adb_parkingpolicycoverfa_6.5 mm spine_30 Jun.pdf 1 6/30/2011 11:07:59 AM Parking Policy in Asian Cities Most Asian cities are facing an acute parking crisis as a result of rapid urbanization and motorization, and high urban densities. Parking policy is an important component of a holistic approach to sustainable urban transport across the region. The report provides an international comparative perspective on parking policy in Asian cities, while highlighting the nature of the policy choices available. It is a step in building a knowledge base to address the knowledge gap on parking and the lack of adequate guidance for parking policy in Asia. About the Asian Development Bank ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day , with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, Parking Policy in Asian Cities Policy Parking environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance. Parking Policy in Asian Cities Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org ISBN 978-92-9092-241-4 Publication Stock No. RPT102513 Printed on recycled paper Printed in the Philippines Parking Policy in Asian Cities © 2011 Asian Development Bank All rights reserved. Published 2011. Printed in the Philippines. ISBN 978-92-9092-352-7 Publication Stock No. RPT102513 Cataloging-In-Publication Data Asian Development Bank. Parking policy in Asian cities. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2011. 1. Parking policy. 2. Asia. I. Asian Development Bank. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) or its Board of Governors or the governments they represent. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area, or by using the term “country” in this document, ADB does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area. In this report, the term “Taipei city” refers to the urban area centered on the City of Taipei of Taipei,China. “Hong Kong” refers to the entire urbanized area within Hong Kong, China. Note: Unless otherwise noted, $ refers to US dollars. All photographs are by Paul Barter unless otherwise noted. Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Tel +63 2 632 4444 Fax +63 2 636 2444 www.adb.org For orders, please contact: Department of External Relations Fax +63 2 636 2648 [email protected] Printed on recycledrecycled paper.paper Contents Tables and Figures iv Acknowledgments vi Abbreviations viii Executive Summary ix Introduction 1 Approaches to Parking Supply Policy 7 Minimum Parking Requirements and Parking Built with Buildings 14 Parking Policy in Streets and Lanes 30 Government Resources Devoted to Off-Street Parking Supply 40 Policy toward Public Parking as a Business 45 Parking as a Mobility Management Tool 52 Car Parking Outcomes in Asian Cities 56 Motorcycle Parking 67 Parking Policy Trajectories? 70 Policy Lessons and Conclusions 76 References 81 Appendixes 85 iii Tables and Figures Tables 1 Key Data (or Estimates) of the Cities in the Study 6 2 Contrasting Approaches to Parking Policy 7 3 Car Parking Required in Office and Retail Buildings 15 4 Parking Required in Apartment Buildings 17 5 Floor Area Thresholds in the Application of Parking Requirements in the Asian Cities Studied 19 6 Variations in the Application of Parking Requirements within the Asian Cities Studied 20 7 Number of Distinct Land Uses That Have Their Own Parking Requirements in Each City 21 8 Extent to Which Parking is Excluded from Allowable Built Space 23 9 How Common is Required Parking Space Diverted to Other Uses? 24 10 Parking Spaces per 100 m2 of Floor Space in Small Samples of Buildings in Various Cities 25 11 Types of Parking Requirements in Asian Cities 27 12 Views on Parking Supply as a Problem 28 13 Perspectives on On-Street Parking as a Source of Problems 31 14 Parking Impacts on the Pedestrian Environment 32 15 Prevalence of Informal Parking Fee Collection 33 16 Hostility to the Existence of On-Street Parking 34 17 Use of Prices and Time Limits for On-Street Parking 35 18 On-Street Parking Pricing Mechanisms 37 19 On-Street Parking Space Reservation Practices in Asian Cities 37 20 On-Street Parking Enforcement Initiatives 39 21 Importance of Government Provision of Off-Street Parking and Approaches to It 41 22 Prevalence of Parking in Private Buildings That Is Open to the Public 47 23 Privately Owned Stand-Alone Parking Structures 47 24 Prevalence of Temporary Private Vacant-Lot Parking Facilities 48 25 Motorcycles and Parking Requirement Regulations 69 26 Summary of Parking Policy Paths in Asia and Parts of the West 70 iv Figures 1 Typical Parking Costs in the United States 12 2 Parking Requirements at Commercial Buildings versus Approximate Car Ownership 16 3 Home Parking Requirements versus Approximate Car Ownership 19 4 Locations of Home Parking Among Survey Respondents 57 5 Locations of Work-Based Parking Among Survey Respondents 58 6 Locations of Shopping and/or Entertainment Parking Among Survey Respondents 59 7 Proportion of Respondents Paying for Parking by Purpose 60 8 Proportion of Unbundled Parking Payments for Respondents Parking Inside Multi-Family Housing 61 9 Average Home-Based Parking Prices Paid by Survey Respondents per Month 62 10 Average Work-Based Parking Prices Paid by Survey Respondents per Month 63 11 CBD Parking Prices Compared with CBD Grade A Office Rents in Many International Cities 64 12 Work-Based Parking Paid on Short-Term versus Season Permit Basis 65 13 Importance of Parking in Priced Private Sector Off-Street Facilities Outside Destination Premises 66 14 Importance of Public Sector Off-Street Parking 66 Tables and Figures Tables v Acknowledgments his project was funded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and overseen by Jamie Leather with assistance from Arlene Chavez and Inna T. Arciaga. Paul Barter is the Tauthor of this report. The author’s employer, the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore, provided the base from which the study was carried out. Loit Batac provided valuable coordination from Singapore. The following team members played key roles in gathering information in the 14 cities studied and in helping check an earlier draft: • Ahmedabad, India: Christopher Kost and Pooja Sanghani of the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP), India; and Rutul Joshi from the Center for Environmental Planning and Technology University (CEPT); • Bangkok, Thailand: Pakorn Rattanasuwan and Kochaporn Trongchit, masteral students, advised by Prof. Saksith Tan Chalermpong, Department of Civil Engineering (Transportation Engineering), Chulalongkorn University; • Beijing, People’s Republic of China: Zhao Hua, graduate student in traffic engineering at Beijing Institute of Civil Engineering and Architecture, with Dr. Liu Daizong in an advisory role; • Dhaka, Bangladesh: Maruf Rahman and Syed Mahbubul Alam of Work for a Better Bangladesh (WBB Trust); • Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China: Jiao Feng, with Karl Fjellstrom as advisor, both of ITDP China; • Ha Noi, Viet Nam: Trinh To Oanh of the Transport Development and Strategy Institute (TDSI); • Hong Kong, China: Bryan Suen, with Dr. Simon K.W. Ng as advisor, both of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology; • Jakarta, Indonesia: Izzul Waro, advised by Darmaningtyas, both of Instran; • Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Chong Su Li and Angel Lam, freelance researchers; • Manila, Philippines: Ramon Fernan III, freelance researcher; • Seoul, Republic of Korea: Kang Eun-Gyeong, advised by Prof. Chang-Hyeon Joh, Department of Geography, Kyung Hee University; • Singapore: Liu Weixiong Alvin, freelance researcher and Soh Tze Min of the Civil Service College (and Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, masters in public policy student); • Taipei City of Taipei,China: Chi-Hong Tsai Patrick, advised by Prof. Chang S.K. Jason, Department of Civil Engineering, national university of Taipei,China; and • Tokyo, Japan: So Morikawa (masteral student), and Takahiro Igo and Kohei Asao (undergraduate students) advised by Associate Prof. Hironori Kato of the International Project Laboratory, Civil Engineering, University of Tokyo. vi Many other people have provided help to the project in various ways. These include Dr. Seetharam of the Institute of Water Policy (IWP) at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy in Singapore, Debra Efroymson in Dhaka, several other ITDP China and ITDP India staff members, John Ernst of ITDP, Damantoro in Jakarta, Sheila Koh in Singapore, David Sadoway in Hong Kong, Nam Nguyen in Ha Noi, and Associate Prof. Lee Yong Sook in Seoul. Various support staff at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy helped smooth the way, especially Ruth Choe and Keya Chaturvedi. Y. Lee Song, Soh Tze Min, and Alvin Liu did valuable translation work for the project. In several cities, additional helpers (many of them students) assisted with survey work and in various other important ways. The Regional and Sustainable Development Department staff in ADB provided useful feedback and corrections to an earlier draft. The author is also very grateful to the many people who agreed to be interviewed for this study (Appendix 1) and to the hundreds of motorists who participated in the surveys.