Vol.10(4), pp. 27-42, June 2018 DOI: 10.5897/IJSA2018.0760 Article Number: 4A0B5C357410 ISSN: 2006- 988x Copyright ©2018 International Journal of Sociology and Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/IJSA Anthropology

Full Length Research Paper

The role of women in livelihood security at household level among pastoral and agro-pastoral societies of Ethiopian Somali region: The case of two selected districts from Fafen zone of Ethiopian Somali Region

Belay Womber Gurmu

Department of Sociology, College of Social Sciences and Humanities, Jigjiga University, Ethiopia.

Received 17 March, 2018; Accepted 7 May, 2018

The study aims to explore the major roles women play in livelihood security among Ethiopian Somali Pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in selected two districts. Even though the study is more of qualitative, quantitative method was also employed to some extent to gather information that could not be captured via qualitative research method. A total of 722 women were sampled and participated on household survey by probability sampling technique. According to the findings of the study, women in both social settings, in addition to reproductive roles, largely participate on productive works especially in livestock production. Apparently, most of the tasks related to production of small ruminants, which are the largest in number and main source of income in pastoral and agro-pastoral areas, are the major activities of women. In both settings, the role of women in crop production appeared to be minimal (confined to feeding of those who work on farm) due to cultural outlook that sees women to be weaker than men. Petty trading of wide range of commodities including livestock and livestock product is the major supplementary activity that enables the diversification of livelihoods of pastoral and agro- pastoral women. There exists huge variability in terms of pattern of expenditure along gender line. In agro-pastoral areas, women spend 93.5% of their individually generated income on purchase of households’ food items and the remaining 5.8% on other necessities such as children’s health while men spend 44.9% of their individual income on households’ consumption, 50.5% on personal needs, and spend only 3.7% of their incomes on children’s clothing. A number of problems which obstruct women’s pursuit of livelihood are identified in this study.

Key words: Livelihood security, women, livelihoods.

INTRODUCTION

Gender equality and women‟s empowerment is one of considered to be an essential component of sustainable the three Millennium Development Goals and is economic growth and poverty reduction (MoFED, 2005).

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However, governments continue to struggle with their and sustainable access to income and resources to meet capacity to translate gender policies into effective, basic needs (including adequate access to food, potable actionable programs. Ethiopia, where gender inequality water, health facilities, educational opportunities, remains a pervasive feature of rural livelihoods, is no housing, time for community participation and social exception. As a patriarchal society that keeps women in a integration) (Frankenberger, 1996) . Livelihoods can be subordinate position, the country is characterized by made up of a range of on-farm and off-farm activities disparities in the economic, social, cultural, and political which together provide a variety of procurement positions and conditions of women (Elizabeth, 2008). strategies for food and cash. A livelihood is sustainable, Ethiopian pastoralists have traditionally been highly according to Chambers and Conway (1992), when it “can marginalized. Critical development challenges for cope with and recover from the stress and shocks, pastoralists include resource degradation, worsening maintain its capability and assets, and provide poverty, and lack of food security. While all pastoralists sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next suffer from marginalization, pastoralist women suffer from generation...” double marginalization, being both pastoralists and Research on livelihoods and poverty dynamics women (Ridgewell et al., 2007). Pastoral women have recognizes the importance of assets to the poor less decision making power within the home, while at the (Frankenberger, 1996). While poverty is often measured same time bearing a disproportionate burden of tasks in terms of income or food security, a household‟s ability and responsibilities (Alemu, 2006). to meet its material needs is determined largely by its Both men and women have vital roles in the assets—the physical, human, social, financial and natural continuation and adaptation of pastoral systems. Women kinds of capital that determine what livelihood strategies play a central role as livestock keepers, natural resource a household can pursue and how well it can cope with managers, income generators, and service providers, risks and shocks (Ridgewell et al., 2007). Beyond tasks which, in of themselves, are influenced by material wealth, assets provide the basis of agency, or gendered norms, values, and relations (Ridgewell and the „power to act, to reproduce, challenge or change the Flitain, 2007). However, in spite of women‟s contribution rules that govern the control, use and transformation of to pastoral life, they have only limited access to, and resources‟ (Quisumbing, 2003). control over, key productive resources such as livestock Traditional gender roles can be magnified in disasters. and land. They also have limited access to healthcare, Often women are assigned responsibility to care for education, family planning, and reproductive health. family members, stocking supplies and maintaining the Moreover, the fundamental role of pastoral women in household under challenging conditions. Usually it is the agriculture and livestock production has been women who must stay at home and feed themselves, the systematically ignored and undervalued (Flintan, 2006). children and the old and infirm in times of scarcity Previous researchers indicated that limited access to (Ridgewell et al., 2007). Women may find themselves productive assets and labor markets, unequal burdened with greater responsibilities and work centered compensation, and limited opportunities for participation on the household, so they are less able to leave and/or in household and community decision-making are the move away from the area in crisis. Constant moving to most significant constraints to food and livelihood security find new water and grazing sources means that houses among Ethiopian women (Baulch and Umer, 2005; may need to be dismantled, loaded, unloaded and Haggman, 2006). reconstructed. Men will have to walk further with the Researches on intra-household dynamics have shown livestock and security is more threatening due to that it is not only the total amount of household assets heightened competition for resource (Quisumbing and that determines development outcomes, but also who in Maluccio, 2003). the household controls the assets. Interventions that Therefore, the roles that women play in pastoral increase women‟s access to, and control over, assets societies should be identified and acknowledged. Not have been shown to improve household food security only their roles of course but also their potential problems and child nutrition and education as well as the wellbeing that constrain them in pursuing their livelihood should be of women themselves (World Bank, 2001; Quisumbing uncovered and become an input for policy makers. Thus, 2003; Smith et al. 2003). Quisumbing and Maluccio this study tries to explore the major roles that pastoralist (2003) also show that the greater a woman‟s asset women play in order to secure the livelihood of their holdings are at marriage, the larger the share of wealth respective households in two selected districts of Fafen the household will later spend on educating its children. Zone, Somali Regional State of Ethiopia. In households where women have higher shares of assets, girls tend to have better health (Ridgewell and Flintan, 2007). By owning assets, women gain power and Statement of the problem authority in their households and communities while lessening their risk of mistreatment (Flintan 2006). No question that women comprise the significant Household livelihood security is defined as adequate proportion of the total population in Ethiopia in general Gurmu 29

and that of the rural society in particular. In areas where (4) Explore the major constraints of women to pursue the majority of households rely on agricultural activities their livelihood activities in the study site for their livelihoods, many researches showed that women play a paramount role in this livelihood activity (Gittinger, 1990; Saito, 1994). Pastoralist women, who The relevance of the study are living and working in arid and semi-arid environment, are also expected to play a significant role in livelihood The general intention of this particular study is to uncover security at household level. the overall roles that the women of the study area Somali pastoralist‟s women inhabit in the arid and perform in order to ensure sustainable livelihood security semi-arid low land of the eastern part of Ethiopia. both during normal and crisis situations. Apart from this, However, little is known about their role in livelihood the study also has explored the major socio-economic security at household level. This is because previous and cultural barriers that are constraining to the day to researchers were very busy in analyzing and day activities of pastoral and agro-pastoral women in the understanding socio-cultural problems that the women of study areas. By doing so, the findings of the research the Ethiopian Somali pastoralists are suffering from in the hopefully be an important input to policy makers so as to community. Hence, available literatures on the women of alleviate these challenges of pastoral women to some the Ethiopian Somali mainly concentrate on the extent. As well the results of the study also could serve prevalence and impacts of traditional harmful practices as baseline in an endeavor to encourage pastoralist and such as female genital mutilation (FGM), early marriage, agro-pastoralist women to build their livelihood asset and violence against women. bases and then attain food security and finally livelihood Other aspects of Ethiopian Somali pastoralists‟ women security. Besides, the study also could be used as an are overlooked by earlier researchers. Among these impetus for those who have an aspiration to conduct aspects, the roles those women play at household level further investigation in this area. in securing livelihoods of their families‟ come in to the forefront. Furthermore, the various Socio-economic problems of Somali pastoralist and agro-pastoralists RESEARCH METHODS women face in pursuing their livelihood activities are not well investigated .Therefore, the prime concern of this The study design and approach particular study is to ascertain the major roles that the With regard to study design, the researchers applied the cross- pastoralist and agro-pastoral women of the Ethiopian sectional survey design. This is mainly because data were collected Somali play in livelihoods security by taking the case of from the respondents only at one time. Indeed, while it is cost women of two districts from Fafen Zone of Somali effective, such type of design does not portray changes over time in Regional state .Therefore, this study attempted to term of the issue to be studied. answer the following basic research questions: In terms of its approach, more qualitative and less quantitative data were gathered via mixed research method as the researchers intended to address issues that are beyond the control of qualitative (1) Who contribute more in income generating for the method. With qualitative approach, various types of information household? Are they women or men? related to the issue to be studied were collected and analyzed. (2) In what types of supplementary livelihood activities Among these, data related to types of supplementary livelihood women of Somali pastoralists and agro-pastoralists are activities in which pastoral and agro-pastoral women engaged in engaging in their endeavor to secure their livelihood? order to reduce household‟s venerability, the different types of livelihood resources that women have and lacked, major socio- (3) What are the major constraints that face women of economic constraints of pastoralist and agro-pastoral women of the pastoral and agro-pastorals are facing in pursuing their study site to pursue their livelihoods, and other related issues were livelihood security? the dominant ones that covered by this approach. The study employed quantitative research method as well to The main intention of the study is to explore the major some extent to grasp some information that cannot be fully roles that pastoralist and agro-pastoralist women play in gathered via qualitative approach. To accomplish this, both open- ended and closed-ended survey questionnaires were prepared and order to secure the livelihood of their respective distributed to sample households that were randomly selected. households in Somali Regional State of Ethiopia: Scio-demographic characteristic of the respondents which includes educational status and other variables were among the major (1) Determine the main source of livelihood sustainability information that was addressed via this research method. (women/men) among pastoral and agro-pastoral households of the study site. (2) Investigate the major supplementary livelihood Sampling technique and procedure activities in which women of the Somali pastoralists agro- pastoralists are engaged in the study site. In order to select the respondents and informants of the study, both random (probability) and non-random (non-probability) techniques (3) Assess the prevailing discrepancies in terms of were employed by this particular study. The non-random sampling access to and control over basic livelihood assets technique was useful to select informants for unstructured (in- between men and women in the study areas depth) interview while the probability (random) sampling technique 30 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

Table 1. List of sample Kebeles and sample size drawn.

District Sampled kebeles Total household Sample size Remark Miragacho 225 144 - Labashaq 186 127 - Kebri-Beyah Guyo 250 153 - Total 661 424 -

Lankereta 240 150 - Harshin Aranarey 236 148 - Total 476 298 - Total 1.137 722 -

Sources: Household survey (2016).

was employed for the selection of respondents for household In case of in-depth interview, 8 informants (2 from each kebeles), survey. The advantage of the latter technique is to give equal both male and female, were purposively selected and interviewed in chance of being selected and included in the sample for each detail regarding the issues under study. In addition, by selecting member of the total population of the study. women alone, 4 focus group sessions were conducted (Table 1).

Selection of study sites Tools for data collection

Three stages of sampling procedures were used to select study The brief description of the tools selected for data collection, the sites. First out of nine zones in Ethiopian Somali Regional State, specific issues each concern about, and to whom they were Faafan, was selected purposively due to its accessibility and also administered is delineated below. inhabited relatively with both “pure” pastoralists (those who derive at least 50% of their household revenue directly or indirectly from livestock and livestock related activities, J. Swift, 1988) and agro- Survey questionnaire pastoralists (those communities that combine livestock raising with crop production). In the same fashion, two woredas/ districts, Kebri- Household survey questionnaires were prepared and distributed to Beyah and Harshin that represent agro-pastoralists and pastoralists 722 sample households (women in the sample households). The respectively were selected as study site. These woredsas (districts) questionnaires include both open-ended and close-ended are divided in to kebeles (smallest administrative units). In questions. To avoid language barrier and get reliable and valid data consultation with district administrators, five (5) easily accessible that best suit to the objectives of the research, questionnaires were (Table 1) kebeles from each district were purposively selected and translated in to Somali language. Then, data collectors (those who respondents/informants from each kebeles were selected by the are literate in all skills of Somali language) were recruited and techniques depicted below. trained for two days on how to fill the questionnaires.

Sample size for household survey In-depth Interview

The actual sample size was determined using the National This tool was utilized to dig out detail information from informants Education Association formula (indicated below), which is about the role of women in securing household‟s livelihood among commonly used by social and behavioral sciences. Accordingly, a pastoralists and agro-pastoralists of the study area. For this case, total of 722 respondents were selected through simple random general questions (interview guides) were prepared and sampling technique for household survey. The sampling frame for administrated to informants. Based up on the answers given for the this strategy was fresh list of households from each sample woreda initial questions, the interviewers framed the subsequent question. or kebele. Using this list, from the selected household for survey, Hence, elders, district officials, religious officials, clan leaders, and women members of the household were surveyed. etc., were among target individuals for interview. A total of 8 informants were selected and approached as in-depth interview S = X2NP (1-P)/d2 (N-1) + x2P (1-P) informant.

Where: Focus group discussion (FGD) S = required sample size X2 = the table value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at the In addition to the above two tools, FGD was employed to generate desired confidence level (3.841) firsthand information. From each kebeles, accessible women were N = the population size selected and form focus group discussion group. Then, the P = the population proportion (assumed to be 0.50 since this would researchers provided them with unstructured questions and provide the maximum Sample size) inquired the participants to voice their feelings, experiences, and d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (0.05) attitudes about the issue under scrutiny. Each group Gurmu 31

Table 2. Summary of actual Sample size, sampling technique, and instruments/tools of data collection.

Tool for data collection Sample size Sampling strategy Remark This actual sample size was determined by Household survey 722 Simple random sampling the sample size determination formula indicated above Individuals whom researchers believe to have In-depth interview 8 (2 from each sample Purposive rich information have been selected and informants kebele) interviewed FGD 4 sessions of FGD Accidental (accessibility) -

encompassed 8 to 12 members and all of them were homogeneous deployment of labor force. For instance, in agricultural (were women) in terms of some socio-demographic characteristics. communities, studies have proven that women that Four focus group discussion sessions were conducted (Table 2). comprise the largest portion of the rural community are inefficiently utilized so as to boost production per unit FINDING AND DISCUSSION (SOFA Team and Cheryl Doss, 2011). According to FAO, (2011), women comprise about 43% of the global Who makes more livelihoods among pastoral and agricultural labor force and of that in developing agro-pastoral communities of the study sites: Is it a countries, but this figure masks considerable variation man or a woman? across regions and within countries according to age and social class. Women comprise half or more of the One of the objectives of this study was to identify, agricultural labor force in many African and Asian between women and men, in pastoral and agro-pastoral countries, but the share is much less in some. This is communities of the study area, that take lion‟s share in clearly observed by this particular study in agro-pastoral securing livelihood (ensuring access to basic necessities) communities of the study site (Keberebeyah). In case of at household level. Hence, various data gathering this district, the study respondents clarified that women techniques have been used to obtain relevant information are not supposed to participate in agricultural activities to answer this objective. In all sample kebeles of particularly crop production. The main reason that these Kebrebeyah (agro-pastoral) and Harshin (pastoral) respondents presented for such ignorance of women districts, FGDs were held with community members from such activity is attributed to physical weakness of specially women. With regard to source of livelihood at women. According to them (respondents), women are household between males and females, in both pastoral physically too weak to undertake activities such as and agro-pastoral districts, the FGD discussants digging, plowing, weeding, and harvesting. The overall anonymously disclosed that females play a significant tasks in this regard rest on the shoulder of males. role in contribution to the livelihood security of Consequently, according to data on this issue, women, households. In line with this, one of in-depth interview pertaining to crop production, remain at home and take informants of the study from Harshin district depicted that the role of cooking food for those who work on field in areas where community are living in very close (spent their time in farming activities). This current study proximity to such as areas of kebele administration, also found out that such culturally imposed discrimination schools, heath post and etc, it is a woman that engage in of women from farming activities could be among supplementary income generating activities such as tea contributing factors for low production and failures to vending, „chat‟ selling, and small shopping. With this, attain food security at household level. This is mainly due according to this informant, a woman covers almost all to the fact that it reduces size of labor force that should the expenditures of the household consumption and have been engaged in production but increases the size appears to be the major sources of livelihood security at that consume what is produced by few. household level especially during livelihood shocks (See section 4.2.1 below). Generally, the roles that pastoral and agro-pastoral‟s women play in both crop and livestock production are identified by the study and In livestock production delineated in detail in the subsequent section. According to data obtained from different sources, in both communities (pastoral and agro-pastoral), women‟s role Roles of women in crop production and animal raring with regard to livestock production was found to be confined to looking after of small ruminants such as In crop production sheep, goats, calves and sick large animals around the homestead while able bodied males take the Whether it is crop production or animal raring, it entails responsibility of protecting large animals such as camels 32 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

Figure 1. A woman from Keberibeya district watering her emaciated cow due to drought (2016).

and cattle. every day for this cow. Most of our livestock (sheep, goat, To stress the relationship between women and small and camel) are died of the drought. I am striving to ruminants, one of the respondents in Kebri-Beyah district rescue the life of this cow even though it is heavy burden said that “sometimes males don‟t have any information to me. Shortage of water and fodder is critical problem in abound size and situation of sheep and goats of my attempt to save the life of the cow. Now we are households as it is the concern of women”. He added returned back to dinging the roots from underground as that, women look after them at the day time, takes them bushes and grasses are already dried and ceased to be to areas where there is good pasture, water them when used for fodder. It is me who carries the roots while my necessary, supervise their health situation, and clean husband digs it (A Woman from Kebri-Beyah district). their place where they rest during night time. Apart from these, as observed during data collection Furthermore, respondents of household survey revealed field work, women shoulder additional role in taking care that (in both communities), in addition to „generative of large animals such as camels and cattle that are either reproduction works 1 ‟, which is mainly exceptional to sick or become weak due to drought and unable to follow women, women are responsible for the majority of the flock to the field. At this time, women, in addition to household‟s routine chores, which again scholars named usual chores, are responsible in providing fodder and as „regenerative reproduction‟, that comprises the water for the sick or weak animal around homestead activities necessary to restore an exhausted labor forces (Figure 1). What this woman said about her every day like provision of foods, drinks, shelter, clothes, physical routine activities in relation to this cow and other animals and psychological healthcare and care for sick, aged and is: disabled people. According to this particular study, women of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities of the I am the one who is responsible to take care of this cow since the current drought in addition to the remaining 1 ‘Generative Reproduction I defined as the biological “production of new sheep and goats of the drought. In addition to caring for producers , including begetting, pregnancy, birth and care of infants (Grawert, my children and husband, I provide water and fodder 1998). Gurmu 33

study area also bear such huge responsibilities and then (A Woman from Aran Are kebele, Harshin). play the lion‟s share in livelihood security at household level. Similar studies conducted on pastoralists in general As witnessed by the study respondents and observed confirmed that women take the lion‟s share in livelihood during field work, all most „khat‟ (locally grown stimulant security at household level. Let me quote the findings of plant) vendors in all sample kebeles3 of both districts are one of these studies with regard to pastoral women‟s role women. Women buy „khat‟ from other places and vend it in livestock production besides reproductive roles; in all rural kebeles of the studied districts both during normal and livelihood crisis. With the income generated Pastoralist women and girls tend to lactating animals and from sale of „khat‟, both food and non-food commodities small ruminants around the homesteads, fetch water, will be fulfilled for household members. seek and carry forage for home feeding and manage the Furthermore, it has been confirmed that the entire shop health of nursing calves. Women also process and owners in all sample kebeles are women. According to market dairy products make and sell mats and engage in FGD participants of Lankerta kebele of Harshin district, petty trade. They work with men during herding, watering, shop sailing is the duty of women in their locality. marketing dairy products and constructing corrals (PFE, Commodities such as onion, tomato, oil, spaghetti, rice, IIRR, DF, 2010: 130). sugar, and so forth are among the dominant ones those women buy and sell in their shops. In addition, available literatures on role of women on In addition, women that participated in interview in both livelihood security delineate that they play critical roles districts depicted that some women engage in during mobility in caring for the ruminants and milking slaughtering and selling of meat of small ruminants, cows that remain at the homestead (PFE, IIRR, DF, especially goats as extra means of income generation. 2010). They move with livestock if the whole family However, they underscored the tremendous impact of travels, construct huts and manage water collection and drought on such activity in reducing the number of goats forest usage. Under certain circumstance, women are and scaling up their prices. involved in veterinary care, harvesting and processing 2 Trading of small ruminants (sheep and goat) is another wild foods (Belay and Gamachu, 2016; PFE, IIRR, DF, activity of women which is being identified by this study. 2010). Pastoral and agro-pastoral women buy sheep and goats

around homestead and take them to the nearby market Major supplementary livelihood activates of pastoral for profit most of the time. Nonetheless, the study and agro-pastoral’s women of the study sites participants in both districts anonymously confessed that they are suffering a lot from unavailability and Petty trading underdeveloped market in their locality. Such and other problems in relation to pastoral and agro-pastoral As of information from household survey, in-depth women‟s livelihood are detailed in the subsequent section interview, and focus group discussion, the majority of of this document. women in pastoral and agro-pastoral community rely on Apart from these, the study found out that women of different forms of petty trading to rescue their family pastoral and agro-pastoral societies of the study districts members at different occasions apart from their major largely engage in trading of livestock products mainly livelihood (pastoralism and crop production). According to milk. Interview respondents claimed that women around in-depth interview respondents from Harshin, especially settlements which are closer to main road collect (buy) around some settlements where roads cross the milk from fellow pastoralists/agro-pastoralists and take it settlement and kebele administrative offices are located, to the nearby town for sale. Those who have an access 90% of businessmen are women. With this regard, one of to transportation may use cars unless the majority of in-depth interview respondents said: them travel long distance by their foot carrying milk. In addition, women living around center of kebeles (where Here, mainly during drought and scarcity of rainfall, men kebele administrative offices, schools and other became almost totally idle. They will be confined to home institutions are located), also participate in preparing and and simply chew “khat”. (locally grown stimulant plant). selling of tea. According to informants, most of the time, The main responsibility rests on women to generate the preferred tea is the one which is prepared from either income to support family members. Of course, when goat or camel‟s milk. During data collection field work, I good days return (rain comes), males will go to field to have witnessed this and I tested a cup of tea which is work and generate income from different earn wage made of goat milk. The price paid per cup is relatively costly as compared to normal tea. In all sample kebeles, sizable numbers of women have been observed 2 Belay Womber is MA holder in Rural Livelihoods and Development. Conducted a research on “Challenges and prospects of Livelihood security for pastoral and agro-pastoral communities of Ethiopian Somali pastoralists’ in 3 Kebeles are the smallest administrative unit next to woreda (district) in collaboration with OXFAM-GB from May-June, 2016 (with fellow staff Ethiopian context. In some areas, kebeles are further sub-divided in to Gamachu Fufa, MA in Social Work). communities, ‘gots’, and etc for the sake of easy administration. 34 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

Figure 2. Agro-pastoral woman vending milk to the nearest town, Kebri-Beyah district.

preparing such tea in their residence home and basic needs which include staple food items (sorghum, generating significant amount of money per day from spaghetti, maize, etc) and non-staple food items such as such activity (Figure 2). sugar, salt, oil and so forth. In addition, women also cover the expenditures of household and animal health. There also respondents that reported that women, most of the time, cover the expenses of habits of their husbands Patterns of expenditure along gender line (men which include, among other things, “kchat” and cigarette versus women) both during normal and severe drought seasons. On the other hand, as disclosed by respondents, men also In the aforementioned section, the most significant spend their income generated from different sources on supplementary livelihood activities in which women of household‟s basic needs and personal daily needs pastoral and agro-pastoral communities take on are (“Kachat and cigarette). In conclusion, as of information described in detail. From these activities, as women obtained from respondents in both districts, as compared participants of the study portrayed, they generated to men‟s expenditure on households‟ consumption, significant amount of income every year (most of them women expend more income than men. failed to remember the actual amount in figure due The finding of the study concedes with similar studies different reasons). Of course they didn‟t dent that males on the same issue at different time and place. For also generate income from different activities such as instance, Reshid (2004), in his study indicated that sale of livestock, crop, and daily wage labor. During women in agro-pastoral areas spend 93.5% of their normal time, men also can be productive in engaging in individually generated income on purchase of such activities and support their families. However, households‟ food items and the remaining 5.8% on other according to in-depth interview informants from Harishin necessities such as children‟s health. Like this study, his district, males will be obsolete during severe drought and study confirms the existence of disparity in terms of become dependent on their wives. expenditure between men and women on food and Here, the objective is to ascertain the most spenders related households‟ basic needs in agro-pastoral areas. on household‟s basic needs between women and men in Reshid (2004) also found out that men spend 44.9% of the study areas. According to information gained from their individual income on households‟ consumption, FGD, and in-depth interview, women spend almost the 50.5% on personal needs, and spend only 3.7% of their entire income they generate on fulfillment of households‟ incomes on children‟s clothing. Form these both primary Gurmu 35

and second sources, it follows that women contribute a common property of both parties as long as they are lion‟s share in securing livelihoods of households. residing together. However, upon divorce, according to informants of the study, two situations are commonly practiced in both social groups. The first case totally Discrepancies in terms of access to and control over denies women‟s access to land. In this first case, a livelihood assets among women and men in pastoral woman will be obliged to leave her husband‟s home and and agro-pastoral communities family leaving all properties including land and join her relatives (clan) up on divorce. Informants of the study Access to and control over basic livelihood assets, as also added that a divorced woman will receive only those proposed by Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA), is a assets that the husband gave her or promised to give key factor that either lead to livelihood security (in case of during “nikah”. This could either in cash or kind (for full access) or insecurity (in case of absence of access). example, gold, camel, etc) and most of the time paid It is not uncommon that resources/assets are unevenly before marriage and rarely after marriage is concluded. distributed among individuals, social groups, geographic Second, according to in-depth interview respondents, areas, and etc. Household members, especially husband under certain conditions, there is condition in which the and wife may have exclusive access to and control over husband leaves certain properties including land to wife specific livelihoods under certain circumstances and during their divorce. One major condition that enforces conditions in most societies. The ultimate consequence the husband to do this is if they have child/children in of such discrepancy in access to and control over common. Under this circumstance, the husband will leave livelihood resources is inability to attain livelihood the home including land for the wife and her security. Understanding this notion, this study has child/children. At this time, a woman with her attempted to disclose the nature and situation of such child/children can control the land. This is rarely practiced discrepancies between women and men among pastoral in both social groups (pastoralists and agro-pastoralists). and agro-pastoral communities of the study area. In line However, due to traditions and customary laws that has with this, basic livelihood resources such as land, been exercised within the society for years, the issues of livestock, access to education, and income are selected land is still among source of conflict between wife and due to time and financial constraints and the nature of husband among agriculturalists such as Amhara access to and control over these resources by women communities (Birtukan, 2016). Birtukan (2016) added that and men were examined visa-a-vise each other as customary practices could not change the status of men follows. as the owner and head of the household, who is supposed to exercise power over the use and management of household‟s resources mainly land, most Access to land valuable resources of the society. The same is true for pastoral and agro-pastoral communities of the study Land is one of the crucial livelihood resources that nature areas as such socially constructed traditions has endowed human beings all over the world. Without excluded women from control over land. The difference is exaggeration, land is the source of most of other assets. that women of pastoral and agro-pastoral will not take the Due to this fact none can exist without piece of land that case of land to either kebele or clan leaders or court up could be utilized for extraction of means of living in on marriage as they remain abide to their customary laws various ways. For instance, in agricultural activity, land is soon after their marriage. the top requirement for a household for cultivation and crop production. Similarly, for pastoralists and agro- pastoralists, land is the backbone of their economy as it serves as source of grazing pasture, water, and crop Access to livestock production, natural resource such as trees, wild animals, and so forth. The argument is having access to land of Pastoralists derive their livelihoods directly or indirectly some sort means expanding opportunities for livelihood form livestock production while agro-pastoralists combine security. crop production. Livestock is another crucial livelihood Even though land tenure is one of the contentious asset on which pastoralists and agro-pastoralists rely. In issues in Ethiopia, every household (in all types of general, livestock that pastoralists produce mainly include livelihood system) is expected possess a plot of land on sheep, goats, cattle, and camel. Households own all or which it has the right of utilization of land‟s resources. some of these livestock so as to pursue their livelihoods. The prime concern of the study is to discover, who, The question here to be raised is who have more power between men and women (husband and wife), control on the livestock in the household (male or female) among over the land that belongs to the specific household. pastoral and agro-pastoral communities of the study Pertaining to this issue, data from household survey, in- sites. According to information gathered from different depth interview, and FGD reveals that in pastoral and sources, to some extent, both male and female are agro-pastoral communities, household‟s land is the endowed with equal sort of power and can pass decision 36 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

Table 3. Educational Status of Sampled Women.

Woreda Total Can read and write Percentage (%) Can’t read and write Percentage (%) Harsgin 298 39 13.1 259 86.9 Kebri-Beyah 424 64 15.1 360 84.9

Source: Household survey (2016).

on their livestock as long as they remain loyal to their district also can‟t read and write. According to a study marriage. in relation to protection of livestock, women conducted by E. Jackson, 2011, the gross literacy for this have intimate relationship with small ruminants while district is tended to be 9.2% while male and female males appear to be responsible in protection of large literacy was 12.4 and 3.8% respectively (Jackson, 2011). animals. However, respondents of the study confirmed Realizing this huge disparity between men and women except some sort of discussion during sale of sheep or pertaining educational status, sampled women in both goat, males are dominant decision makers on the sale of districts were inquired what they feel the impact of lack of livestock and control over the income. When livestock is adequate education on their lives in general and sold up on agreement, according to informants of the livelihoods in particular. All agreed up on that it has study, the income will be invested on household negatively affected their pursuit of livelihoods. Among consumptions while the remaining can be used to buy other things, the response given by a key respondent another animal either for breeding or future sell. woman from Kebri-Beyah district of Guyo kebele Following divorce, like other assets, women will not take attracted me and I directly quoted what she said as share of livestock except those assets she received follows: during „nikah‟. This culturally bounded practice of divorce is one of the hindrance factors for pastoral and agro- I can’t read and write. This means I am like someone who pastoral women to have control over livestock resources. is living in a dark room. Educated person can create different alternatives in business because he/she has the skill. This is what I lacked. Again, even to sell my Access to education livestock, language is very important to transact. All these would be gained from education. There are maney Without any doubt, Level of education is one of the opportunities to families in our locality. But most of us determinant factors of livelihoods of an individual. didn’t attend education. Generally, most women remain Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) proponents home and become dependent due to lack of education. suggest that education contributes to livelihoods in Now a days to some extent schools are being equipping individuals with the necessary skill and constructing in our areas and as much as possible I will capabilities (knowledge) to pursue efficiently the already send my children to schools (including girls) because I tamed livelihood activity or seek alternative livelihoods don’t want to see them being illiterate like me. I also urge (ADB, 2008). Data from both secondary and primary government to facilitate the launching of adult education sources of the study reveals low educational status in for illiterate women in our locality (An in-depth interview general in both districts. informant woman from Guyo kebele, Kebri-Beyah) In Harshin district for instance, of the total population above 15 years of age, only 15% of them can read and Besides, FGD participants from Harshin district witnessed write. Out of this literate population, 76% of them did not that lack of education has negatively affected not only complete first grade level, while only 13 and 11% of them their livelihoods but also their social status. According to attained primary school (1 to 6 grade levels) and above them, the problem of lack of appropriate education is primary school respectively (WDRPP, 2012).With regard manifested in different ways of life likes of animal health, to gender parity, the ratio becomes larger in favor of child caring, food preparation, personal and males as the education level attained gets higher, which environmental hygiene, and so forth. The cumulative implies the majority of females discontinue their effect of all these is low performance of women in the education even before completing first grade and many of effort to secure livelihoods of a household. the remaining leave school as the level gets higher (WDRPP, 2012). The household survey data in this district also portrayed that more than 86% of sampled Access to income women can‟t read and write (attend any formal education) (Table 3). The study endeavored to examine the prevailing situation In the same fashion, in Kebri-Beyah district, studies in terms of access to and control over household‟s have observed huge gap between male and female in income between men and women in the study areas. terms of educational level. As indicated by the data from Evidently, the main source of income for pastoralists is household survey, about 85% of sampled women in this sale of livestock while agro-pastoralists sale certain types Gurmu 37

of crops during good rainy season. The main concern above. As could be seen from (figure 1 above), most of here is identifying the one who take responsibility of the time, women perform the two activities selling the animals and crop and manage the generated simultaneously, that is, the reproductive role (caring for income. Pertaining this issue, information from survey children) and caring for livestock (productive role). and in-depth interview informants showed that in sale of According to FGD participants and in-depth interview livestock (mainly sheep and goat) and crops, both male respondents of all sample kebeles of the two districts, and female will discuss and pass decision. With regard to women and girls are occupied by such tedious and control of the income, again information gathered on this recurrent reproductive activities that consume their time issue revealed that both male and female will decide that would have been spent on other either social and what to buy for household consumption (food and non- economic activities. Furthermore, productive activities food items such as clothes) and the remaining will be has been found to be very severe burden coupled with used for buying another animal in the form of saving. reproductive activities on pastoral and agro-pastoral‟s However, women of pastoral and agro-pastoral women during drought season. Form observation and in- communities engage in different livelihood activities likes depth interview it has been found out that women‟s role of petty trading and generate their own income becomes greater than that of men‟s as women involve in independently. By doing so, they can be live rescuers at least all activities including herding, collecting of fodder especially during severe drought that will end up in loss and forage, watering, veterinary care, and etc. of livestock and idleness of males. Participants of the study confessed that women will cover the majority of households‟ needs by the income they generated from Polygamy type of marriage different livelihood strategies. The other socio-cultural impediment of pastoral and agro-

pastoral women that has long lasting consequence on Major constraints of pastoral and agro-pastoral’s their livelihoods is the practice of polygamous marriage women in pursuing their livelihoods that allows a man to marry to more than one woman at the same time. Women who participated on this study in Socio-cultural constraints all sample kebeles anonymously the prevalence of such type of marriage together with its adverse effect on their In most societies all over the world there exist socially livelihoods. While asked the specific effect of polygamous constructed practices that either degrade or upgrade marriage on women‟s livelihood, a number of reasons social and economic status of women. In an attempt to were given by different respondents. But the responses identify such socio-cultural constraints of women of given by one in-depth interview informants from Aranarey pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in their pursuit of kebele of Harshin district is tend to be inclusive and livelihoods, the study has come with significant number of quoted follows: problems some of which are discussed below. Women of pastoralists are suffering from many problems that hamper their livelihoods. Culture related problems Gender-based division of labor have invisible roles. For example, having more than one

Like in all other societies, both agro and pastoral wife is one of the challenges. If a man who is initially societies also developed tradition of gender based married to one wife marries other additional wife, this will division of labor that ascribes distinct roles to males and lead to many social and economic crisis of the females (Table 3). Data from secondary sources household. On one hand, he has to divide the livelihood confirmed that women of pastoral and agro-pastoral assets (mainly the scarce land) to the new comer wife communities of the study area are assigned double roles and on the other hand addition of wife means increasing i.e., reproductive roles (domestic activities and are family size (A Woman from Aranarey Kebele, Harshin) considered as the exclusive responsibilities of women From this it follows that the practice of polygamy and girls) and productive activities (which are related to profoundly affects not only the social status of women but production of livestock and can be performed either daily also their livelihoods as it entails the further division of the which includes milking, herding, etc, seasonally that most scarce and valuable assets among wives and includes excavation of wells, migration, etc) or 4 children. Consequently, the significant diminishing and occasionally veterinary care) (PEF,IIRR, and DF , 2010). ultimately shortage of such valuable livelihood resources The primary data sources also evidently confirmed that is imminent among polygamous communities. women and girls in the study area are responsible for both reproductive and productive activities indicated Nature induced constraints

4 PFE, IIRR and DF. 2010. Pastoralism and Land: Land tenure, administration and use in pastoral True, pastoralism and agro-pastoralism as way of life are areas of Ethiopia taking place in areas where climatic condition is 38 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

Figure 3: Bodies of sheep and goats that died of drought in 2016, Kebri-Beyah.

unpredictable and then rainfall is also erratic. Due to this, such natural catastrophe on the livelihoods of pastoral pastoralists‟ and agro-pastoralists‟ areas in Ethiopia are and agro-pastoral women. The study has come up with under recurrent drought most of the time. The current multifaceted impact of such phenomenon in both social drought (2016), which was induced by „Ilino‟ and took the groups. On one hand, as clearly indicated in the above lives of sizable number of livestock in Ethiopian Somali section, it crates additional burden on women and girls. Region, is the recent case in point. At the time of data This is to say that, women and girls will be forced to take collection field work, April to May 2016, it has been on extra activities such as caring for sick and emaciated observed that the two districts (Kebri-Beyah and Harshin) livestock (Figure 2 above) in addition to other household are observed being highly affected by the drought as a chores. On the other hand, such episode entails mobility number of sheep; goats, cattle, and donkey were died of livestock in search for pasture and water by travelling and lied down on the field everywhere (Figure 3). long distance-sometimes crossing borders. Here, someone may ask the overall consequence of For instance, according to a study conducted by Belay Gurmu 39

and Gamachu (2016), agro-pastoralists of Kebri-Beyah Roads district witnessed that they move to distant areas (up to Somaliland) in an intension to rescue their livestock The Another physical infrastructure that supports human real effect of such mobility is that it splits the family in to beings by providing simple and fast transportation is two (women and children remain around homestead road. As it has been observed during field work and as while husband and able bodied members follow well confirmed by respondents‟ of the study by livestock). Under such circumstances, according to in- themselves, roads that connect kebeles with kebeles and depth interview informants, pastoral women take on the centers of the district are poorly constructed. Most of the overall responsibility of caring for the family and small roads in pastoral areas are only dry season roads that ruminants and calves that remain around homestead. only serve when there is no rain. As a result of this, They added that, women will be confined to such women in pastoral areas are obliged to travel long activities and time would be very precious for them to distance on foot carrying their commodities both on their engage in other extra livelihood activities until husband back and hand. In line with this, PFE, IIRR, DF (2010) return back. carried out a rigorous research on the physical nature of Besides, FGD participants confessed that for those physical infrastructure and other source of pastoral areas women who carry out petty trade (as discussed above), in Ethiopia and concluded that most pastoralist areas are the drought periods result in weak market as majority of characterized by poor infrastructure including population lost their means of income (livestock and crop) inaccessible roads and underdeveloped markets. Being due to drought. the home of huge livestock resources, pastoral and agro- pastoral areas are neglected in terms of basic physical infrastructures the likes of roads. According to a research Other constraints done by Belay and Gamachu, 2016, in Awabare and Kebri-Beyah districts, pastoral and agro-pastoral areas Apart from the aforementioned identified constraints, the are under critical problem in relation to roads study has ascertained the existence of other impairments infrastructure. The number one victims of this setback are to the livelihoods of pastoral and agro-pastorals‟ women. women who shoulder double responsibilities in the effort The main critical obstructions are selected and discussed of livelihood security. in the subsequent section.

Lack of education (illiteracy) Poor infrastructures As earlier mentioned, it is portrayed that illiteracy rate is Under this section, the nature and characteristics of the higher for females as compared with their male major physical infrastructures that directly affect the counterparts in both districts under scrutiny. Women are livelihoods of pastoral and agro-pastoral women is denied access to education particularly during the past highlighted. regimes due to cultural imposition. The cumulative effect of illiteracy could be manifested in lots of life of a women and then adversely affect their livelihoods. Women of Absence of market places Harshin and Kebri-Beyah district witnessed this fact in comparing themselves with “someone who lives in dark Market centers are one of the physical infrastructures room”. Women now a day understood that lack of where people buy and sale or exchange commodities. education is no less than lack of skill and ability in field of The premise is that access to developed market means livelihood diversification and then livelihood security. easy transaction of produced goods and service at faire Cognizant of this, especially from Kebri-Beyah district, price. Nonetheless, according the finding of the study, one in-depth interview informants urged the government pastoral and agro-pastoral women of the study areas are to launch adult education not only in her locality but also not in position to have an access to such market. As of for all women of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities. FGD discussants in most sample kebeles, most of the time they are traveling long distance by their foot to reach market places to sell their products such as small Inaccessibility to saving and credit institutions ruminants and dairy products. They also added that the available market centers are either too far from their As explained earlier, women of pastoral and agro- localities or have no road for vehicles for transportations. pastoral communities play indispensible role in livelihood Studies also indicated that while the government security at household level. However, according to the acknowledges the importance of the livestock trade to the findings of the study, these women are suffering from a national economy, little is done to develop market number of challenges some of which are described services (PFE, IIRR, DF, 2010; Belay and Gamachu, above. One of such critical challenges tends to be 2016). inaccessibility to saving and credit institutions. Of total 40 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

sampled and surveyed households in both districts, role in crop production is minimal and most of the time nearly all of them reported that they have no access to confined to feeding role of those males male that are such institutions. In addition, in-depth interview plowing, weeding, and harvesting on the field due to respondents also portrayed that such institutions are not cultural imposition. expanded in their locality. With regard to this issue, one With regard to livelihood activity engagement, as in-depth interview respondent stressed the problem as explained earlier, women are actively participating mainly follows: in livestock production. Activities like caring and looking for small ruminants such as shoats (which are main Women of this locality (Harshin district) are far from the source of livelihood for pastoral and agro-pastoral benefit of such institution (saving and credit). We heard communities) are undertaken by women in addition to that some people residing near to town are benefiting repetitive household chores. Moreover, the study also from the institution by receiving credits and saving their has come across with that women of the study money. If we get these institutions in our area, we can get community assume variety of livelihood activities to financial credit to run other livelihood activities in addition supplement their major means of living. Petty trading is to usual ones (In-depth Interview respondent Woman, the most important extra livelihood activity in which Harshin). women of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities are engaged in. sale of live small ruminants (sheep and Expansion of saving and credit institutions in all areas will goat), vending tea with milk, “kaht” vending, shop enable individuals to have an access to financial assets business, butchering, and so forth are some of the means which in turn enhances the capability of livelihood of generating income for the majority of women in these security. Pastoral and agro-pastoral communities are not areas as identified by the study. Apart from these, women exceptional in this regard. Studies conducted by different of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists are responsible for scholars at different times also shows that pastoral and building and maintaining of houses during mobility. As of agro-pastoral areas of Ethiopia are characterized by short the findings of the study, women expend more income on supply of saving and credit institutions that would have household‟s consumption than men. empowered women‟s access to financial resources (PFE, One of the major findings of this study is the prevailing IIRR, DF, 2010; Belay and Gamachu, 2016). disparity in terms of access to and control over certain basic livelihood assets between pastoral and agro- pastoral women and men. According to the study, huge Conclusion gap observed between the two parities in terms of human capital, that is, access to education. Such discrepancy The study intends to determine the role of women in induced by many factors. The first is attributed to cultural livelihood security among pastoral and agro-pastoral impositions that favor males to go to school at the communities of Ethiopian Somali Region. It was expense of girls while the other is directly related to conducted on two selected districts of Faafan inadequacy of educational services in their locality during administrative zone. Specifically, the study has attempted near past periods. Except this, women of the study area to address a number of issues in relation to pastoral and reported that more or less they have similar access and agro-pastoral‟s women livelihoods. Generally, based on control over household resources such as income the findings of the study, the following conclusions are generated from sale of livestock and crop. With regard to drawn. land of household, as it belongs to the household, women According to findings of the study, women in both also have the use right as long as she is residing with her pastoral and agro-pastoral societies play indispensible husband. In case of divorce, women will have no right to role in securing livelihoods (ensuring the access of take a piece of land from her husband. In very rare case, household members to basic necessities) at household the husband is going to leave the land for both his wife level. This is because women of the study community not and children/child following divorce. Under such only engage in reproductive activities but also participate circumstance, a woman has the opportunity to own land on productive activities (the common livelihood activities and extract its resources. likes of crop and livestock production) like that of their The current study also set to identify the major plights male counterparts in both normal and livelihood crisis of that woman of the study communities‟ are facing while conditions. In addition, the study has ascertain that pursing their major and supplementary livelihood pastoral and agro-pastoral communities of the study area activities. By this endeavor, the study has come across generate substantial amount of income from with a number of predicaments of women in the study supplementary livelihood sources especially petty trading area. First, socially constructed and ever practiced of different types of commodities. By doing so, women polygamous marriage is tended to be one of factors that appear to be life rescuer especially during livelihood erode livelihood assets of women mainly land. This is due shocks in pastoral and agro-pastoral areas of the study to the fact that at the time of plural marriage, reallocation districts. However, it has been made note that women‟s (division) of assets (such as land, livestock, etc) among Gurmu 41

wives will eventually result in diminishing of those assets positively progressed. With this aim in mind, the following per household. Besides, plural wife means more children recommendations are forwarded for the concerned will be born from each wife and will escalate family size governmental, NGOs, or other philanthropic and this in turn will cost a lot on the entire family in terms organizations to give undue attention in their intervention of expenditure of income. Second, the study has process. revealed that women of the study area are under severe pressure due to nature induced catastrophes. Drought is (1) With regard to plights induced by nature during severe one of such catastrophes that erodes the livelihood drought, the provision of aids and the entire philanthropic assets of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in general activities should be in such a way that takes in to account and of women in particular. The real net effect of such women‟s problems and programmed to minimize their episodes is that: problems. (2) So as to reduce socially constructed problems mainly (1) They over-burden women as women will be caught in plural marriage and its associated problems, consecutive extra activities such as caring for emancipated and sick awareness rising education should be given by different livestock, carrying forage for animal feed, and so forth government bodies such as Women‟s Affairs Office‟s other than normal activities during drought season. workers expertise and other NGOs (2) Drought entails mobility following livestock in search (3) As much as possible, undue attention should be given for better pasture and water as this in turn results in split to the expansion of physical infrastructures such as roads of families in to two (women, children, and small that would ease the pursuit of both supplementary and ruminants will remain around homestead while males and normal livelihood activities for women in the study areas able bodied boys follow livestock). In such cases, women (4) In order to curb problems related to illiteracy, as become accountable for all roles in the household in the requested by women of the study area, adult education absence of husband bearing multifaceted roles. that centered women should be launched not only in the study areas but also all pastoral and agro-pastoral areas Furthermore, in addition to the aforementioned in the region predicaments, the study has identified other plights that (5) To ensure women‟s access to financial assets, there substantially obstruct women‟s pursuit of both should be fair distribution of saving and credit institutions supplementary and major livelihood activities in the study and the rules and regulations associated with such areas. Under-developed and absence of market, poor institutions should be relaxed so that rural pastoral and infrastructure especially roads, and lack of education agro-pastoral women can be benefited from the (high prevalence of illiteracy) are some of the hindrances schemes. to women‟s livelihood in the areas under scrutiny. (6) The entire policies and projects that would be Finally, as proposed by SLF, livelihood security can be designed for pastoral communities should focus on the attained by having access to and control basic livelihood prevention and reduction of the effects of natural assets as indicated in Figure 1. The framework catastrophes before causing devastating damage on the proponents further argue that mere access to these livelihood assets in general and that of women in assets doesn‟t guarantee livelihood security unless they particular are not mediated by proper polices, institutions, and processes. Drawn up on this framework, the study ascertained that women of pastoral and agro-pastoral CONFLICT OF INTERESTS communities, residing in vulnerable context (draught, climate change, and population pressure) lacked access The authors have not declared any conflict of interests. to major livelihood assets such as land, human capital (low educational status), physical infrastructures, saving and credit, and so forth. REFERENCES

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