, and needy, women found Quakers can also be seen in abolition efforts, great success working as nurses, compassionate public education, and the temperance caregivers, and key reformers in the movement. movement. By having their own, Quaker English women Friends would travel institutions and faith as a means to reach the throughout Europe and even into the colonies seemingly lost, they urged the construction of to spread Fox’s teachings. While the existing new and improved establishments, such as scholarship acknowledges the many Friends Hospital and Eastern State Penitentiary contributions of early female Friends, there is in Philadelphia. Before the reforms ushered in little discussion of the female experience within by prominent Philadelphia Quakers, the the insane, imprisoned, and impoverished treatment of the insane, imprisoned, and poor populations; hence the inclusion of both was cruel, harsh, and all around unpleasant. Hannah Mills and Julia Moore. Often chained to filthy, windowless cells, violent offenders along with those suffering The very notion that those who had lost from neurological or chronic disabilities only their will or ability to reason deserved more made the overcrowding within prison walls than confinement and neglect, and were in fact more intense and dangerous. The Walnut Street able to become productive citizens was radical Jail had become severely overcrowded, and to most English thinkers of the seventeenth disease and danger ran rampant. Emphasis was century. Prisoners were chained to windowless placed on severe punishment, rather than the walls, covered in filth and vermin and often rehabilitation and reintegration of prisoners kept alongside those who had lost their will to back into society. Philadelphia Quakers aimed reason, deemed mad, or those just in debt. In to instead focus on rehabilitating the human, both Europe and America, the existing regardless of their illness, crime, or income, institutions for these marginalized groups and did so by founding both institutions and proved insufficient to serve the diverse, organizations. growing populations of cities such as York, or Philadelphia. Quaker women and men, both Much is known about William Penn and new and veteran, became pioneers in founder George Fox, but what of Hannah Mills, humanitarian efforts; many of their institutions or Julia Moore? These women's stories present remain in operation today. readers with accounts of the female experience in pre-and post revolutionary England and Similar to conditions of the insane and Philadelphia asylums, prisons, and almshouses. imprisoned found in England, the destitute Hannah Mills was a young Quaker patient population in colonial Philadelphia were seen being treated at the York Insane Asylum in as a burden on society, and often treated as 2 England. It was her sudden death, surrounded I aim to answer the question, how did by mysterious circumstances, that prompted a Philadelphia Quakers assist in these early renewed sense of urgency to reform these reform efforts? Why was it the Society of institutions. Wealthy and well-respected Friends chose to take up the sizeable task of merchant William Tuke and his grandson, making life for those largely ignored by Samuel Tuke, successfully lobbied for the English society, their own personal mission construction of a new safe haven for the insane once in America? The dedication to discipline in England. Penn would continue the mission on the part of early Friends was clear, and their of English Friends in , ensuring desire to spread enlightenment through prisoners would be limited to violators of the personal means with God allowed many to find newly instilled penal code, and only after a fair his love. Simultaneously, seventeenth century trial. Friends began to study medicine as a respected science. Hannah Mills, in late eighteenth Each book encountered during this century England, had no idea her premature research referenced at least one other source in death would inspire a century-long movement the accompanying bibliography. While George geared at improving methods for the treatment Fox would have likely prayed for an ailment of the impaired. At the turn of the eighteenth cure, or treatment for those who had lost their century in America, William Penn made the reasoning abilities, Quakers soon realized that necessary penal reforms to allow for just, fair science also held merit. They chose to begin trials and/or punishment or rehabilitation for all studying medicine before it had become the Pennsylvanians. Julia Moore is just one norm, especially women seeking to help others example of how those who have lost their way and remain ardent in their faith. The emphasis were able to find new hope in their lives, on prayer and individual devotion to attain a thanks in part at least to nineteenth century cure would have been the average course of Philadelphia Friends. Julia herself did not write action for most Quaker doctors, ministers, and the account of her time and death in Eastern elders of the seventeenth century. However, State Penitentiary, yet it is a riveting primary subsequent centuries would see women source, well-documented and published by beginning to study medicine, though not until female Friends in Philadelphia. The Friends the early nineteenth century in growing who donated their time, efforts, and energy to numbers. The shifts in political, religious, and those otherwise abandoned by society economic values within the society of Friends demonstrate clearly their doctrine of Inner during the eighteenth century served to further Light. The document, published by the Female innovate techniques first introduced in the prior Prison Association of Friends in Philadelphia, century, and introduce new concepts to be was proof that rehabilitation was possible, even carried into the nineteenth. The Quaker for the seemingly lost. The discipline, silence at dedication improving the overall moral health meetings, and pursuit of Truth in everything, of society was the driving force behind their are all meant to let the Light Within shine humanitarian efforts, in both England and through unhindered. Had it not been for the Philadelphia. efforts of these early Philadelphia Quakers, creation of mental-health oriented institutions, 3 prison reform, nor welfare systems would be so jail.”[2] The most common methods of evolved. Philadelphia Quakers served the treatment within English prisons were insane, incarcerated, and impoverished starvation and bleeding. Starving prisoners populations of the seventeenth through chained to dungeon-like walls and limited nineteenth centuries by actively petitioning for access to facilities only added to the turmoil expansive humanitarian efforts and donating found within the overcrowded prison walls. In not only money, but their time, energy, and addition, jail officials often sold contraband to compassion. inmates, who ranged from debtors to the delusional. “In 1669 George Fox advised his George Fox and Seventeenth Century followers to provide a house for them that be Quakers distempered” [3] in order to try and rehabilitate George Fox, the founder of Quakerism, those considered to be insane. There, they is often considered to be the last great thinker could be seen and treated by medical to come out of the Enlightenment. Instead of professionals, privately and with dignity. Those accepting the Church of England, he founded a deemed insane were often put on display as religion dedicated to inner reflection and the curiosities to amuse the general public, further pursuit of Truth from within. The opulence of solidifying their subhuman status. the monarchy was rejected by Friends, who Eighteenth Century English Friends, the dressed in plain dark colors head to toe, and York Retreat, & Hannah Mills refused to bow before any man. Early English ​ Quakers, including Fox, were often jailed, and Visitors to English prisons and asylums their experiences while confined drove some such as Quaker reformer Samuel Tuke took Friends to literally lose their minds. Those who notice of their squalid, primitive conditions. were released never forgot the horrors present The grandson of wealthy tea merchant William inside the prison, and strove to somehow help Tuke, Samuel wrote “In the year 1791, a those still imprisoned. Within the Society, female, of the Society of Friends, was placed at women were especially valued and their an establishment for insane persons, in the contributions numerous, especially as early vicinity of the City of York; and her family, proponents of the movement. In 1931, The residing at a considerable distance, requested Quakers as Pioneers in Social Work was some of their acquaintance in the City to visit published. Author Dr. Auguste Jorns noted Fox her”[4] however, these visitors were turned and his ability to engage women in reform away on the basis that the patient was not well efforts during the mid-seventeenth century. enough to be seen. Hannah Mills, the female “During his visits to the various meetings he patient being described by Samuel Tuke, died had recognized the necessity of securing the prematurely just a few weeks after the help of the women, and with assistance of a aforementioned incident at the York Lunatic certain Sara Blackbourne (or Blackbury) he Asylum. Samuel Tuke would later petition succeeded in assembling a circle of sixty Friends at the Quarterly Meeting held at York women, who watched over the interests of the in March, 1792. Despite the failure of another poor and sick, of widows and orphans, and such Quaker institute dedicated to the care of above all of their fellow members who were in the insane, the York Retreat was constructed 4 and opened in 1796. Both Samuel and William to dealing with the imprisoned population. Tuke were instrumental in securing funds, land, William Penn himself wrote the Charter of and ongoing support of this institution; many Privileges in 1701, and his fifth point reads, criticized the thought of trying to rehabilitate “THAT all Criminals shall have the same criminals, and especially, the insane. Not Privileges of Witnesses and Council as their surprisingly, critics were skeptical of any Prosecutors.”[8] Meaning every individual is Quaker involvement in the sciences, which in entitled to a fair trial complete with due the seventeenth century had just begun to process, whether they are a defendant or part of evolve. Dr. Auguste Jorns wrote in German the prosecution. While still just beginning to first, his work later translated by Thomas Kite settle in the Delaware Valley, priorities were Brown, how “systematic medicine was still in made amongst Friends to instill both a penal its infancy; so that it is easy to understand code and protection of religious freedom. seventeenth century Quakers had little respect “Penn and his legislators constructed a legal for it.”[5] However, with the Quaker dedication system that incorporated the reforms that many to literacy, a spirit of scientific inquiry and Friends in seventeenth century England had study would soon emerge, with Philadelphia at championed”[9] which included provisions for the forefront. the insane, imprisoned, and destitute populations around them. Friends in Seventeenth Century North America Quaker Institutions of Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Philadelphia As a direct result of Puritan persecution of Quakers in America, William Comfort The Pennsylvania Hospital had been writes how the “cursed-sect” of the Quakers founded in 1751 with a mission to help the received their worst treatment and between poor, sick, and “In 1796 a separate wing was 1659 and 1661 four of them were hanged on built for housing one hundred insane patients, Boston Common.”[6] Puritans were especially the first recognition in America that the hateful towards the Society of Friends, and mentally ill required a special medical public punishments such as the aforementioned institution” [10] with the help of Philadelphia hangings severely limited the spread of Friends. As Friends became more involved in Quakerism in New England. In sharp contrast humanitarian efforts, their role in government to the restrictions of Puritan New England, shriveled. By “1756 the Quakers in the stood Pennsylvania, and its steady stream of Assembly, though supported by the German English Friends. An Englishman named population, felt they could not consistently vote WIlliam Penn was advertising land for sale and for war preparations, and most of them retired “From 1682, when Penn landed on American from the legislature.”[11] Some scholars say shores to found his new colony, to the the Friends traded in their civic involvement establishment of the United States of America, for a more humanitarian approach, aimed at the settlers followed the humane concepts of improving society's morals by reforming the the Founder.”[7] William Penn had an individual. William C. Kashatus III wrote how extensive background as a lawmaker, and was “After officially withdrawing from the able to pass considerable legislation in regards Pennsylvania Assembly during the 5 French-Indian War, Friends entered a period of affairs and to look at religious and moral internal spiritual reform that eventually led to a concerns at a local level.”[16] The ability of more tribalistic relationship to the larger Quaker men and women to join forces in society.”[12] The Quakers saw the urgent need improving conditions was in part due to their for reform in regards to the imprisoned, insane, acceptance of science and study of medicine and impoverished communities around them, and continued to pioneer treatment methods. and set out to do just that; strengthen the larger Meanwhile, “On May 8, 1787, a small society by tending to those otherwise ignored group of men, armed with Christian or disadvantaged within the existing benevolence and the desire to improve the mainstream. conditions of the Walnut Street Prison, In fact, “By the middle of the eighteenth established the Philadelphia Society for century Philadelphia was enjoying a flowering Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons.”[17] of scientific endeavor of which several Quakers This group was in part founded by physician played an active role.”[13] Institutions such as , and some years later Benjamin Pennsylvania Hospital and the American Franklin joined. Quakers wanted to improve Philosophical Society remain in operation society as a whole, and began many other today. In addition, the “Quaker withdrawal organizations geared toward reforming the from governmental office had the effect of treatment of prisoners, insane, and placing eighteenth-century Quaker men and impoverished communities. Writing of the women in more comparable positions.”[14] same year, Catherine Drinker Bowen details the The daily oversight of the poor was left to the day by day events and arrivals of delegates women Friends, who taught skills such as from every state (including Franklin) to the sewing, or gardening as a way to keep inmates Constitutional Convention. In Philadelphia she and patients occupied and productive during notes how “at home there was an example in their stays. The first methods of occupational the Quakers, who in cases of public service therapy were also introduced by Quakers considered the less profit, the greater working in these institutions, often as honor.”[18] Though Benjamin Franklin himself volunteers. In addition, was not a Quaker, his support was crucial, and “Mid-eighteenth-century reformers also helped the Friends to secure funding for reversed any tendency to diminish the various social projects. As a result, “After 1790 opportunity for female service in Quaker a concerted effort was maintained, as is done in church government, advocating the prisons today, to separate the different types of establishment of additional women’s meetings criminals.”[19] At the Walnut Street Jail, four at all levels of the society.”[15] Women also categories of prisoners were used to separate formed their own voluntary organizations and them. The use of solitary confinement was called for increased discipline within the reduced to only one of these groups, while the Society of Friends. “To evaluate the part played others were able to participate in employment by women in the Quaker community it is within the prison, or even take classes at the essential to divorce The religious experience of Walnut Street Jail. “From 1790 to 1799- a Friends From their involvement In political decade of experimentation in penology-the

6 Walnut Street Jail became the mecca for do so. Unfortunately, her disease would worsen students of penal reform from various parts of and then subside, periodically throughout her the country as well as from Europe.”[20] incarceration. She practically memorized the Architects and scholarly visitors from abroad Bible, and held it and its teachings in the came to marvel at Walnut Street Jail, which the utmost esteem. “She read her Bible attentively, city had come to take a great deal of pride in. and though the light of Truth shone at times Meanwhile, Female Friends in Philadelphia with brightness, yet the sins of her youth created their own version of the pressed weightily upon her spirit”[23] as she aforementioned group, and joined them in the knew she had sinned, and carried it with her. tremendous undertaking of oversight of the Julia longed to feel the acceptance and public prisons and those confined within them. forgiveness of Jesus Christ, and it was through him she found her own salvation. She would Eastern State Penitentiary & Julia Moore, come to view her jail sentence as a blessing in Nineteenth Century Philadelphia disguise, and continued to keep in touch with Even in the case of Julia Moore, who female Friends throughout her incarceration. had “joined hands with the workers of Even though she would die in Eastern iniquity,” and participating in a cruel robbery, State Penitentiary, the help she received from was arrested, and sentenced to seven years’ Friends did more than just make her imprisonment, before she had completed her comfortable and occupied. One day, a Friend twenty-eighth year”[21], all hope was not lost. working closely with Julia noted how She was sentenced to Eastern State “Suddenly she was inspired with hope, and the Penitentiary, which had pioneered the notions query arose in her mind, “May there not be of solitary confinement and inner reflection room even for me?” And the possibility of such necessary for guidance by the Inner Light. She a mercy filled her soul with joy.”[24] Julia had entered as a literal and figurative wreck, and indeed found God, and would sing him praise was after a previous, failed attempt, receptacle until her last breath. She let the Inner Light to advice of the Friends assisting her. At first, guide her away from using profound language before being sentenced to jail, Julia had resisted such as curse words; she describes in her the words of Friends trying to help her leave account how Jesus took away those strong behind her life of sin. However, it took the impulses to use indecent language. Within a prison sentence to fully introduce her to year of her imprisonment, Julia seemed to be spiritual redemption. enlightened and eternally grateful for the day Early in her stay, Julia was visited by an which she arrived to the penitentiary. elderly male minister, and “Although the According to Julia, she found “that it was a minister’s remarks above alluded to, were at great mercy that she had been stopped short in first, unwelcome tidings, she had been favoured her career of infamy, and cast into prison”[25] to recognise the mercy that was mingled with rather than dead on the streets. such an exposure of her real situation”[22]; he Not all prisoners were open to the had said what she needed to hear. The only way Quaker discipline, and here Julia also tried to to avoid a life of sin was if she, herself chose to spread the messages of Jesus she had learned. 7 While involved in a life of crime, her so-called was to restore patients with full use of their friends and partners in crime had not been capacities, and regain entry into mainstream nearly as nice as the Friends she encountered in society as productive citizens. Eastern State, a prison. Julia said, “Oh! If my When this facility and the Walnut Street poor fellow prisoners would only believe in Jail both became dangerously overcrowded, the what you say, and feel His love as I do, they need for a new and improved penitentiary would be so full of happiness, they would not became a pressing issue. A constant sentiment care for anything else. I often feel so sorry for was held in regards to Walnut Street Jail, as them, that I try and pray your instructions may “the city took pride in it and its novel be blessed to them all.”[26] She reiterates how arrangements for the humane treatment of her only joy as of late was through Jesus Christ, prisoners, after the notions of Philadelphia and for introducing her to him, she was forever Quakers and the philosophy of the Italian grateful for the Friends of Philadelphia. reformer, Beccaria, who believed that evildoers Unbeknownst to her, Julia Moore was observed should be helped as well as punished.” [28] with the intention to showcase the Quaker However, the population of Philadelphia surged penal reform as successful. The Female Prison and required several additions to each of these Association of Friends in Philadelphia had her institutions in order to house ever-increasing account published in 1844, just a short year numbers of prisoners and those both diagnosed after she had passed away. Rehabilitation was or seemingly insane. The end result was the the ultimate goal of many Quaker institutions construction of an entirely new establishment; and organizations, more so than the public Eastern State Penitentiary. display of punishment that had prevailed in early America. Eastern State Penitentiary was open and housed prisoners from 1829 until January of Other Prominent Nineteenth Century 1971, and has since been declared a National Quaker Institutions in Philadelphia ​ Historic Landmark. Like Julia Moore, the first Also in Philadelphia, “The Friends prisoner to enter the new, state-of-the-art Asylum for the Insane had pioneered in the penitentiary, was sentenced to jail for care of the mentally disturbed from 1813, when committing burglary. While the it first opened its doors in then-rural experimentation with solitary confinement had Frankford.”[27] The Friends Asylum heralded begun at Walnut Street Jail a century earlier, it its success of completely avoiding the use of was at Eastern State Penitentiary where it took heavy chains or withholding food as the main full form, and drew both praise and criticism means of punishment, though chains were still from visitors. Charles Dickens himself wrote of used to restrain unruly patients at times. The his personal disapproval of giving men no sprawling structure housed a gymnasium, contact whatsoever with other humans. tennis Court, extensive lawns and was the first Meanwhile, Alexis de Tocqueville, visiting such institution in North America, dedicated to from France, admired the discipline the those who had lost their ability to reason, who prisoners seemed to exhibit. Both American often still received barbaric treatment and European guests marveled at the brilliant reminiscent of the Middle Ages. The goal here architecture of the prison, laid out in a 8 spoke-wheel design and marveled at the organizations in Europe and the United States, individual plumbing and heating units within to better serve and improve society as a whole. each cell. Each corridor was visible from the George Fox sought to inform every man central hub, which further demanded obedience and woman of the Inner Light each of them from each individual within. Heads of prisoners carries intrinsically. Hannah Mills perished were covered on the rare occasion they likely because of the treatment she received travelled outside their cells, in order to while at the York Insane Asylum. In response, completely cut them off from their former lives William and later Samuel Tuke would petition of crime. The hope was they would re emerge, for a new asylum, dedicated to the wellbeing of without the temptations of vice or bad Friends, which was very much needed. William company, and become productive citizens after Penn looked toward the New World for a green having an extensive amount of time to reflect living space where Quakers could worship as on their wrongdoings. Author Michael Meranze they saw fit, and a fair trial available to anyone finds “evidence that “the most knowing entering a courthouse. While Julia Moore had rouges” avoided committing crimes that might the misfortune of dying young, she was greatly result in a penitentiary sentence, they insisted, assisted by Friends in finding Jesus and were “powerful reasons for extending its remaining faithful all while her rehabilitation at operation, to those penitentiary offenses not at Eastern State Penitentiary. present comprehended within the statute” of 1829.”[29] In this sense, the prison population Each of these figures, men and women, would inherently decrease, as returnees to Quaker and non, were examples of a society would have left behind their sinful concentrated effort to redefine how the world ways and acquaintances long ago. The Inner regarded those deemed insane, imprisoned, and Light would guide wrongdoers in the right impoverished. The stigma related to these direction, at least ideally. groups would be relaxed, not eradicated, but only after Quaker intervention. The necessity to To conclude this research, hopefully treat the insane as unique cases perhaps able to one other person sees how the Philadelphia acclimate back into society, was suggested first Quakers of the seventeenth through nineteenth by the Quakers. Simultaneously, the need to centuries were the primary advocates for the lessen the terrible conditions in overcrowded insane, imprisoned, and impoverished city prisons was given increased attention, and communities around them. Their humanitarian thus Eastern State Penitentiary was created. efforts have greatly assisted the scientific Furthermore, the Quakers were best suited to research and progress made in regards to care provide assistance to not only Friends in for the diagnosis and treatment of the mentally Philadelphia, but other young women within ill, as well as conditions for prisoners, and the open doors of Quaker almshouses. The those who have financially fallen on hard names taught and learned in school are often times. Their efforts were limited to only benefit limited to key players. The everyday, average Friends at first, as they were excluded from Quaker voice goes unheard; women even more English establishments. In turn, an urgent need so. Philadelphia provided the Friends with an arose for Friends to create both institutions and endless supply of needy populations, and the 9 waves of reform came for not only the insane, Jorns, Auguste. The Quakers as Pioneers in Social imprisoned, and impoverished, but also for the Work. Translated by Thomas Kite Brown. Port public education system, abolition of slavery, Washington: Kennikat Press, Inc., 1969. and temperance movement. The Society of Kashatus, William C. “The Inner Light and Popular Friends chose to leave behind a legacy of Enlightenment: Philadelphia Quakers and Charity humanitarian efforts to benefit future Schooling. 1790-1820.” The Pennsylvania generations; they succeeded. Often excluded Magazine of History and Biography 118, no. 1/2 (Jan-Apr., 1994): 87-116. from current scholarship are the narratives of http://www.jstor.org/stable/20092846. those found within these institutions. Philadelphia Quakers of the seventeenth Larson, Rebecca. Daughters of Light: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies through nineteenth centuries greatly assisted and Abroad, 1700-1775. : Alfred A. the advancement of proper treatment for the Knopf, 1999. so-called insane, such as Hannah Mills, and Julia Moore, who was both imprisoned and Meranze, Michael. Laboratories of Virtue: Punishment, Revolution, and Authority in impoverished by forming and serving various Philadelphia, 1760-1835. Chapel Hill: University of associations and charitable organizations. North Carolina Press, 1996.

*Penn, William. Charter of Privileges Granted by William Penn, esq. to the Inhabitants of Bibliography Pennsylvania and Territories, October 28, 1701. In *An Account of Julia Moore, A Penitent Female the Avalon Project at Yale Law School, 1-5. New who died in the Eastern State Penitentiary of Haven: Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Pennsylvania, in the year 1843.” The Female Prison Library, 1701. Association of Friends in Philadelphia (1844): 1-20. *Pennsylvania Prison Society: Records, 1787-1966, https://books.google.com/books?id=0y2JuALHNE n.d. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania, AC. Collection 1946. Barbour, Hugh and J. William Frost. The Quakers. Skidmore, Rex A. “Penological Pioneering in The Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988. Walnut Street Jail, 1789-1799.” Journal of Criminal Comfort, William Wistar. The Quakers: A Brief Law and Criminology 39, no. 2 (1948-1949): Account of Their Influence on Pennsylvania. 167-180. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Historical Association, Smolenski, John. Friends and Strangers: The 1948. Making of a Creole Culture in Colonial Bacon, Margaret Hope. The Quiet Rebels: The Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: University of Story of Quakerism in America. Philadelphia: New Pennsylvania Press, 2010. Society Publishers, 1985. Soderlund, Jean R. “Women’s Authority in Bowen, Catherine Drinker. Miracle at Philadelphia: Pennsylvania and Quaker Meetings, 1680-1760.” The Story of the Constitutional Convention May to The William and Mary Quarterly 44, no. 4 (Oct., September 1787. Boston: Little, Brown and 1987): 722-749. Company, 1966. *Tuke, Samuel. Description of the Retreat, An Institution near York, For Insane Persons of The Society of Friends. Containing an Account of its

10 Origin and Progress, the Modes of Treatment, and a [10] Barbour and Frost, 165. Statement of Cases. York: England, 1813, 1-212. [11] Comfort, 41. *denotes Primary Source document [12] William C. Kashatus III, The Inner Light and [1] Barbour, Hugh and J. William Frost. The Popular Enlightenment: Philadelphia Quakers and Quakers (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988), 28. Charity Schooling, 1790-1820 (Philadelphia: The Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1994), 87. [2]Auguste Jorns. The Quakers as Pioneers in Social Work Translated by Thomas Kite Brown [13] Margaret Hope Bacon, The Quiet Rebels: The (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1931), Story of the Quakers in America (Philadelphia: 67-8. New Society Publishers, 1985), 61.

[3] Margaret Hope Bacon, The Quiet Rebels: The [14] Rebecca Larson. Daughters of Light: Quaker Story of the Quakers in America (Philadelphia: Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies New Society Publishers, 1985), 139. and Abroad, 1700-1775. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), 231. [4] Samuel Tuke, Description of the Retreat, an Institution Near York, for Insane Persons of the [15] Larson, 231. Society of Friends. Containing an Account of its [16] Jean R. Soderlund, “Women’s Authority in Origins and Progress, the Modes of Treatment, and Pennsylvania and Meetings, a Statement of Cases, 1813. Printed for W. 1680-1760” William & Mary Quarterly 44, no. 4 Alexander, and sold by him (York: England, 1813), (1987): 146. 87. [17] Pennsylvania Prison Society Records, [5] Auguste Jorns. The Quakers as Pioneers in 1787-1966. 1946. Pennsylvania Prison Society Social Work Translated by Thomas Kite Brown Records (Philadelphia, The Historical Society of (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1931), 145. Pennsylvania, 1946), 1. [6] William Wistar Comfort, The Quakers: A Brief [18] Catherine Drinker Bowen, Miracle at Account of Their Influence on Pennsylvania Philadelphia: The Story of the Constitutional (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Historical Association, Convention May to September 1787 (Boston: 1948), 3. Atlantic Monthly Press, 1966), 61. [7] Negley K. Teeters, The Cradle of the [19] Rex A. Skidmore, “Penological Pioneering in Penitentiary: The Walnut Street Jail at Philadelphia the Walnut Street Jail, 1789-1799” Journal of 1773-1835 (Philadelphia: Temple University, Criminal Law and Criminology 39, no. 2 1965), 2. (1948-1949): 173. [8] William Penn, Charter of Privileges Granted by [20] Teeters, 1. William Penn,esq. to the Inhabitants of Pennsylvania and Territories, October 28th, 1701. [21] The Female Prison Association of Friends in 1701. In the Avalon Project, Documents in Law, Philadelphia, An Account of Julia Moore, A History, and Diplomacy (New Haven: Yale Law Penitent Female, Who Died in the Eastern School, 2008), 1-3. Penitentiary of Pennsylvania, In the Year 1843. (Philadelphia: Joseph and William Kite, 1844), 4. [9] John Smolenski, Friends and Strangers: The Making of a Creole Culture in Colonial [22] An Account of Julia Moore, 6. This minister Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: University of told her she was a creature of sin, and essentially Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 71.

11 needed to change her ways, which seemed to open Julia’s eyes to her dire situation.

[23] An Account of Julia Moore, 7.

[24] An Account of Julia Moore, 8. She is elated at the fact that even though she has sinned, there is room in heaven, with Jesus, even for her.

[25] An Account of Julia Moore, 8. Being arrested and sentenced to Eastern State was to Julia, a true blessing, for within her cell she learned how to self-reflect and let her Inner Light guide her, rather than her bad decisions.

[26] An Account of Julia Moore, 10. Julia almost takes on the role of a minister by urging her fellow inmates to listen more to the Friends assisting them.

[27] Philip S. Benjamin, The Philadelphia Quakers in the Industrial Age 1865-1920 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1976), 104.

[28] Drinker Bowen, 49-50.

[29] Michael Meranze, Laboratories of Virtue: Punishment, Revolution, and Authority in Philadelphia, 1760-1835 (Williamsburg: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 295.

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