Theory of Literature A Compilation Series

https://id.pinterest.com Sarif Syamsu Rizal

English Literature Study Program Faculty of Humanities Universitas Dian Nuswantoro Semarang

Theory of Literature A Compilation Series

https://id.pinterest.com Sarif Syamsu Rizal

English Literature Study Program Faculty of Humanities Universitas Dian Nuswantoro Semarang

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Lesson Plan

Semester : 5 Type of the course : classes Number of classes per week : 1 x 100 minutes Course completion requirements : written examination

Course Description The course is organized around specific theoretical paradigms in Literature. The subject includes Introduction: What is Literary Theory?, Scientific Philosophic Discourse of Literature, Scope of Literature, Nature of Literature, Genre of Literature, Elements of Literary Work, Concept of Poetry, Concept of Prose, Complexity of Drama, Literary Movements, Critical Approaches of Literature, and Trinities in Discovering Meaning on Literature.

Aims The main aim of the course is to provide students of English study program with knowledge and terminology of theoretical paradigms in literature in the seventh semester. The course offers for all students an important theoretical background for research in literature.

In the course the students learn how different theories of literature have emerged as responses to particular issues in literature, in other theories of literature, and outside literature. The students learn to frame literary issues using concepts in literary theory.

Relation to other courses Within the School's curriculum, Theory of Literature course is a relation of the course of English Poetry, English Prose, Poetry Appreciation, Prose Appreciation, Reseach Method of Literature, and Seminar on Literature during the year of study.

Requirements Students are required to participate actively in class discussion and pass term tests. Credit requirements for the classes, and the details of the material covered during the classes may vary depending on the teacher. Teachers are obliged to provide all details of the examination and grading procedures at the beginning of the course.

Semarang, 15 September 2018

The Compiler

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Table of Contents

Lesson Plan...... ii List of Contents...... iii

Unit 1 Introduction: What is Literary Studies...... 1 Unit 2 Scientific Philosophic Discourse of Literature...... 3 Unit 3 Scope of Literature...... 15 Unit 4 Nature of Literature...... 17 Unit 5 Genre of Literature...... 23 Unit 6 Elements of Literary Work...... 26 Unit 7 Concept of Poetry...... 29 Unit 8 Concept of Prose...... 52 Unit 9 Complexity of Drama...... 55 Unit 10 Literary Movements...... 62 Unit 11 Critical Approaches of Literature...... 64 Unit 12 Trinities in Discovering Menings of Literature...... 75

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Unit 1 Introduction

What is Literary Theory and do we need to study it? By John Phillips

It is possible, even now in the 21st century, to complete a degree course in Literature without doing any literary theory. You might do perfectly well—even emerge as a star in the firmament of literary study—without ever having to engage with any of the by now canonical areas of literary theory, like formalism, structuralism, post structuralism, psychoanalysis and deconstruction. You could even get by, with no damage at all to your credentials or to your understanding and appreciation of literature, without doing any Marxism or feminism. Literary study remains strong and identifiable in its own right and is composed today, just as it was 50, 100, 150 years ago (but not much further back than that), of all kinds of activities like editorial work, criticism, appreciation and commentary that cope quite well on their own grounds without any interference from what many students would recognize (with a groan) as theory. Literary Theory might, therefore, be considered as something over and above the normal requirements of literary study. In the least sanguine sense of this over and above, we might charge it with superfluity. It is quite unnecessary for us to study theories of literature in order to study literature. In another, more difficult sense (and here we are now beginning to actually do some theory), theory’s superfluity to the normal requirements for reading and studying literature has proved over the years to be a tremendously productive resource for more adventurous readers and thinkers. So much so that the field—no matter how independent of theory it remains—has nonetheless been transformed in all kinds of ways by the insistence of a certain dogged theorizing that just goes on whether we like it or not. So it would not be strictly necessary to take a course in Literary Theory. Against this, of course, many programs insist on a minimum requirement—a core course in literary theory, approaches to literature, critical theory, advanced critical reading—you find them everywhere, indicating more than anything else a sense of its importance for people who plan courses, guardians of institutions of literature who feel that without theory there is something not quite valid about a course. But (and here I’m going to get all theoretical again) taking a course in Literary Theory is often a frustrating experience and, as such, it would not necessarily be very theoretical. I mean if theory is read in certain ways then no theorizing on the part of the student goes on. Many people come into Literary Theory believing that there may be tools to pick up, methods to apply (more or less mechanically perhaps) that help to unlock the mysteries of the literary texts. In other words, despite recent history and the prevalence of courses introducing you to literary theory, there is no guarantee that Literary Theory will be produced. Oh, you can be sure that literary study, criticism, appreciation etc. will go on unimpeded but the peculiar experience of having taken a course in Literary Theory without it having made much sense and certainly not much difference to the way you read literature remains common. This is because Literary Theory needs to be regarded as a separate subject, independently of what goes on in the other areas of departments of literature, before it can be expected to change anything. The theory (or production of theories) of literature can be regarded as a specialized pursuit and those who choose to follow it often read it for its own intrinsic interest, not simply subordinating it to already extant ways of doing literary

1 appreciation, criticism and commentary. Only then does it begin to contribute to literary studies.

(Taken from: https://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/elljwp/literarytheory.htm)

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Unit 2 Sceintific Philosophic Discourse of Literature: Ontology, Axiology, and Epistemology on Literary Studies

SCEINTIFIC PHILOSOPHIC DISCOURSE OF LITERATURE: ONTOLOGY, AXIOLOGY, AND EPISTEMOLOGY ON LITERARY STUDIES

Sarif Syamsu Rizal Lecturer, English Study Program, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Dian Nuswantoro – Indonesia. E-mail: [email protected] Accepted 2 November 2015

ABSTRACT

One important reason of studying literature was to teach us about the world and other people, as well as to reflect history and to see the future. This paper was an alternative philosophical thought of understanding literature entitled “Scientific Philosophic Discourse of Literature: Ontology, Axiology, and Epistemology on Literary Studies”.Tthe objective was understanding of circumstantial interpretative about essence of object, target of benefit, and methodologies of literary studies systemically-systematically-comprehensively so that it could be useful as enrichment insight to study literature. Unit of analysis of this paper focused on the three aspects: ontological, axiological, and epistemological principality of literature as a product of science. Methods of this paper consist of descriptive-qualitative design in explaining the discourse, library research in collecting data, and shared-understanding by interpretative paradigm in answering the problem statement is that what the ontological, axiological, and epistemological principality of literary studies is. This paper examined the principalities of a science saying that there are three aspects which are reciprocal relevancy in process of scientific development. Those are ontological, axiological, and epistemological aspect in understanding literature. The contribution of this paper as the significant finding of the study and its implication was that the trilogy principalities to comprehend the literary studies nowadays and as helpfully comprehensive frame studying to literary teachers, learners, and researchers.

Keywords: ontology, axiology, epistemology, literature, literary studies

INTRODUCTION One assumption is why anyone is not interested in literature because he does not know or does not understand its ontological, axiological, and epistemological aspects. Literature is a term used to describe a written or spoken material and anything from creative writing, speaking, or and thinking to more technical or scientific works, but the term is most commonly used to refer to works of creative imagination, including works of fiction; prose, poetry, and drama. More than two thousand years ago, the Roman poet, Horace claimed that literature is dulce et utile. This expression means to sweet and useful. Since then, literature has been traditionally understood, at least in Western cultures, as having the dual purpose of

3 entertaining and educating to its audience. In line with it, literature’s function, as cited in Wellek and Warren (1990: 47), is to entertain and to educate. It is assumed useful because of soul experience that is unfolded in story manifestation and told to please because of the way of unfolding. Edgar Allan Poe stated in Wellek and Warren (1990: 76) that the function of literature is didactic heresy, functioning as amusement, and at the same time teaching something. On that account, if a literary work shows the nature of strong pleasant and being useful, the literary work can be considered the valuable one. Literature represents a language or a people involving culture and tradition, moreover literature is more important than just historical or cultural artefacts. It introduces readers, devotes of literary works, to new worlds of experience. Literature is part of cultural heritage which is freely available to everyone, and which can enrich our lives in all kinds of ways. Once people have broken barriers that appreciating or studying literature seems daunting, but automatically, they trance facing that literary works can be entertaining, beautiful, funny, or tragic. They can convey profundity of thoughts, richness of emotion, and insight into characters. Special effect of appreciating literature takes us beyond our limited experience of life to show other people’s life at other times. Appreciating literature stirs us intellectually and emotionally, as well as deepens our understanding of history, society, and individual lives. Aristotle, as cited in Noor, states that communication system indicates an interaction among people. Literature is to please and to be useful, to be catharsis, and to be communication media. It entangles three components, such as writer as a consignor of message, literary work as a medium to message, and audience as a receiver of message (2006: 63) From the statements above, literature can be comprehended that literature, in social praxis, can be as a work of art and as a work of science. As a science, it is called as literary studies. To comprehend its definition, it has three aspects which are reciprocal relevancy in process of scientific development. In understanding literary studies, those are ontology, axiology, and epistemology of literary studies.

STUDY OF LITERATURE In English, literature term is etymologically derived from Latin, literatura (littera means letter or masterpiece). There are three important terms related to literature, those are literature as an art (art of literature) and literature as science (science of literature). Literature as an art (art of literature) is a creativity. It means that literature is a creation represents aesthetic language such as play, fiction, and poetry. Literature is creative activity or group of art works. Diyarkara as cited in Taum (1997: 23) expresses that the art of literature represents a culture area of the oldest human being, which precedes other culture branches. Before existence of science and technique, artistry has attended as expression media of human being aesthetic experience dealing with nature as incarnation of beauty. Literature as a science has scientific characteristics; those consist of object, theory, and method. It means that literature can act as object and subject of research. Being usable as peripheral of theory taken as research appliance, it consists of literary theory, history of literature, and literary criticism. Literary theory, literary criticism, and literary history are domains of literature science. Literary theory is principal study, category, and criteria that are able to start point under study of literature area. Studying to concrete literary work refers to literary criticism and history of literature. The three of them influences and interconnects one another. It is impossible if you, as literary researcher, compile literary theory without literary

4 criticism and literary history; or literary criticism without literary theory and literary history (Wellek and Warren, 1990:39). In philosophically comprehending literature as a science, there are three principalities which anyone must comprehend; those are ontology, axiology, and epistemology. Ontological principality represents essence of study object. (Setiardja, 2005: 5-7). Axiological principality represents target of science benefit for the shake of human beings, its meaning that the science has to be exploited as medium to increase the human life level (Setiardja, 2005: 41-55). Epistemological principality represents scientific methodology. The methodology is a set of administration to science which is systemic and systematic. Systemic and systematic represent method criterion of the science. Systemic means in unity there is relevancy of inter- elements and systematic means in unity there is logical sequence of inter-steps (Setiardja, 2005: 55-64).

PRINCIPALITY OF ONTOLOGY, AXIOLOGY, AND EPISTEMOLOGY ON LITERARY STUDIES The discussion delivers the principalities of the literature as a science saying that there are three aspects which are reciprocal relevancy in process of scientific development. In understanding literary studies, there is three principalities must be comprehended; those are ontology, axiology, and epistemology of literary studies. Or, on the other hand, it gains understanding of circumstantial interpretative about essence of study object, target of benefit, and methodologies of literary studies systemically-systematically-comprehensively so that it can be useful as enrichment insights of literary studies.

The Ontological Principality of Literary Studies The ontological principality of literature means the essence of literary studies. Based on this principality of science, the writer explains object of literary study. Setiardja (2005:4) states that each science must have certain object. The essence of the study object consists of material object and formal object. The material object indicates study material of its pertinent science such as linguistics, semiotics, stylistics, narratology, ideology, sociology, psychology and contemporary many more. Because of the pertinent science, the literary study is interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary study. Besides material object, the science has formal object. The formal object is facets of evaluating a pertinent science; meaning is the science has to look for causes its material object. The science, of exact, social, and humanities always look for how structure or formation building of its object forming science. The material object of literary studies is literature relates to literary work such as universe, artist, and audience. It means that things exist and possible things exist in the literature. Ontologically, literature can be as ‘art’ and ‘science’. Literature as the art can be seen from the aspect of its aesthetics, it means representing a product of creativity such as poetry, prose, and play to enjoy. Literature as the science can be seen from the characteristic of scientific aspects; objective, theoretical, and methodological. The scientific aspects can be studied from three branches of literary studies; those are theory of literature, history of literature, and literary criticism.

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Subjective Literary Work: Art Aesthetic Poetry Prose Play Literature

Literary Studies: Objective Theoretic Literary theory Science Scientific Methodic History of literature Literary criticism

Figure 1 Objects of Literature Source: The writer

Literature, furthermore, represents one of artistic form using language upon its activity. This activity is literary symptom. But, the use of language in the literary activity differs from the use of language of other activity. This difference gives special impression to the activity. In literary activity, language used in a particular way, language might possibly digress from rule of grammar and have ambiguous meaning even though a man of letters (authors, poets, and playwrights) pass his work in order to submit any messages to audiences. Literary activity according to way of its delivering can be spoken (oral), written and or audio-visual. From those symptoms, it can be seen forms such as literary work and any related to its production process, its reproduction process, its writer (author, poet, playwright), its reader (audience), and its context (the influencing pertinent environmental fact/ universe) The spoken (oral) literature can be in the form of folklore, charm or chant, folksong, and traditional theatre. The written major genres of literary work are poem (poetry), prose, and drama (play). The audio-visual literature is in the form of film representing transformation of the oral literature and or the written one into the audio-visual literature.

Spoken Literary Work: Folklore Folksong Charm Traditional theatre Audio-Visual Literary Work Literary Work: Film Written Literary Work: Poetry Prose Play

Figure 2 Forms of Literature Source: The writer

Being seen from its production process of building literary work, it is formed upon two elements; those are intrinsic element and extrinsic element. The intrinsic element is element developing literary work structurally and this element can be detectable inside of the literary work building structurally. Each genre contains intrinsic element which is some are the same and some are different one another. The intrinsic elements of poem (poetry) are such as line, 6 metre, stanza, rhyme, rhythm, persona (voice), theme, and imagery. The intrinsic elements of prose are such as plot, character, characterization, setting, conflict, theme, message, and narrative perspective (Staton, 2007: 22-52). The intrinsic elements in drama (play) are for instance character, dialogue, and plot. Evaluating this intrinsic element in theory of literature is conceived as understanding of autonomous structuralism. The extrinsic element is element from outside of the literary work influencing and colouring its contents. This element covers some aspects like religion, economics, culture, politics, biography, law, sociology, and psychology (Noor, 2006: 37-65). Evaluation the extrinsic element in theory of literature is conceived as understanding of genetic structuralism and as understanding of dynamic structuralism. Besides the two elements, literary work in its production process cannot get out of the universe (environmental fact/ context), artist/ writer (authors, poets, playwrights), and audience (readers). Therefore, the production process of literary work can be mapped in specified orientation of literary studies like the following Figure.

Universe

Work

Artist Audience

Figure 3 Critical Orientation on Literary Studies Source: The Mirror and the Lamp (Abrams, 1971: 6-7)

Simply in literary studies, visible symptom can be found from the object of the study which is related to. On the other words, it can be studied based on the object orientation. Literary studies can be conducted by seeing from the form focusing upon four orientations, those are the study focusing on the reader (reader-oriented approaches). It can be studied from pragmatics study, focusing on the writer (author-oriented approaches). It can be studied from expressive study, focusing on the environment fact/ universe (context-oriented approaches). It can be studied from mimetic study, and focusing on the literary work (text-oriented approaches). It can be studied from the objective study (Klarer, 1999: 75-100).

reader-oreinted approaches pragmatics study Orientation

Orientation author-oriented approches expressive study Approaches of Orientation Literary Studies context-oriented approaches mimetic study

Orientation text-oriented approaches objective study Orientation Figure 4 Orientations of Literary Studies Source: The writer

From the four orientations, the study area can develop into broader coverage, such as on sociology of literature and on psychology of literature.

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The former can be studied from four studies; the first is expressive socio-literary study. This study centres the analysis on social phenomenon of the writer. The concentration of course does not discharge its relevancy with the writing work because studying social phenomenon of writer reflected in his work. The second is pragmatic socio-literary study. This study centres the analysis on social phenomenon of the reader related to literary reception. The concentration does not discharge its relevancy with the reading work. The third is socio- context of production-consumption literary study. This study centres the analysis on its relevancy among literary work with social system. Production of literature is not such an individual production, but social production. The production has long networking system. The networking covers writer, mediator, publisher, distributor, sponsor, censor, and others. In that existence of literature is very influenced by social system around. As well the consumption of is not an individual consumption but social consumption. The consumption covers social institute such as education, study group, group of critic and others. The forth is objective socio-literary study. This study centres the analysis on intrinsically social problems narrated in literary work. The problems come into structure and detail element of the work. The structure and element of the work can be analyzed by sociological objective based on intrinsic social items structural objectively (Harsono, 2000: 6-11) The latter is on psychology of literature. This study is based on an assumption that literary work always discusses event of human life with its various behaviour, and to recognize human being exhaustively needing psychology. The domain of on psychology of literature covers; the first is expressive psycho-literary study. This study centres the analysis on psychological condition of writer and his creative process. In course of creative process, there are direct or indirect relevancy between the psychological condition of writer and the process of literary creation. Creative process relates to actions and inner experiences of the writer. The second is pragmatic psycho-literary study that centres the analysis on psychological condition of reader. Each literary work has relation psychologically to its reader. The relation can be pragmatic, receptive, and therapeutic. Being pragmatic means how far the literary work can influence psychological condition of its reader. Being receptive means how psychological condition of reader happening in process of interpretation. Being therapeutic means function of the literary work as catharsis medium of its reader. The function can clean psychological emotion of its reader. The third is objective psycho-literary study. This study centres the analysis on psychological problems in the work intrinsically. In this case, on psychology of literature has characteristic of autonomous, studying literature is rid of the writer, the reader and the universe. This study covers structure and psychological items in the work as well the psychological meanings inside (Harsono, 2000:16- 23) The other literary symptom can be seen from sign and its significance in the work can be studied from the study semiotics on literatures (Wardoyo, 2004: 1-26). From the literary symptoms above, it can be figured the ontology of literary studies as the following.

Pragmatics study Reader-oriented approaches of lit. Expressive study Author-oriented approaches of lit. Mimetic study Context-oriented approaches of lit. Objective study Text-oriented approaches of lit. Pragmatic socio-literary study On sociology of literature Expressive socio-literary study On sociology of literature Socio-context of production-consumption literary study On sociology of literature Objective socio-literary study On sociology of literature Pragmatic psycho-literary study On psychology of literature 8

Expressive psycho-literary study On psychology of literature Objective psycho-literary study On psychology of literature Semiotics study Sign and significance on literature

Literary Studies Approaches of Literary Studies

Figure 5 Approaches of Literary Studies Source: The writer

The literary symptom basically is universal, because all of society has literary work. In addition to, there are a number of differences, among the literary works; there are same characteristics in general. Therefore, the literary studies) can take the objects from any language literary work. But, of course, literary researcher at foreign study program must present and justify report process and his result of study in the foreign language as according to his study program. Even though, appreciation given will be more as the foreign literary researcher studies the literary work written in foreign, by foreign nation, and in background of foreign socio-culture.

The Axiological Principality of Literary Studies At this discussion, the writer refers to Axiological principality represents target of science benefit for the shake of human beings, its meaning that the science has to be exploited as medium to increase the human life level (Setiardja, 2005: 41-55) and Farkhan (2007: 1-139) explains an understanding of circumstantial interpretative about the benefit and way of good presentation of the literary studies as the following. The axiological principality of literary studies means the target of literary studies benefits. Target of literary studies benefit is for the shake of human being. It means that literary studies must be exploited as medium to increase the human life level. To axiological principality, activity in the study can aim to produce a verified knowledge, to obtain generate deep-understanding, and to offer a counter interpretation. Target of literary studies benefit is for the shake of human being. It means that literary studies must be exploited as medium to increase the human life level. To axiological principality, activity in the study can aim to produce a verified knowledge, to obtain generate deep-understanding, and to offer a counter interpretation). Based on the target of its benefit, the literary studies can be figured as the followings.

To produce a verified knowledge To generate deep-understanding To offer a counter interpretation

Benefit of Literary Studies

Figure 6 Literary Studies Benefit Source: The writer

First, literary studies aim(s) to produce four types of knowledge; those are exploratory knowledge, descriptive knowledge, explanatory knowledge, and predictive knowledge. Literary studies yields knowledge which can be formulated with sentence and selected pursuant to its types of knowledge. Thus, the study aiming to produce the knowledge such as to produce an exploratory knowledge on..., to produce a descriptive knowledge on..., to produce an 9 explanatory knowledge on...), and to produce a predictive knowledge on... about the object of study.

Exploratory knowledge Descriptive knowledge Explanatory knowledge Predictive knowledge

Knowledge of Literary Studies

Figure 7 Knowledges of Literary Studies Source: The writer

Second, literary studies aims to produce circumstantial knowledge can be selected from five types of understanding: those are understanding on spoken or written text (textual understanding), understanding on speaker or writer (intentional understanding), understanding audience or reader (receptive or experiential understanding), understanding on researcher (interpretative understanding), and understanding among speaker or writer, audience or reader, and researcher ( shared-understanding). The understanding on spoken or written text is an understanding which is solely based on what is said or what is written. This understanding is discharged at all from its speaker or writer. The understanding on speaker or writer is an understanding as meant by he speaker or the writer. The spoken or written is assumed inseparable its speaker or its writer. The understanding on audience or reader is an understanding experienced by audience or reader. Real meaning of meaning (significance) is contained in message received or got by that audience or that reader. The understanding on researcher is an understanding concluded by interpreter conducted systematically-comprehensively. The share-understanding is crisscross of the understanding according to the spoken or written text, according to the speaker or writer, according to the audience or reader, and the interpretation given by the researcher. Based on the consideration above, literary studies produce(s) knowledge which can be formulated with sentence and selected on its types of understanding. Thus, the study aims to produce; the textual understanding( to generate a textual understanding on...), the intentional understanding (to generate an intentional understanding on...), receptive or experimental understanding (to generate an experiential understanding on...), the interpretative understanding (to generate an interpretative understanding on...), and share understanding (to generate a shared-understanding on...) about the object of study.

textual understanding intentional understanding receptive or experiential understanding interpretative understanding shared-understanding

Understandings of Literary Studies

Figure 8 Understandings of Literary Studies Source: The writer The Epistemological Principality of Literary Studies The epistemological principality of literary studies means the methodology of literary studies. Based on this principality of science, the writer explains that epistemological 10 principality represents scientific methodology. The methodology is a set of administration to science which is systemic and systematic. Systemic and systematic represent method criterion of the science. Systemic means in unity there is relevancy of inter-elements and systematic means in unity there is logical sequence of inter-steps (Setiardja, 2005:4)

STEPS AND PARADIGMS IN LITERARY STUDIES Starting from how study of scientific conducted, the writer, based on the epistemological principality, shares science methodology of literary studies. The scientific methodology is a set of administration to produce scientific knowledge systemically and systematically. Systemically means there is relevancy of inter-elements, while systematically means there is logical sequence of inter-steps. There are steps which must be done in conducting a study. Before taking choice of approach, method, techniques and or ways and instruments as well, literary researcher beforehand specifies point of view used to object and benefit target of study. This point of view refers to paradigm of inquiry. On the other words, the paradigm is fundamental viewpoint regarding to subject matter of, target of, and nature of analyzed object. In a paradigm is consisted of a number of approaches. In an approach is consisted of a number of methods. In a method is consisted of a number of techniques. Hereinafter in a technique, there are some ways and instruments.

Step I Paradigm of Inquiry Step II Approach Step III Method Step IV Technique Step V Way and Instrument

Figure 9 Steps on Conducting Literary Studies

The methodology of literary studies recognizes three major paradigms; those are positivistic paradigm, interpretative paradigm, and reflexive paradigm. In this case, positivistic paradigm is the same as quantitative research design, interpretive paradigm is the same as qualitative research design, and reflexive paradigm is the same as critical research design. Based on the methodologies above, the literary research can be selected from the existing paradigms.

positivistic paradigm/ quantitative research design interpretative paradigm/ qualitative research design reflexive paradigm / critical research design

Figure 10 Paradigms in Literary Studies

The followings are distinction and brief clarification of the three types of the paradigm. The first is target of benefit. According to the positivistic paradigm, every study has to find a law enabling human being forecast and control reality. The interpretive paradigm has to understand and interpret meaning of reality. The reflexive paradigm has to empower and liberate human being from a shackle of spurious awareness or understanding.

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The second is basic nature of reality. According to positivistic paradigm, reality is stable and patterned, so that the reality can be found or formulated. Interpretative paradigm assumes that reality is melting and streaming, so that the reality represents result of agreement and interaction of human being. Whereas, according to reflexive paradigm, reality is full of oppositions and influenced by under covered structure constituting it. The third is nature of human being base. According to positivistic paradigm, nature of human being base is rational and personal interest, and also influenced by outside strength. Interpretative paradigm assumes that human being is capable to form and give meaning to their world. While reflexive paradigm assumes that human being is creative and adaptive, but tending oppressed by spurious awareness, so that they are less capable to present their potency. The fourth is common sense role. According to positivistic paradigm, common sense differs from knowledge of science. Interpretative paradigm assumes that common sense represents a set of theory used to benefit for certain people. While reflexive paradigm assumes that common sense represents spurious beliefs covering up substantive reality. The fifth is theory. According to positivistic paradigm, theory represents deductively logical system, and depict interrelated among a number of definition, axiom, and law. Interpretative paradigm interprets theory as a set of explanation of how meaning interpretation produced and maintained. Any paradigm selected by literary researcher, literary research must be conducted systematically, relied on data, based on theory, presented explicitly, encouraged by reflective action, and covered by open-ended. In conducting literary studies which is pursuant to positivistic paradigm, steps of the study as the followings. 1) determining problem statement, covering choosing up eligibility problem and 2) making up framework in proffering hypothesis, including observation of theory and result report of previous study 3) formulating hypothesis, as temporary answer to problems 4) electing or developing study design 5) developing instruments and data collecting device 6) collecting data 7) processing data to test hypothesis 8) interpreting result of study 9) concluding based on data processing result, 10) integrating result of study into previous knowledge structure, and also suggesting to next study. If the study does not produce explanatory knowledge, but knowledge exploratory, descriptive and predictive, hence the steps related to proffering and examining hypothesis are not needed, because the study which does not test hypothesis, theory study and analysis of previous study result are only needed to clarify and formulate variable or concept tested, and also give picture about how far the study in the topic had been studied by other researcher. Any study of literature, study activity of positivistic paradigm has to comply with the following criteria, those are 1) validity, it proves that what being collected is true (factual) as according to what really will be collected; 2) reliability, it proves that whenever and by whoever data collected, will give the same more or less result; 3) objectivity, it proves that there no personal influence of researcher to study result; and 4) generality, it proves that inference or conclusion of the study can be generally accepted. In conducting literary studies which is pursuant to the interpretative paradigm, the study activities strike 1) determining study focus including choosing up to eligible and meaning problem, 2) developing theoretical sensitivity with relevant to book materials observation and result of previous study, 3) determining materials study, covering choosing where and who from the data obtained, 4) developing protocol of data acquirement and processing, including determining apparatus, steps, and technique in data acquirement and processing used, 5)

12 executing the acquirement, consisted of field data collection or studied text reading, 6) processing the data acquirement, covering coding, categorizing, comparing , and discussing, 7) negotiating the result of study with study subject, and 8) formulating conclusion, covering interpreting and integrating findings into previous knowledge building, and suggestion to the next study. Because nature of the study materials and the target reached, the framework steps can be altered as according to field dynamics. Study focus is for the example; it is possible repeating sharpening and formulating after conducting field investigating. It can be done as long as the data availability to increase the meaning of study. Thus, the interpretative paradigm must requires the following criteria 1) credibility, proving that the data acquirement and conclusion are believable, 2) dependability, proving that findings and conclusion relies on the raw data, 3) conformability, proving that the findings and conclusion can be traced on the data acquirement, and transferability, proving that the findings and conclusion can be gone into the same effect to other cases having equal markings. In conducting literary studies which is pursuant to the reflexive paradigm, the study activities strike 1) determining topic of study, including choosing and formulating valuable problem to arose human being awareness, 2) stipulating philosophy or ideological perspective, covering observing relevant idea and formulating explicitly specific or basic idea used as basis for proffering critics, 3) electing cases or materials, by determining where and who from the data obtained 4) developing strategy of data acquirement and data processing, consisted of determining data apparatus, steps, and techniques used, 5) executing the acquirement, consisted of field data collection or studied text reading, 6) processing the data acquirement, covering coding, categorizing, contrasting , and discussing, 7) formulating conclusion, conducted according to reflexive thinking, and 8) proffering recommend either to advance study or to next empowerment agenda. Like two types of previous study, the study of reflexive paradigm claims to the following requirements such as credibility, dependency, conformability, and transferability. Besides, because of the especial aspiration of the reflexive paradigm is to awaken awareness of change, therefore the counter interpretation must present eligible criteria, covering 1) relevance proving that the selected topic and or ideological perspective is relevant to human challenge or problem, 2) coherence proving that the entire building of offered interpretation does not interfere each other, 3) criticalness proving that the observation succeed to unload an discourse till to the root, and 4) reasonableness) proving that reflexive thinking has logical thinking base.

CONCLUSION To understanding of circumstantial interpretative about essence of object, target of benefit, and methodologies of literature systemically-systematically-comprehensively can be useful as enrichment insight to study literature. To comprehend its definition, it has three aspects which are reciprocal relevancy in process of scientific development. In understanding literary studies, those are ontology, axiology, and epistemology of literary studies. In ontological principality, literature can be as ‘art’ and ‘science’. Literature as the art can be seen from the aspect of its aesthetics, it means representing a product of creativity such as poetry, prose, and play to enjoy. Literature as the science can be seen from the characteristic of scientific aspects; objective, theoretical, and methodological. The scientific aspects can be studied from three branches of literary studies; those are theory of literature, history of literature, and literary criticism.

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To axiological principality, activity in the study can aim to produce a verified knowledge, to obtain generate deep-understanding, and to offer a counter interpretation such as benefit, knowledge, and understandings of literary studies. The epistemological principality represents scientific methodology. The methodology is a set of administration to science which is systemic and systematic. Systemic and systematic represent method criterion of the science. Systemic means in unity there is relevancy of inter- elements and systematic means in unity there is logical sequence of inter-steps and paradigms in literary studies.

REFERENCES Abrams, M.H. (1971). The mirror and the lamp: romantic theory and the critical tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Farkhan, Muhammad (2007). Proposal penelitian bahasa dan sastra. Jakarta: CV. Fasco Jaya. Harsono, Siswo (2000). Sosiologi dan psikologi sastra. Semarang: Deaparamartha. Klarer, Mario (1999). An introduction to literary studies. London: Rutledge. Noor, Redyanto (2006). Pengantar pengkjian sastra. Semarang: Fasindo. Setiardja, A Gunawan (2005). “Telaah filsafat atas manusia yang menekuni ilmu pengetahuan” in manusia dan ilmu. Semarang: Diponegoro University. Staton, Robert (1965). An introduction to fiction. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Taum, Yoseph Yapi (1997). “Ekspresivisme, strukturalisme, pascastrukturalisme, sosiologi, resepsi” in pengantar teori sastra. Bogor: Mardiyuana. Wardoyo, Subur Laksmono (2004). Teori dan praktik semiotika sastra. Semarang: Diponegoro University. Wellek, Rene Austin Warren (1977). Theory of literature. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, cop.

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Unit 3 Scope of Literary Studies

RUANG LINGKUP ILMU SASTRA

Ilmu sastra sudah merupakan ilmu yang cukup tua usianya. Ilmu ini sudah berawal pada abad ke-3 SM, yaitu pada saat Aristoteles (384-322 SM) menulis bukunya yang berjudul Poetica yang memuat tentang teori drama tragedi. Istilah poetica sebagai teori ilmu sastra, lambat laun digunakan dengan beberapa istilah lain oleh para teoretikus sastra seperti The Study of Literatur, oleh W.H. Hudson, Theory of Literatur Rene Wellek dan Austin Warren, Literary Scholarship Andre Lafavere, serta Literary Knowledge (ilmu sastra) oleh A. Teeuw. Ilmu sastra meliputi ilmu teori sastra, kritik sastra, dan sejarah sastra. Ketiga disiplin ilmu tersebut saling terkait dalam pengkajian karya sastra. Dalam perkembangan ilmu sastra, pernah timbul teori yang memisahkan antara ketiga disiplin ilmu tersebut. Khususnya bagi sejarah sastra dikatakan bahwa pengkajian sejarah sastra bersifat objektif sedangkan kritik sastra bersifat subjektif. Di samping itu, pengkajian sejarah sastra menggunakan pendekatan kesewaktuan, sejarah sastra hanya dapat didekati dengan penilaian atau kriteria yang pada zaman itu. Bahkan dikatakan tidak terdapat kesinambungan karya sastra suatu periode dengan periode berikutnya karena dia mewakili masa tertentu. Walaupun teori ini mendapat kritikan yang cukup kuat dari teoretikus sejarah sastra, namun pendekatan ini sempat berkembang dari Jerman ke Inggris dan Amerika. Namun demikian, dalam prakteknya, pada waktu seseorang melakukan pengkajian karya sastra, antara ketiga disiplin ilmu tersebut saling terkait.

Pengertian Teori Sastra, Kritik Sastra, Dan Sejarah Sastra Teori sastra ialah cabang ilmu sastra yang mempelajari tentang prinsip-prinsip, hukum, kategori, kriteria karya sastra yang membedakannya dengan yang bukan sastra. Secara umum yang dimaksud dengan teori adalah suatu sistem ilmiah atau pengetahuan sistematik yang menerapkan pola pengaturan hubungan antara gejala-gejala yang diamati. Teori berisi konsep/ uraian tentang hukum-hukum umum suatu objek ilmu pengetahuan dari suatu titik pandang tertentu. Suatu teori dapat dideduksi secara logis dan dicek kebenarannya (diverifikasi) atau dibantah kesahihannya pada objek atau gejala-gejala yang diamati tersebut. Kritik sastra juga bagian dari ilmu sastra. Istilah lain yang digunakan para pengkaji sastra ialah telaah sastra, kajian sastra, analisis sastra, dan penelitian sastra. Untuk membuat suatu kritik yang baik, diperlukan kemampuan mengapresiasi sastra, pengalaman yang banyak dalam menelaah, menganalisis, mengulas karya sastra, penguasaan dan pengalaman yang cukup dalam kehidupan yang bersifat nonliterer, serta tentunya penguasaan tentang teori sastra. Sejarah sastra bagian dari ilmu sastra yang mempelajari perkembangan sastra dari waktu ke waktu. Di dalamnya dipelajari ciri-ciri karya sastra pada masa tertentu, para sastrawan yang mengisi arena sastra, puncak-puncak karya sastra yang menghiasi dunia sastra, serta peristiwa-peristiwa yang terjadi di seputar masalah sastra. Sebagai suatu kegiatan keilmuan sastra, seorang sejarawan sastra harus mendokumentasikan karya sastra berdasarkan ciri, klasifikasi, gaya, gejala-gejala yang ada, pengaruh yang melatarbelakanginya, karakteristik isi dan tematik.

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Hubungan Teori Sastra dengan Kritik Sastra dan Sejarah Sastra Pada hakikatnya, teori sastra membahas secara rinci aspek-aspek yang terdapat di dalam karya sastra baik konvensi bahasa yang meliputi makna, gaya,struktur, pilihan kata, maupun konvensi sastra yang meliputi tema, tokoh, penokohan, alur, latar, dan lainnya yang membangun keutuhan sebuah karya sastra. Di sisi lain, kritik sastra merupakan ilmu sastra yang mengkaji, menelaah, mengulas, memberi pertimbangan, serta memberikan penilaian tentang keunggulan dan kelemahan atau kekurangan karya sastra. Sasaran kerja kritikus sastra adalah penulis karya sastra dan sekaligus pembaca karya sastra. Untuk memberikan pertimbangan atas karya sastra kritikus sastra bekerja sesuai dengan konvensi bahasa dan konvensi sastra yang melingkupi karya sastra. Demikian juga terjadi hubungan antara teori sastra dengan sejarah sastra. Sejarah sastra adalah bagian dari ilmu sastra yang mempelajari perkembangan sastra dari waktu ke waktu, periode ke periode sebagai bagian dari pemahaman terhadap budaya bangsa. Perkembangan sejarah sastra suatu bangsa, suatu daerah, suatu kebudayaan, diperoleh dari penelitian karya sastra yang dihasilkan para peneliti sastra yang menunjukkan terjadinya perbedaan-perbedaan atau persamaan-persamaan karya sastra pada periode-periode tertentu. Secara keseluruhan dalam pengkajian karya sastra, antara teori sastra, sejarah sastra dan kritik sastra terjalin keterkaitan.

Daftar Pustaka Arya, Putu. (1983). Apresiasi Puisi dan Prosa. Ende Flores: Nusa Indah. Effendi. S. (1982). Bimbingan Apresiasi Puisi. Jakarta: Tangga Mustika Alam. Fananie, Zainuddin. (1982). Telaah Sastra. Surakarta: Muhamadiyah University Press. Luxemburg, et.al. (1982). Pengantar Ilmu Sastra. Terjemahan Dick Hartoko. Jakarta: Gramedia. Mido, Frans. (1982). Cerita Rekaan dan Seluk Beluknya. Ende, Flores: Nusa Indah 1994. Semi Atar M. (1992). Anatomi Sastra. Bandung: Rosda Karya. Sudjiman, Panuti. (1992). Memahami Cerita Rekaan. Bandung: Remaja Rosda Karya. Suyitno. Sastra. (1986). Tata Nilai dan Eksegesis. Yogyakarta: Hanindita. Tarigan Guntur H. (1986). Prinsip-prinsip Dasar Sastra. Bandung: Angkasa. Tjahjono Libertus, T. (1986). Sastra Indonesia: Pengantar Teori dan Apresiasi. Ende, Flores: Nusa Indah. Waluyo, Herman. (1986). Pengkajian Prosa Fiksi. Surakarta: UNS. Wellek & Warren A. (1986). Teori Kesusastraan (Diindonesiakan Melami Budianta).

(Diambil dari: http://karya-anak-diksatrasia.blogspot.co.id/2011/11/ruang-lingkup-ilmu- sastra.html)

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Unit 4 Nature of Literature

The Nature of Literature By Michelle Scalise Sugiyama A review of Madame Bovary’s Ovaries by David and Nanelle Barash; Delacorte Press, 2005

Fifteen years ago, I wrote a dissertation prospectus in which I dared to suggest that there was such a thing as human nature, that this human nature was the equivalent of evolved human psychology, that literary characters were representations of this evolved psychology, and that literary analysis should therefore be founded on an understanding of evolutionary psychology. These ideas were seen by the literary establishment as being racist, sexist, and— worst of all—reductionistic. It took me over a year to find three people in the UC Santa Barbara English Department who were willing to serve on my dissertation committee. Unbeknownst to me at the time, a handful of other literary renegades had reached the same conclusion regarding literature, psychology, and human evolution: Joe Carroll in Missouri, Bob Storey in Pennsylvania, Nancy Easterlin in New Orleans, Brett Cooke in Texas, Judith Saunders in New York, John Constable in Japan, and Dennis Dutton in New Zealand. Farther along in their careers than I was, these people had jobs, but none of them had been hired as an evolutionary literary scholar. And despite the reverence for theory that oozes from the halls of literary study, there are still no positions in English departments for evolutionary literary theorists. It is against this backdrop that David and Nanelle Barash’s Madame Bovary’s Ovaries can best be appreciated. Here is a book that doesn’t say much that the abovementioned bunch hasn’t already said, and doesn’t really advance the field of evolutionary literary study. And yet it is a brilliant effort, for what it does do is attempt to bypass the intellectual arteriosclerosis afflicting mainstream literary scholarship and infuse evolutionary literary theory directly into the body public. Thus far it’s been easy for said mainstream to ignore half a dozen scholars publishing in journals with which their discipline is not conversant (e.g., Human Nature, Evolution and Human Behavior). But a popular book about evolutionary literary theory might jolt the literary establishment out of its anti-science complacency, especially if undergrads start asking, “Yo, Professor, what did you think of that book about Madame Bovary’s ovaries?” Thus, even though the authors claim that their “concern is not with the official, scholarly establishment of theorists and critics” (249), their book might be of use to literary scholars genuinely interested in opening the doors of perception. A warning, however, to those long immersed in hegemonic literary discourse: do not be put off by the very accessible—even colloquial—language of Madame Bovary’s Ovaries. This reaction against plain, Anglo-Saxon English is now known to be caused by repeated exposure to the writings of European post- modernists. This result of this contagion is a fallacy of epidemic proportions, whereby polysyllabic diction, serpentine sentences, and nebulous logic are equated with complexity of thought. Happily, the remedy for this affliction is close at hand: simply pause to reflect that string theory—far more complex than Deconstruction or French Feminism—can be explained in terms that a ten-year-old can understand. It helps to remember that, by definition, analysis involves taking complex ideas or phenomena and breaking them down into simpler parts. Barash and Barash do an excellent job of simplifying the fundamentals of evolutionary psychology. 17

Their book is modest in scope: its aim is to show how human nature is reflected in the stories humans read and write. The authors parse human nature into various adaptive problems (e.g., mate selection, adultery, parent-offspring conflict, kin selection), which form the basis for the chapter divisions. Each chapter adroitly fuses biology (a description of the featured adaptive problem and associated cognitive adaptations) with literary analysis (a discussion of literary works whose main conflict centers on the featured adaptive problem). In Chapter 5, for example, female infidelity is discussed in relation to a variety of texts, including Le Mort d’Arthur, The Scarlet Letter, Madame Bovary, The Golden Bowl, Anna Karenina, The Awakening, and Ulysses. The book thus serves to acquaint the reader not only with the premises of evolutionary literary analysis, but with some rudiments of evolutionary psychology as well. In so doing, Madame Bovary’s Ovaries offers English professors suffering from occupational ennui the opportunity to get in touch with their inner scholar: the self who has heard the term Darwinian literary criticism or evolutionary psychology, and despite the post- modern pooh-poohing of senior colleagues, secretly longs to know what these things mean. (Where did you see that article? The New York Times Review of Books? Nature? Science? If you guessed all three, you’d be right.) The only danger is that the book might leave that self wanting more. Which brings me to my chief concern with Barash and Barash’s study. What happens to the reader who, upon finishing the book, wants a deeper understanding of the foundations of evolutionary literary theory? How will that person know to read Carroll’s Evolution and Literary Theory (1995)? And what about the person seeking a biology-based view of narrative representation? How will that person find Storey’s Mimesis and the Human Animal (1996)? And what about the person who wants to know why humans tell stories in the first place? I’ve written a thing or two on that subject, as have Pinker (1997), Miller (2000), and Tooby and Cosmides (2001), but you’d never know it from reading Barash and Barash’s book. It is no crime that the authors do not traverse these avenues of inquiry: it is not what they set out to accomplish. But they could have paused briefly to give the reader directions. At the very least they could have appended a list of further reading. Instead, they give the reader the impression that their work is unprecedented: “We believe that the current offering is new” (13) is the claim with which they conclude the introductory chapter. They qualify this statement--in a footnote!—as follows: Well, not entirely new. As already mentioned some scholars—such as Brian Boyd, Joseph Carroll, Ellen Dissanayake, Nancy Easterlin, Jonathan Gottschall, and Michelle Sugiyama—have begun exploring the potential of “Darwinian literary criticism,” but thus far their work has been directed toward a technical audience, and they certainly represent a minority, even among scholars. (13) “As already mentioned” refers to a single line, in which they observe that “there is a nascent movement among a tiny minority of humanities professors to take Darwin seriously at last” (11). Say what? The earliest efforts to examine the relationship between evolutionary theory and literary study began over fifteen years ago, and the field is neither nascent nor in the exploration stage. Moreover, the fact that this group of scholars constitute a minority and that their work has been directed toward a technical audience has no bearing on whether or not Barash and Barash’s work is new. As noted above, the majority of it is not. The Cinderella motif was first discussed in relation to step-parenthood by Daly and Wilson in 1988 and again in 1998. The topics of female adultery, mate choice, and mating strategies have been addressed by several evolutionary literary scholars (Nesse 1995; Scalise Sugiyama 1996a, 1997; Whissell

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1996), while male long- and short-term mating strategies have been addressed by Jobling (2002) and Kruger et al. (2003). Fox (1995) and Gottschall (2001) have written about male intrasexual competition in the epics, and Cooke (1999) has written about cuckoldry and male sexual jealousy in Pushkin’s work. These are but a few examples that come to mind as I type, but there is much, much more. Adding insult to injury, Barash and Barash drop names of evolutionary biologists and psychologists like hot potatoes in their discussions of evolutionary theory. It is professionally irresponsible and discourteous not to do the same for evolutionary literary scholars. What would Miss Manners say? In presenting their work as new, Barash and Barash give the impression that evolutionary literary study consists entirely of the human-nature approach they have chosen to take. Certainly, evolutionary literary study began with—and remains rooted in—the twin premises that (1) story characters are representations of the evolved human psyche, and (2) setting and action evoke real-world adaptive problems and constraints. But coming to this realization—as my Darwinian compadres and I did in the late 80s and early 90s—begs the question, Where do we go from here? The most obvious avenue of inquiry—for the adaptationist, anyway—is the question of narrative function, which has been examined by both evolutionary psychologists and literary scholars (e.g., Scalise Sugiyama 1996b, 2001a, 2005, 2006; Pinker 1997; Miller 2000; Tooby & Cosmides 2001; Carroll 2004; Boyd 2005). A second avenue explores the possibility of using literature as a database for testing hypotheses regarding evolved psychological mechanisms (e.g., Gottschall 2003; Stiller et al. 2003). Yet another quantitative approach uses statistical analysis to elucidate cross-cultural patterns in narrative themes and character types, against which hypotheses implicit in literary theory can be tested (Gottschall 2005). And a fourth avenue has led to the development of an interpretive paradigm based on the motivational structure of our evolved psychology (Carroll 2005). So the book’s foundations aren’t new, but they are solid—as far as they go. It is indeed the case that understanding our evolved psychology and the problems it is designed to solve better enables us to understand human nature, which in turn better enables us to understand the motives and actions of story characters. It is also the case that a biologically informed approach to literature helps to dispel fuzzy logic passing itself off as theory, such as the notion that little boys want to kill their fathers and have sex with their mothers (Scalise Sugiyama 2001b). But evolutionary literary interpretation consists of more than finding expressions of adaptive problems or evolved psychological mechanisms in literature. As Easterlin points out, “if we assume that such unconscious mechanisms . . . provide a universal key to the interpretation of specific works, evolutionary literary criticism will become nothing more than a latter-day Freudianism, performing its ritual unveilings of psychic secrets in hunter-gatherer dress” (2001:256). Stories do not simply reflect adaptive problems and the cognitive mechanisms that have evolved to solve them. Complex adaptations are facultative: they are sensitive to environmental variation, capable of generating different responses to different environmental inputs. Stories enact the facultative nature of our evolved psychology. A given story takes a set of people, each with a different phenotype (i.e., different personality traits, life experiences, fitness attributes and goals), places them in a particular set of historical, cultural, and geographical conditions, then plays out one possible version of the interaction of these variables over a certain length of time (see Pinker 1997; Scalise Sugiyama 2003). This simulation is produced and mediated by the mind of yet another phenotype—the author—whose particular traits, experiences, attributes, and fitness goals add another filter to the lens through which the reader interprets the actions, beliefs and desires of the story characters (see especially Carroll 2001; Easterlin 2001).

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Barash and Barash’s discussion of Huckleberry Finn in relation to parent-offspring conflict illustrates the interpretive pitfalls of thinking too generally about adaptive problems and psychological adaptations. Their exegesis is problematic from the get-go, for Huck’s mother is dead and his father is not a big influence in his life. The authors circumvent this difficulty by arguing that Huck has many substitute parents—Jim, the Widow Douglas, Judge Thatcher, Miss Watson, Aunt Polly, and so on. However, these parent figures are not genetic relatives, and parental investment theory is grounded in genetic relatedness: parent-offspring conflict arises because a child is 100% related to itself but only 50% related to its siblings. Therefore, from the child’s perspective, she should get twice as much parental investment as her sibling. A parent, in contrast, is equally related to all offspring, and should therefore invest in them equally. Further complicating matters, parents must divide their investment between existing offspring and future reproductive effort, and therein lies the conflict between parent and offspring. This is not the type of conflict Huck experiences with the “parent” figures in his life—he would be perfectly happy if these figures did not invest in him at all. Huck’s crisis is rooted in the difficulties of group living: the adults in Huck’s world want him to play by a certain set of rules, and he must choose whether to cooperate or defect. Characterizing Huck’s resistance as parent-offspring conflict misses the particular environmental conditions (antebellum America) to which a particular phenotype (Huck’s) is responding: a society that tacitly prescribes cruelty, violence and injustice (e.g., slavery, chicanery, feuding), but proscribes minor vices such as pipe-smoking, cursing, and playing hooky. Don’t get me wrong. If you have no idea what biology and evolution could possibly have to do with the study of literature, Barash and Barash’s book is worth reading. It presents a straightforward introduction to both a scientific and a literary revolution, and how often do you get that in 250 pages of reader-friendly prose? But understand that, in tailoring their message for a “non-technical” audience, the authors have sacrificed some precision. Consider, for example, the authors’ claim that, “The ancient Romans evidently understood evolutionary genetics as well as the Godfather, since additional manifestations of kin selection abound throughout The Aeneid” (147). The authors are attempting levity here, but truth always trumps style, and their claim is false: the relationship between genes, heredity, and evolution was not understood until the significance of Mendel’s experiments was realized in the first half of the 20th century. The fact that ancient literature features characters who behave nepotistically is not evidence that the ancients understood evolutionary genetics; it is merely evidence that they had observed or could imagine human beings behaving nepotistically—evidence, in other words, that they understood human nature. The authors’ phrasing here presents a false picture of the relationship between cognition and behavior. We need not understand or even be aware of evolved psychological structures to be motivated by them; no understanding of evolutionary processes is necessary for humans to respond to the world in the ways those processes have designed them to. Admittedly, these are the complaints of an evolutionary literary scholar: fifteen years of addressing a “technical” audience makes one obsessed with getting it right. The bad news, then, from my particular phenotypic perspective, is that there are more things in evolutionary literary study than are dreamt of in this book’s philosophy. The good news is that, whereas past efforts have failed, this book might actually inspire people to go out and find them. <

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Michelle Scalise Sugiyama received her PhD from UC Santa Barbara, where she combined literary study with training at the Center for Evolutionary Psychology. Her work examines narrative as behavior; she is particularly interested in why and when humans began telling and listening to stories. To this end, her work examines the oral traditions of small-scale societies against the exigencies of hunter-gatherer life. She has published numerous articles on the origin, function, and design of narrative, in both literary (e.g., Philosophy and Literature, Interdisciplinary Literary Studies, Mosaic) and social science (Human Nature, Evolution and Human Behavior) journals. Currently affiliated with the Institute for Cognitive and Decision Sciences and the English Department at the University of Oregon, Eugene, she teaches classes on the prehistory of narrative and art behavior.

Works Cited Boyd, Brian. 2005. Evolutionary theories of art. The Literary Animal. Ed. Jonathan Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson, pp. 147-176. Evanston, IL: Northwestern UP. Carroll, Joseph. 1995. Evolution and literary theory. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. ---. 2001. The ecology of Victorian fiction. Philosophy and Literature 25(2): 295-313. ---. 2004. Literary Darwinism: Evolution, human nature, and literature. New York: Routledge. ---. 2005. Human nature and literary meaning: A theoretical model illustrated with a critique of Pride and Prejudice. The literary animal. Ed. Jonathan Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson, pp. 76-106. Evanston, IL: Northwestern UP. Cooke, Brett. 1999. Sexual property in Pushkin’s ‘The Snowstorm’: A Darwinist perspective. Biopoetics, ed. Brett Cooke and Frederick Turner, pp. 175-204. Lexington, KY: ICUS. Daly, Martin and Margo Wilson. 1988. Homicide. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. ---. 1998. The truth about Cinderella: A Darwinian view of parental love. New Haven: Yale UP. Easterlin, Nancy. 2001. Hans Christian Andersen’s fish out of water. Philosophy and Literature 25(2): 251-277. Gottschall, Jonathan. 2001. Homer’s human animal: Ritual combat in the Iliad. Philosophy and Literature 25(2):278-294. ---. 2003. Patterns of characterization in folk tales across geographic regions and levels of cultural complexity: Literature as a neglected source of quantitative data. Human Nature 14(4):365-382. ---. 2005. Quantitative literary study: A modest manifesto and testing the hypotheses of feminist fairy tale studies. The literary animal. Ed. Jonathan Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson, pp. 199-224. Evanston, IL: Northwestern UP. Jobling, Ian. 2002. Byron as cad. Philosophy and Literature 26:296-311. Kruger, D., M. Fisher, and I. Jobling. 2003. Proper and dark heroes as dads and cads: alternative mating strategies in British and Romantic literature. Human Nature 14:305- 317. Miller, Geoffrey. 2000. The Mating Mind. New York: Doubleday. Nesse, Margaret. 1995. Guinevere’s choice. Human Nature 6:145-63. Stiller, James, Daniel Nettle, and Robin I. M. Dunbar. 2003. The small world of Shakespeare’s plays. Human Nature 14(4):397-408. Pinker, Steven. 1997. How the mind works. New York: Norton. Scalise Sugiyama, Michelle. 1996a. “What’s Love Got to Do with It? An Evolutionary Analysis of ‘The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber,’” Hemingway Review 15(2):15-32. ---. 1996b. On the origins of narrative: Storyteller bias as a fitness-enhancing strategy. Human Nature 7:403-25.

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---. 1997. “Feminine Nature: An Evolutionary Analysis of Hemingway’s Women Characters,” dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara. ---. 2001a. Food, foragers, and folklore: The role of narrative in human subsistence. Evolution and Human Behavior 22: 221-40. ---. 2001b. “New Science, Old Myth: An Evolutionary Critique of the Oedipal Paradigm,” Mosaic 34.1 (March 2001):121-36. ---. 2003. Cultural variation is part of human nature: Literary universals, context-sensitivity and ‘Shakespeare in the Bush.’ Human Nature 14:383-396. ---. 2005. Reverse-engineering narrative. The literary animal. Ed. Jonathan Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson. Evanston, IL: Northwestern UP. ---. 2006. Lions and tigers and bears: Predators as a folklore universal. Heuristiken der literaturwissenschaft: Disziplinextrene perspektiven auf literature. Ed. Uta Klein, Katja Mellmann, and Steffanie Metzger, pp. 319-331. Paderborn: Mentis. Storey, Robert. 1996. Mimesis and the human animal: On the biogenetic foundations of literary representation. Evanston, IL: Northwestern UP. Tooby, John and Leda Cosmides. 2001. Does beauty build adaptive minds? Toward an evolutionary theory of aesthetics, fiction, and the arts. Substance 94/95:6-27. Whissell, Cynthia. 1996. Mate selection in popular women’s fiction. Human Nature 7:427-447.

(Accessed at http://www.entelechyjournal.com/michellescalisesugiyama.html)

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Unit 5 Genre of Literature

I. Prose It consists of those written within the common flow of conversation in sentence and paragraphs. Prose is a form of language which applies ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry).

II. Type of Prose 1. Novel This is long narrative divided into chapters. The events are taken from to life stories and spam long period of time. 2. Short Story It is a narrative involving one or more characters, one plot and one single impression. 3. Plays This is presented on stage, is divided into acts and has many scenes. 4. Legends These are fictitious narratives, usually about origins. 5. Fables These are also fictitious, they deal animals and imitate things that speak and act like people, and their purpose is to enlighten the minds of children to events that can mold their ways and attitudes. 6. Anecdotes A merely product of the writer’s imagination and the main aim is to bring out lessons to the readers and attitudes. 7. Essay This is expresses the viewpoint of the writer about a particular problem or event. 8. Biography It is Deals with the life of a person, which may be about himself, his autobiography or that of others. 9. News It is Report of everyday events in society, government, science and industry and accidents, happening nationally or not. 10. Oration A formal treatment of a subject and is intended to be spoken in public. It appeals to the intellect, to the will or to the emotions of the audience.

III. Poetry Comes from the Greek poiesis — with a broad meaning of a "making", seen also in such terms as "hemopoiesis"; more narrowly, the making of poetry. It is refers to those expressions in verse, with measure and rhyme, line and stanza and has a more melodious tone.

IV. Types of poetry Narrative Poetry - describes important events in life real or imaginary. Lyric Poetry - refers to that king of poetry meant to be song to the accompaniment of a lyre, but now this applies to any type of poetry that expresses emotions and fillings of the poet. 23

1. Types of Narrative Poetry a) Epic An extended narrative about heroic exploits often under supernatural control. It may deal with heroes and gods. b) Metrical Tale A Narrative, which is written in verse and can be classified either as a ballad or as a metrical romance. c) Balads Of the narrative poems, this is the shortest and simplest. It has a simple structure and tells of a single incident.

2. Types of Lyric Poetry a) Folksongs These are short poems intended to be sung. The common theme is love, despair, grief, doubt, joy, hope and sorrow. b) Sonnets A lyric poem of 14 lines dealing with an emotion, a feeling of an idea. c) Elegy This is a lyric poem, which express feelings of grief and melancholy and whose theme is death. d) Ode A poem of noble feeling, expressed with dignity, with no definite syllables or definite number of lines in a stanza. e) Psalm (Dalit) It is a sound praising god or the Virgin Mary and containing a philosophy of life. f) Awit (Song) Measures of a 12 (do decasyllabic) and slowly sung to the accompaniment of a guitar or Banduria. g) Corrido Have measure of eight (octosyllabic) and recited to a martial beat. V. Drama Drama is the theatrical dialogue performed on stage, it consists of 5 acts.

VI. Types of Drama 1. Comedy It is comes from the Greek “komos” meaning festivity or revelry. This is usually light and written with the purpose of amusing, and usually has a happy ending. 2. Melodrama It is usually used in musical plays with opera. It arouses immediate and intense emotions and is usually sad but there is a happy ending for the principal character.

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3. Tragedy Involves the hero struggling mightily against dynamic forces; he meets death or ruin without success and satisfaction obtained by the protagonist in a comedy. 4. Farce Exaggerated comedy, situations are too ridiculous to be true; and the characters seem to be caricatures and the motives undignified and absurd.

Reference http://renzpaz.blogspot.com/2008/12/general-types-of-literature.html http://ghalegomez-philippineliterature.blogspot.com/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_of_the_Philippines#Prose

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Unit 6 Elements of Literary Work

The structure of a work of literary art is its internal and external organization, and the ways in which its constituent elements are connected. Structure integrates a literary work and enables it to embody and communicate its content. When a literary work is first apprehended, its structure is not consciously perceived and identified, since the work is apprehended as an entity. But when literary scholarship poses the task of studying “how a work is made,” it becomes necessary to identify the work’s structure and to make a profound study both of the structure and of its role in the creation and perception of the work. All scholarly studies of works of literature and art contain structural analyses. However, in the 20th century, owing to the development of structural analysis, the study of a work’s structure has become a specialized methodological trend in art studies and in literary theory and criticism. This trend has acquired a number of theoretical bases as a result of the prevalent methodological orientation in scholarship; an example is the development of structuralism in literary criticism. The dissociation of structural analysis from the study of content is inherent in the phenomenological aesthetics of N. Hartmann and R. Ingarden, philosophers who studied works of art primarily in terms of their structural “layers.” Structural analysis was also separated from the study of content in a number of studies by members of the Society for the Study of Poetic Language (OPOIAZ) that analyzed systems of “devices” used to create a literary work. Contemporary Soviet literary theorists have sought to overcome the limitations of structural analysis existing in the legacy of the formalist school. Although these theorists have not yet achieved a unified concept of structure, of methods of analyzing structure, and of the role of these methods in art studies and in literary theory and criticism, the chief ways of resolving this task can be outlined. However distinctive the structure of a given work of literature or art, the structure has features in common with the structural principles of other works of the same genre. A work’s structure defines not only the work’s form and content, but also the general features characteristic of genre, style, a specific literary trend, literature as an art form, and, finally, art as a whole. Whereas aesthetics seeks to construct a model of a literary work as an integrated system of images, literary theory must indicate the ways in which the unchanging structural principles that are common to all the arts apply to works of literary art. At the same time, literary theory must take into account the flexibility of the structural principles of literary works, both in terms of morphological (genre) trends and of historical trends—those trends engendered by shifts in literary methods, styles, and schools. The structural model of a literary work may be represented as a nucleus surrounded by several outer layers. The literary material constituting the work forms the outermost layer. This material, examined independently, is a text which, being a selection from the colloquial or literary language of a nation is generally written in a certain style. Examples are the loftiness of M. V. Lomonosov’s odes, the refined, fashionable vocabulary of I. Severianin’s poetry, and the deliberate coarseness of V. V. Mayakovsky’s vocabulary. The text as such, however, does not have literary meaning. A work’s outer layers become artistically meaningful only to the extent that they are symbolic, that is, to the extent that they express their own inner meaning and radiate the poetic energy emanating from the work’s nucleus of content. 26

In contrast to the content of everyday, business, scientific, and scholarly texts, the nucleus of a literary work, which includes the work’s subject and idea, has a bilateral structure. This structure is composed of both intellectual and emotional elements, since art both apprehends and evaluates life. Since the literary outer layer of a work must be united with the spiritual nucleus, and since the outer layer must be as lucid, expressive, and poetically meaningful as possible, the work has two intermediate layers, usually called the inner and outer form. A literary work’s inner form is a system of images which, like the work’s content, are entirely ideal in nature. At the same time, these images have an emotional element and consequently appeal to the reader’s imagination, in the form of characters and their interaction (the plot). The work’s outer form is another level at which the work’s content is presented to the conscious mind, not to the imagination. In literature, the outer form is a system of means by which the material of language is organized so as to activate the text’s phonic aspect. In poetry, these means include rhyme, assonance, and alliteration. The outer form gives a work its rhythmic, stylistic, and compositional structure. In poetry, this structure is expressed in meter and rhythm. In terms of style and composition, structure is expressed in a work’s architectonics, in the consecutive or reversed development of the action, in the means of achieving transitions, in dialogue, and in authorial speech. The sum of the ways in which the outer form structures a work makes the text the source of new, suprasemantic content, which is found in the work’s subtextual meaning. Thus, the structure of a literary work embraces the work’s characters, theme, plot, composition, and architectonics. A work’s structure reveals these elements individually and in terms of their coordination and interdependence within the work as a whole. This is of significance insofar as the work’s structure is hierarchical in nature. The work’s content (its nucleus of ideas and themes) functions as a controlling subsystem that communicates information from level to level until this information permeates the work’s literary substratum. At the same time, as in every self-governing system, there is a reciprocal connection as well— the reciprocal influence of form on content. The structuring of literary material into a work’s outer form and the subsequent emergence of the inner form from the outer form alter the instructions coming from the nucleus of content and sometimes change this nucleus to a significant extent. Thus, the study of a literary work’s structure is not in opposition to traditional analysis in terms of content and form; rather, it develops and gives precision to analysis, since it reveals the inner structure both of the work’s content and form. The structural approach also helps elucidate the morphological, historical, and methodological diversity of literary forms, diversity related to variations in the principles governing the construction of works of literary art. Each structural element is of greater or lesser relative importance within a given work. In poetry, for example, the outer form is of considerably greater importance than in prose; in the detective novel, the plot is immeasurably more important than in other genres. The lyric and the epic differ in the mutual relationship of their content’s intellectual and emotional aspects. On the other hand, the structural distinctions between the classical drama of Corneille, the romantic drama of J. L. Tieck, and the realistic drama of Chekhov are entirely apparent. In conclusion, the analysis of a literary work’s structure presupposes knowledge of the structural principles of works of art; knowledge of the application of these principles to literature and to specific literary genres, trends, and styles; and, finally, the ability to detect and

27 reveal the structural uniqueness of the work under study, a uniqueness engendered by the distinctiveness of the task resolved by the writer.

References Vygotskii, L. S. Psikhologiia iskusstva, 2nd ed. Moscow, 1968. Hartmann, N. Estetika. Moscow. 1958. (Translated from German.) Ingarden, R. Issledovaniia po estetike. Moscow, 1962. (Translated from Polish.) Teoriia literatury: Osnovnye problemy v istoricheskom osveshchenii [book 1]. Moscow, 1962. Strukturno-lipologicheskie issledovanniia. Moscow, 1962. Gei, N. K. Iskusstvo slova. Moscow, 1967. Sokolov, A. N. “Struktura khudozhestvennogo proizvedeniia.” In Teoriia stilia. Moscow, 1968. Lotman, Iu. M. Struktura khudozhestvennogo teksta. Moscow, 1970. Uspenskii, B. A. Poetika kompozitsii: Struktura khudozhestvennogo teksta i tipologiia kompozitsionnoi formy. Moscow, 1970. Problemy khudozhestvennoi formy sotsialisticheskogo realizma, vols. 1–2. Moscow, 1971. Kagan, M. S. Morfologiia iskusstva, parts 1–2. Leningrad, 1972. Utitz, E. Grundlegung der allgemeinen Kunstwissenschaft, vols. 1–2. Stuttgart, 1914–20. Wellek, R., and A. Warren. Theory of Literature, 3rd ed. New York, 1963. (Contains bibliography.) Poetica. Poetyka. Poetika [vols. 1–2]. Warsaw-Paris-The Hague, 1964–66. Structure in Art and Science. New York, 1970.

(Taken from: http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Structure+of+a+Literary+Work)

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Unit 7 Concept of Poetry

Definition of Poetry 1. metrical writing : verse : the productions of a poet : poems 2. writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through meaning, sound, and rhythm 3. something likened to poetry especially in beauty of expression : poetic quality or aspect the poetry of dance

(https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/poetry)

Poetry and Poem Poetry is writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through meaning, sound, and rhythm. (Ref: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/poetry) In English there are two words, namely poem /’pəʊ.ɪm/, /’poʊ.əm/ and poetry /’pō-ə- trē/, /‘pȯ)i-trē/.

Poetry (’pō-ə-trē) (1) (Poetry) a composition in verse, usually characterized by concentrated and heightened language in which words are chosen for their sound and suggestive power as well as for their sense, and using such techniques as metre, rhyme, and alliteration, (2) Literary & Literary Critical Terms) a literary composition that is not in verse but exhibits the intensity of imagination and language common to it: a prose poem. (3) Anything resembling a poem in beauty, effect, etc [C16: from Latin poēma, from Greek, variant of poiēma something composed, created, from poiein to make] Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014© HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014

(1) a piece of writing in which the words are arranged in separate lines, often ending in rhyme, and are chosen for their sound and for the images and ideas they suggest. (2 )a piece of writing that usually has figurative language and that is written in separate lines that often have a repeated rhythm and sometimes rhyme (Definition of poem from the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)

Poem (pō′əm) (1)A verbal composition designed to convey experiences, ideas, or emotions in a vivid and imaginative way, characterized by the use of language chosen for its sound and suggestive power and by the use of literary techniques such as meter, metaphor, and rhyme. (2)A composition in verse rather than in prose: wrote both prose and poems. (3) A literary composition written with an intensity or beauty of language more characteristic of poetry than of prose.

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Reference: [French poème, from Old French, from Latin poēma, from Greek poiēma, from poiein, to create; see kwei- in Indo-European roots.]; American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition; Copyright © 2011 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company- Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. From the definitions above, it can be understood that poetry is one of form of literary works besides prose and drama. Literature is a result of creativity of author sourced from human life directly through imagination by language as its media (Retno Winarni, 2009: 7). Something referred as a text of literature if (1) the text is not always made arrangements for a practical communicative target or temporary, (2) the text contain element ficioulity, (3) the text causes readers taking distance, (4) its substance is processed specially, and (5) having interpretation openness. Poetry, according to Campbel Slann, Joanna (2011) is that the easiest way to recognize poetry is that it usually looks like poetry (remember what they say about ducks). While prose is organized with sentences and paragraphs, poetry is normally organized into lines. Moreover, poetry represents the oldest literary works and was first time written by human being. According to Herman J. Waluyo (2010: 1) poetry is literary works with compacted language, taken a short cut, and given with rhythm solidly sound and figurative words election (imaginative). Words in poetry are really solid and chosen so that very beautiful when being read. Others say, Easterling, (2011: 99) noted that “Poetry was, to be sure, the acknowledged “genre of genres” of the time and found a wide audience among the literate. The Prominent literary men of the day, however, were of note of taken with the pursuits of literature and poetry alone”. Slamet Muljana in Rakhmat Djoko Pradopo (2002: 113) defines poetry as literature form in repetition voice or words producing rhyme, rhytm, and musicality. Poetry expresses opinion awakening feelings that stimulates the five senses in imagination musically. All represent important something that, what is recorded and attractively expressed and gives an impression on. Poetry represents one of literary works forms which also need appreciated. Poetry is the earliest literary works written by human being (Herman J. Waluyo, 2010: 1). Besides, as view of life, contemplative, and opinion, feeling or emotion representing the element of poetry structure, Wordsworth (in Luxemburg, 1986:169-170), mentioning poem shall be as follows. “The spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings”: (an expression of strong feeling), it does not mean that poem can be considered to be passion dismissal. Exactly it is,“powerful feelings” not uncontrollably final purpose poem, but it is the meaning and picture medium implied in that picture more intensively and led into more eminent target: that states “the depth, and not the tumult of the soul”.

Some Examples “The time is out of joint, O cursed spite That ever I was born to set it right!”

William Shakespeare’s Hamlet

Reference: http://literarydevices.net/couplet/

On a branch floating downriver a cricket, singing.

By translated by Jane Hirshfield 30

Humans' True Nature Poem by Mihaela Pirjol we are becoming slaves to self-created selves — delve into your depths

Reference: http://simplyhaiku.com/SHv4n3/senryu/senryu.html

He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there’s some mistake. The only other sound’s the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake.

(Stopping by Woods On a Snowy Evening by Robert Frost)

Reference: http://literarydevices.net/quatrain/

My mum Is so caring She always helpful She is so beautiful and kind Love you

Reference: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/cinquain-examples.html

Beautiful mountains Rivers with cold, cold water. White cold snow on rocks Trees over the place with frost White sparkly snow everywhere.

Pretty colored trees That are orange, red and yellow In the Autumn air An old barn by the water With a white fence around it.

The leaves change colour When the fall winds start to blow, Yellow, orange and brown Are the colours of fall leaves, Slowly falling from the trees.

Reference: http://www.edu.pe.ca/stjean/playing%20with%20poetry/Hennessey/tanka.htm http://www.shadowpoetry.com/resources/wip/tanka.html

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From Visions Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374)

Being one day at my window all alone, So manie strange things happened me to see, As much as it grieveth me to thinke thereon. At my right hand a hynde appear’d to mee, So faire as mote the greatest god delite; Two eager dogs did her pursue in chace. Of which the one was blacke, the other white: With deadly force so in their cruell race They pincht the haunches of that gentle beast, That at the last, and in short time, I spide, Under a rocke, where she alas, opprest, Fell to the ground, and there untimely dide. Cruell death vanquishing so noble beautie Oft makes me wayle so hard a desire.

(Trans. Edmund Spenser)

Sonnet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)

Ye ladies, walking past me piteous-eyed, Who is the lady that lies prostrate here? Can this be even she my heart holds dear? Nay, if it be so, speak, and nothing hide. Her very aspect seems itself beside, And all her features of such altered cheer That to my thinking they do not appear Hers who makes others seem beatified. ‘If thou forget to know our lady thus, Whom grief o'ercomes, we wonder in no wise, For also the same thing befalleth us, Yet if thou watch the movement of her eyes, Of her thou shalt be straightaway conscious. O weep no more; thou art all wan with sighs.

(Trans. D.G. Rossetti)

Reference: http://www.webexhibits.org/poetry/explore_famous_sonnet_examples.html

Structural Aspects of Poetry The structure of poetry can be observed from three sides, those are FLS: Form, Line, and Stanza. 1. FORM is the appearance of the words on the page 2. LINE is a group of words together on one line of the poem 3. STANZA is a group of lines arranged together

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FORM OF POEM A poem may or may not have a specific number of lines, rhyme scheme and/or metrical pattern, but it can still be labeled according to its form or style.

A word is dead When it is said, Some say.

I say it just Begins to live That day.

The followings are the three most common types of poetry according to form: 1. Lyric Poetry: It is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the poet) who expresses strong thoughts and feelings. Most poems, especially modern ones, are lyric poems. 2. Narrative Poem: It is a poem that tells a story; its structure resembles the plot line of a story [i.e. the introduction of conflict and characters, rising action, climax and the denouement]. 3. Descriptive Poem: It is a poem that describes the world that surrounds the speaker. It uses elaborate imagery and adjectives. While emotional, it is more "outward-focused" than lyric poetry, which is more personal and introspective.

On the other understandings, forms of poetry can be categorized based on two sides, those are as the followings. 1. On Line and Stanza (Structure) 2. On Mood and Tone (Essence/ content)

Forms of Poem on Line and Stanza: Line and Stanza Relationship Line is a group of words together on one line of the poem and stanzas are a series of lines grouped together and separated by an empty line from other stanzas. They are the equivalent of a paragraph in an essay. One way to identify a stanza is to count the number of lines. Thus: • Most poems are written in lines. • A group of lines in a poem is called a stanza. • Stanzas separate ideas in a poem. They act like paragraphs. • This poem has two stanzas.

March By Eleanor Farjeon

A blue day A blue jay And a good beginning.

One crow, Melting snow – Spring’s winning!

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A stanza is a set of lines in a poem grouped together and set apart from other stanzas in the poem either by a double space or by different indentation. Poems may contain any number of stanzas, depending on the author’s wishes and structure in which the poet is writing. There are many strict poetic forms that designate the exact number of stanzas. Those can be: 1. Couplet = a two line stanza 2. Triplet (Tercet) = a three line stanza 3. Quatrain = a four line stanza 4. Quintet = a five line stanza 5. Sestet (Sextet) = a six line stanza 6. Septet = a seven line stanza 7. Octave = an eight line stanza

Some poem examples based on the line and stanza as the followings. Couplet A couplet is a literary device which can be defined as having two successive rhyming lines in a verse and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme and incorporation of specific utterances. This type of poem is two lines which may be rhymed or unrhymed. One of the commonly used couplet examples are these two lines from William Shakespeare’s Hamlet.

“The time is out of joint, O cursed spite That ever I was born to set it right!”

Reference: https://literarydevices.net/couplet/

Cinquain It is a five line poem containing 22 syllables Poetry with five lines. Line 1 has one word (the title). Line 2 has two words that describe the title. Line 3 has three words that tell the action. Line 4 has four words that express the feeling, and line 5 has one word which recalls the title.

Line 1. Two Syllables How frail Line 2. Four Syllables Above the bulk Line 3. Six Syllables Of crashing water hangs Line 4. Eight Syllables Autumnal, evanescent, wan Line 5. Two Syllables The moon.

A cinquain is a five-line poem that was invented by Adelaide Crapsey. She was an American poet who took her inspiration from Japanese haiku and tanka. A collection of poems, titled Verse, was published in 1915 and included 28 cinquains. Cinquains are particularly vivid in their imagery and are meant to convey a certain mood or emotion. Line 1 – 2 syllables My mum 2 Line 2 – 4 Syllables Is so caring 4 Line 3 – 6 Syllables She is always helpful 6 Line 4 – 8 syllables She is so beautiful and kind 8 Line 5 – 2 Syllables Love you. 2

Reference: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/cinquain-examples.html

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Concrete In concrete poems, the words are arranged to create a picture that relates to the content of the poem. It is also known as "size poetry". Concrete poetry uses typographical arrangements to display an element of the poem. This can either be through re-arrangement of letters of a word or by arranging the words as a shape.

Reference: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/CknhDOqWsAAMN-e.jpg

Haiku (or Hokku) A Japanese verse form of three unrhyming lines in five, seven, and five syllables. It creates a single, memorable image, as in these lines by Kobayashi Issa, translated by Jane Hirshfield: On a branch floating downriver a cricket, singing.

(In translating from Japanese to English, Hirshfield compresses the number of syllables.) Reference:http://www.poetryfoundation.org/resources/learning/glossaryterms/ =haiku

A haiku poem has three lines, where the first and last lines have five moras, while the middle line has seven. The pattern in Japanese genre is 5-7-5. The mora is another name of a sound unit, which is like a syllable, but it is different from a syllable. As the moras cannot be translated into English, they are modified and syllables are used instead. The lines of such poems rarely rhyme with each other. Reference: http://literarydevices.net/haiku/

It is a Japanese poem written in three lines consisting on being composed of three unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five syllables, usually containing a season word.

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Line 1. Five Syllables An old silent pond, Line 2. Seven Syllables A frog jumps into the pond. Line 3. Five Syllables Splash! Silence again.

Limerick It is a short sometimes vulgar, humorous poem consisting of five anapestic lines. Lines 1, 2, and 5 have seven to ten syllables, rhyme and have the same verbal rhythm. The 3rd and 4th lines have five to seven syllables, rhyme and have the same rhythm.

There was a young lady of station “I love man” was her sole exclamation But when men cried, “You flatter” She replied, “Oh! no matter Isle of Man is the true explanation.

(From To Miss Vera Beringer by Lewis Carroll)

This limerick contains five lines with rhyme scheme aabba. Here we can notice the first, second and fifth lines rhyme together with three feet, whereas third and fourth lines contain two feet and rhyme together.

There was an Old Man with a beard, Who said, ‘It is just as I feared! Two Owls and a Hen, Four Larks and a Wren, Have all built their nests in my beard!

(From “There was an Old Man with a Beard” by Edward Lear)

Name It is a poem that tells about the word. It uses the letters of the word for the first letter of each line. Here are some examples:

CANDY CATS FEAR SPRING

Crunchy chewy Cuddly Frightening Sunny days Awesome Acrobatic Eerie and strange Plants awakening Nice and sweet Tenacious and terrifying Anxiety rises Raindrops on the roof Delightful and delicious Softly purring Ready to flee Interesting clouds Yummy treat New flowers Gray skies

HOUSE

Home Open and inviting Universal Safe and warm Everything

Reference: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/acrostic-poem-examples.html

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Quatrain A quatrain is a verse with four lines, or even a full poem containing four lines, having an independent and separate theme. Often one line consists of alternating rhyme. It exists in a variety of forms. We can trace back quatrains in poems of poetic traditions by different ancient civilizations such as China, Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece and continue to appear in twenty first century. During dark ages in Europe, Middle East and Iran polymath poets like Omar Khayyam popularized this type of poetry, which gained its popularity with the name of Rubai in Iran and have possible rhyme scheme as, aabb, aaaa and abab.

He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there’s some mistake. The only other sound’s the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake.

(Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening by Robert Frost)

Reference: http://literarydevices.net/quatrain/

It is a stanza or poem consisting of four lines. Lines 2 and 4 must rhyme while having a similar number of syllables.

Hope is the Thing with Feathers, by Emily Dickinson

"Hope" is the thing with feathers That perches in the soul And sings the tune without the words And never stops at all,

Reference: http://www.examplesinpoetry.com/quatrain-poetry-examples-definition

Sonnet The word sonnet is derived from the Italian word “sonetto”. It means a small or little song or lyric. In poetry, a sonnet has 14 fourteen lines and is written in iambic pentameter. Each line has 10 syllables. It has a specific rhyme scheme and a “volta” or a specific turn. Reference: http://literarydevices.net/sonnet/

From Visions Sonnet Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) Being one day at my window all alone, Ye ladies, walking past me piteous-eyed, So manie strange things happened me to see, Who is the lady that lies prostrate here? As much as it grieveth me to thinke thereon. Can this be even she my heart holds dear? At my right hand a hynde appear’d to mee, Nay, if it be so, speak, and nothing hide. So faire as mote the greatest god delite; Her very aspect seems itself beside, Two eager dogs did her pursue in chace. And all her features of such altered cheer Of which the one was blacke, the other white: That to my thinking they do not appear With deadly force so in their cruell race Hers who makes others seem beatified. They pincht the haunches of that gentle beast, ‘If thou forget to know our lady thus, That at the last, and in short time, I spide, Whom grief o'ercomes, we wonder in no wise, Under a rocke, where she alas, opprest, For also the same thing befalleth us, Fell to the ground, and there untimely dide. Yet if thou watch the movement of her eyes, Cruell death vanquishing so noble beautie Of her thou shalt be straightaway conscious. 37

Oft makes me wayle so hard a desire. O weep no more; thou art all wan with sighs. (Trans. Edmund Spenser) (Trans. D.G. Rossetti)

Reference: http://www.webexhibits.org/poetry/explore_famous_sonnet_examples.html

Shakespearean sonnet It is a fourteen line poem with a specific rhyme scheme. The poem is written in three quatrains and ends with a couplet. The rhyme scheme is abab cdcd efef gg. Shakespearean is a 14-line sonnet consisting of three quatrains of abab cdcd efef followed by a couplet, gg. Shakespearean sonnets generally use iambic pentameter and Sonnet is a lyric poem that consists of 14 lines which usually have one or more conventional rhyme schemes.

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? (Sonnet 18) William Shakespeare, 1564 - 1616

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer’s lease hath all too short a date. Sometimes too hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimmed; And every fair from fair sometimes declines, By chance or nature’s changing course untrimmed. But thy eternal summer shall not fade Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st; Nor shall Death brag thou wanderest in his shade, When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

Reference: https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poem/shall-i-compare-thee-summers-day-sonnet- 18

Senryu It is a short Japanese style poem, similar to haiku in structure that treats human beings rather than nature: Often in a humorous or satiric way. Senryu is a short poetic form which focuses on people: men, women, husbands, wives, children, relatives and other relations. It portrays the characteristics of human beings and psychology of the human mind. A common misconception about senryu is that it is exclusively a satirical and or humorous poetic genre. That is a laugh right there, because senryu is much more than a fat lady's big behind. There's another side of senryu, a more serious side that express the misfortunes, the hardships and woe of humanity. Senryu that are serious in tone about romance, sex, family, friendship, marriage, and divorce — Senryu that express other moods and human emotions such as love, hate, anger, jealousy, sorrow, sadness, and fear — Senryu that portray the stark reality of the human condition — the facts, fashions, sports, social issues and life-styles of popular culture — Senryu that express passion and fullness of heart.

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Humans' True Nature Poem by Mihaela Pirjol we are becoming slaves to self-created selves — delve into your depths

Reference: http://simplyhaiku.com/SHv4n3/senryu/senryu.html

Reference: http://images.slideplayer.com/28/9400862/slides/slide_7.jpg

Tanka It is a Japanese poem of five lines, the first and third composed of five syllables and the other seven. Tanka is a classic form of Japanese poetry related to the haiku with five unrhymed lines of five, seven, five, seven, and seven syllables. (5, 7, 5, 7, 7). The 5/7/5/7/7 rule is rumored to have been made up for school children to understand and learn this type of poetry. For an in depth description of Tanka, please visit the Shadow Poetry Japanese Poetry Tanka section. Reference: http://www.shadowpoetry.com/resources/wip/tanka.html

Beautiful mountains Pretty colored trees The leaves change colour Rivers with cold, cold water. That are orange, red and yellow When the fall winds start to blow, White cold snow on rocks In the Autumn air Yellow, orange and brown Trees over the place with frost An old barn by the water Are the colours of fall leaves, White sparkly snow everywhere. With a white fence around it. Slowly falling from the trees.

Reference: http://www.edu.pe.ca/stjean/playing%20with%20poetry/Hennessey/tanka.htm

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Reference: http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/... /tanka_poem.jpg

Forms of Poem on Mood and Tone: Relationship between Tone and Mood The writer of a poem creates tone using particular syntax, setting and structure, and the mood is the feeling that the tone evokes in the reader. Though tone and mood are closely related, the tone tends to be associated with the poem’s voice. The narrator of the poem creates the voice of the poem, and voice is associated with the writer’s attitude toward the poem. In other words, the tone relays something about the writer’s attitude toward the subject of the poem. This attitude, in turn, creates some sort of atmosphere or mood, which then evokes a certain emotion or frame of mind in the reader.

Describing Tone and Mood The tone of a poem may be described using a variety of words such as serious, playful, humorous, formal, informal, angry, satirical, ironical or sad, or any other kind of appropriate adjective. The mood of the poem may be described as idealistic, romantic, realistic, optimistic, gloomy, imaginary or mournful.

Some poem examples based on the mood and tone as the followings. Ballad It is a poem that tells a story similar to a folk tale or legend which often has a repeated refrain. When people hear of ballads, they often immediately think of songs like he lovestruck melodies of famous performing artists such as the Righteous Brothers, Elvis Presley, Lonestar, Frank Sinatra, and Peter Gabriel. While they are partially correct, ballads can also be narrative pieces written in a poetic form.

Ballata 5" by Guido Cavalcanti

"That which befalls me in my Lady's presence Bars explanation intellectual. I seem to see a lady wonderful Spring forth between her lips, one whom no sense Can fully tell the mind of, and one whence Another, in beauty, springeth marvelous, From whom a star goes forth and speaketh thus: 'Now my salvation is gone forth from thee.'"

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In the middle of the 15th century, Francois Villon wrote a ballad entitled "Ballad of the Gibbet" by Francois Villon where he stated:

"Brothers and men that shall after us be, Let not your hearts be hard to us: For pitying this our misery Ye shall find God the more piteous." Villon was advising his enemies, but also making a narrative statement, about the condition of being hunted by another person.

Ballad of the Cool Fountain by Anonymous Spanish Poet

Fountain, coolest fountain, Cool fountain of love, Where all the sweet birds come For comforting-but one, A widow turtledove, Sadly sorrowing, At once the nightingale, That wicked bird, came by, And spoke these honied words: "My lady, if you will, I shall be your slave." "You are my enemy: Begone, you are not true!" Green boughs no longer rest me, Nor any budding grove. Clear springs, where there are such, Turn muddy at my touch. I want no spouse to love Nor any children either. I forego that pleasure and their comfort too. No, leave me; you are false And wicked-vile, untrue! I'll never be your mistress! I'll never marry you!

Reference:http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-a-ballad.html

Ballade A ballade is a type of poetry, this type of poetry first became popular in the 14th century. A Ballade poem should have three stanzas and an envoy/ envoi. The rhyming pattern for the stanzas is ababbcbC. The rhyming pattern for the envoy is bcbC. The capital letter in the rhyming patterns shows where the refrain should be.

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It is a poetry which has three stanzas of seven, eight or ten lines and a shorter final stanza of four or five. All stanzas end with the same one line refrain. Reference: https://www.youngwriters.co.uk/types-ballade

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Bio It is a poem written about one self's life, personality traits, and ambitions.

Reference: http://images.slideplayer.com/18/5666541/slides/slide_4.jpg

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Burlesque It is a poetry that treats a serious subject as humor.

Reference: http://www.wordsandphrasesfromthepast.com/

Elegy It is a sad and thoughtful poem about the death of an individual.

Women labor in pain By Solomon Ochwo-Oburu

women labor in pain devil picks choicest microbes celebrate enemies make them heroes

Reference: https://www.poetrysoup.com/poem/women_labor_in_pain_876200

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Reference: http://image.slidesharecdn.com/typesofpoetry

Epic It is an extensive, serious poem that tells the story about a heroic figure.

Reference: http://other.phoot.biz/images/

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Epithalamium It is a poem written in honor of the bride and groom.

Reference: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com.jpg

Lyric It is a short poem and usually written in first person point of view, expresses an emotion or an idea or describes a scene, does not tell a story and are often musical, and many of the poems we read will be lyrics.

O Captain! My Captain By Walt Whitman

“‘O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won, The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring; But O heart! Heart! Heart!”

To My Enemy By Lucy Maud Montgomery

Let those who will of friendship sing, And to its guerdon grateful be, But I a lyric garland bring To crown thee, O, mine enemy!

Thanks, endless thanks, to thee I owe For that my lifelong journey through Thine honest hate has done for me What love perchance had failed to do.

I had not scaled such weary heights But that I held thy scorn in fear, 46

And never keenest lure might match The subtle goading of thy sneer.

Thine anger struck from me a fire That purged all dull content away, Our mortal strife to me has been Unflagging spur from day to day.

And thus, while all the world may laud The gifts of love and loyalty, I lay my meed of gratitude Before thy feet, mine enemy!

Reference: https://www.poetrysoup.com/famous/poem/to_my_enemy_14093

Narrative It is a poem that tells a story, generally longer than the lyric styles of poetry b/c the poet needs to establish characters and a plot.

Examples of Narrative Poems “The Raven” “The Highwayman” “Casey at the Bat” “The Walrus and the Carpenter”

Ode An ode is a lyrical stanza written in praise for a person, event, or thing. The form developed in Ancient Greece and had a very specific and elaborate structure involving three parts known as the strophe, antistrophe, and epode. Originally, Greek odes were set to music. The form was later popularized and adapted in Renaissance England and led to a new set of conventions, which we will explore below. The word ode comes originally from the Greek word ᾠδή (ōidē), meaning “song.” The definition of ode has thus clearly changed over time, as now it is often used colloquially to refer to any praise or glorification of an individual or thing.

Victory Ode by Pindar

Creatures for a day! What is a man? What is he not? A dream of a shadow Is our mortal being. But when there comes to men A gleam of splendour given of heaven, Then rests on them a light of glory And blessed are their days.

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Pastoral It is a poem that depicts rural life in a peaceful, romanticized way.

Reference: http://ggcaenglish.weebly.com/

Romanticism It is a poem about nature and love while having emphasis on the personal experience.

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Reference: http://www.poetseers.org/wordsworth-my-heart-leaps-up2.jpg

The Intrinsic and Extrinsic Elements of poetry Intrinsic element of poetry is an element contained in a poem, which is used by analysts in studying and understanding the meaning of a poem. There are several intrinsic elements in poetry:

Imagery 1) Visual Imagery Visual imagery is the imagery that can be gained from the experience of the senses of sight (eyes). 2) Kinesthetic Imagery Kinesthetic imagery is the imagery produced from an experience that form of movement. 3) Auditory Imagery Auditory imagery is the element of imagery associated with the sense of hearing. 4) Organic Imagery Organic imagery is the imagery that emerged from our minds. Organic imagery can be seen in the disclosure of feelings such as hunger, thirst, fatigue, drunkenness, etc. 5) Tactile Imagery Imagery is directly related to our sense of touch. Tactile imagery can be seen from the description of feelings such as feeling hot, cold, smooth, rough, and anything that can be felt to be touched. 6) Gustatory Imagery Gustatory imagery is imagery that portrayed the experience of our sense of taste, a taste of thing. Things like sweet, bitter, sour, tasteless are some examples of words that indicate gustatory imagery.

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7) Olfactory Imagery Olfactory imagery is the imagery associated with our sense of smell, a smell of thing. Things that can be described based on the experience of smell from your nose is an example of olfactory imagery, such as for example: the smell fragrant, smells fishy, etc.

Style of language (figure of speech) There are several kinds of figure of speech that are commonly seen in a poem, namely:

1) Simile Simile is a figure of speech which is formed from which we make comparisons between a thing with another thing which is basically similar. The author uses words such comparison: like, as, etc, to compare these two things. 2) Metaphor Such as simile, metaphor is formed from a comparison of two things have in common, so one thing can take the place of something else. What distinguishes metaphor with a simile is not the use of comparison words such as: like, as, etc. 3) Paradox Paradox is a figure of speech that shows the contradiction between two things. Paradox is a picture of contradiction will be a thing (as distinct from reality, with real meaning.) As Perrine said in his literature, structure, sounds and sense that the paradox is an apparent contradiction that is nevertheless somehow true (1987-604). 4) Irony Irony is a figure of speech which features an Opposition of the meaning of the word. There are three forms of irony "there remains, namely: verbal irony" there remains, dramatic irony "there remains and the Irony of situation.

5) Hyperbole Hyperbole is a figure of speech that works by giving meaning or describe a thing as excessive. 6) Antithesis Antithesis is a figure of speech that is visible from two words placed in the opposite sense in one place. 7) Symbol Symbol intended for a matter that is used to replace other things a broader meaning. 8) Rhyme Rhyme is defined as a form of repetition of sounds in these lines of poetry. Rhyme is divided into three types, namely: End Rhyme, median and front rhyme. 9) Rhythm Rhythm is an intrinsic element of poetry that only comes when a poem was read. Rhythm is a tone that appears when poetry was sung. 10) Meter Size of tone in the rhythm called the meter. Meters can be shaped monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, and pentameter.

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11) Allusion Allusion is a style that uses words or names in the bible that is inserted in the poem with a specific purpose and reason.

Extrinsic Elements of poetry Extrinsic Elements of poetry is a supporting element of poetry that comes from outside the work of poetry created. Extrinsic Elements of poetry was instrumental in the analysis of a poem. Without using the approach on the extrinsic elements of the poem, analysts will have difficulty in determining the reason and purpose of a poem is created. Even understanding the meaning of a poem can be shifted from what was intended by the author, if the poem is analyzed in the extrinsic elements only. Some elements of extrinsic poem are like: author biography, social background, religion, and education of the author, and social circumstances at the time the poem was made.

In essence, extrinsic element in poetry is no different with extrinsic elements contained in the other literary works such as prose and drama.

Reference Sources: Sound and Sense: An Introduction to Poetry by Laurence Perrine (1956) An Introduction to Literature: fiction, poetry, drama; third edition written by Barnet, Berman and Burto (1961)

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Unit 8 Concept of Prose

Definition of Prose Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry. Normal every day speech is spoken in prose and most people think and write in prose form. Prose comprises of full grammatical sentences which consist of paragraphs and forgoes aesthetic appeal in favor of clear, straightforward language. It can be said to be the most reflective of conversational speech. Some works of prose do have versification and a blend of the two formats that is called prose poetry. Prose is a communicative style that sounds natural and uses grammatical structure. Prose is the opposite of verse, or poetry, which employs a rhythmic structure that does not mimic ordinary speech. There is, however, some poetry called “prose poetry” that uses elements of prose while adding in poetic techniques such as heightened emotional content, high frequency of metaphors, and juxtaposition of contrasting images. Most forms of writing and speaking are done in prose, including short stories and novels, journalism, academic writing, and regular conversations. (https://literarydevices.net/prose/) Prose is a form of language that exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatica structure, rather than a rhythmic structure as in traditional poetry. Where the common unit of verse is based on meter or rhyme, the common unit of prose is purely grammatical, such as a sentence or paragraph.[1] The word "prose" first appears in English in the 14th century. It is derived from the Old French prose, which in turn originates in the Latin expression prosa oratio (literally, straightforward or direct speech).[3] The word “prose” comes from the Latin expression prosa oratio, which means straightforward or direct speech. Due to the definition of prose referring to straightforward communication, “prosaic” has come to mean dull and commonplace discourse. When used as a literary term, however, prose does not carry this connotation.

Prose Form “The woods look lovely against the setting darkness and as I gaze into the mysterious depths of the forest, I feel like lingering here longer. However, I have pending appointments to keep and much distance to cover before I settle in for the night or else I will be late for all of them.” The above paragraph is conveying a similar message but it is conveyed in ordinary language, without a formal metrical structure to bind it.

Some Common Types of Prose 1. Nonfictional Prose: A literary work that is mainly based on fact although it may contain fictional elements in certain cases. Examples are biographies and essays. 2. Fictional Prose: A literary work that is wholly or partly imagined or theoretical. Examples are novels. 3. Heroic Prose: A literary work that may be written down or recited and employs many of the formulaic expressions found in oral tradition. Examples are legends and tales.

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4. Prose Poetry: A literary work which exhibits poetic quality using emotional effects and heightened imagery but are written in prose instead of verse.

Common Examples of Prose Everything that is not poetry is prose. Therefore, every utterance or written word that is not in the form of verse is an example of prose. Here are some different formats that prose comes in: • Casual dialogue: “Hi, how are you?” “I’m fine, how are you?” “Fine, thanks.” • Oration: I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. – Martin Luther King, Jr. • Dictionary definition: Prose (n)— the ordinary form of spoken or written language, without metrical structure, as distinguished from poetry or verse. • Philosophical texts: Whoever fights monsters should see to it that in the process he does not become a monster. And if you gaze long enough into an abyss, the abyss will gaze back into you. –Friedrich Nietzsche • Journalism: State and local officials were heavily criticized for their response to the January 2014 storm that created a traffic nightmare and left some motorists stranded for 18 hours or more.

Example 1 I shall never be fool enough to turn knight-errant. For I see quite well that it’s not the fashion now to do as they did in the olden days when they say those famous knights roamed the world.

(Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes)

Don Quixote is often considered the forerunner of the modern novel, and here we can see Cervantes’s prose style as being very direct with some sarcasm.

Example 2 The ledge, where I placed my candle, had a few mildewed books piled up in one corner; and it was covered with writing scratched on the paint. This writing, however, was nothing but a name repeated in all kinds of characters, large and small—Catherine Earnshaw, here and there varied to Catherine Heathcliff, and then again to Catherine Linton. In vapid listlessness I leant my head against the window, and continued spelling over Catherine Earnshaw— Heathcliff—Linton, till my eyes closed; but they had not rested five minutes when a glare of white letters started from the dark, as vivid as spectres—the air swarmed with Catherines; and rousing myself to dispel the obtrusive name, I discovered my candle wick reclining on one of the antique volumes, and perfuming the place with an odour of roasted calf-skin.

(Wuthering Heights by Charlotte Brontë)

In this prose example from Charlotte Brontë we hear from the narrator, who is focused on the character of Catherine and her fate. The prose style mimics his obsession in its long, winding sentences.

Example 3 “I never know you was so brave, Jim,” she went on comfortingly. “You is just like big mans; you wait for him lift his head and then you go for him. Ain’t you feel scared a bit? Now we take that snake home and show everybody. Nobody ain’t seen in this kawn-tree so big snake like you kill.”

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(My Antonia by Willa Cather)

In this excerpt from My Antonia, Willa Cather uses her prose to suggest the sound of Antonia’s English. She is a recent immigrant and as the book progresses her English improves, yet never loses the flavor of being a non-native speaker.

Example 4 Robert Cohn was once middleweight boxing champion of Princeton. Do not think I am very much impressed by that as a boxing title, but it meant a lot to Cohn. He cared nothing for boxing, in fact he disliked it, but he learned it painfully and thoroughly to counteract the feeling of inferiority and shyness he had felt on being treated as a Jew at Princeton.

(The Sun also Rises by Ernest Hemingway)

Ernest Hemingway wrote his prose in a very direct and straightforward manner. This excerpt from The Sun Also Rises demonstrates the directness in which he wrote–there is no subtlety to the narrator’s remark “Do not think I am very much impressed by that as a boxing title.”

Example 5 The Lighthouse was then a silvery, misty-looking tower with a yellow eye that opened suddenly and softly in the evening. Now—James looked at the Lighthouse. He could see the white-washed rocks; the tower, stark and straight; he could see that it was barred with black and white; he could see windows in it; he could even see washing spread on the rocks to dry. So that was the Lighthouse, was it? No, the other was also the Lighthouse. For nothing was simply one thing. The other Lighthouse was true too.

(To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf)

Virginia Woolf was noted for her stream-of-consciousness prose style. This excerpt from To the Lighthouse demonstrates her style of writing in the same way that thoughts occur to a normal person.

Example 6 And if sometimes, on the steps of a palace or the green grass of a ditch, in the mournful solitude of your room, you wake again, drunkenness already diminishing or gone, ask the wind, the wave, the star, the bird, the clock, everything that is flying, everything that is groaning, everything that is rolling, everything that is singing, everything that is speaking. . .ask what time it is and wind, wave, star, bird, clock will answer you: “It is time to be drunk! So as not to be the martyred slaves of time, be drunk, be continually drunk! On wine, on poetry or on virtue as you wish.”

(“Be Drunk” by Charles Baudelaire) (Taken from: http://www.literarydevices.com/prose/)

Reference 1. "Verse", "Types-Of-Poetry", Screen 1 2. Eliot T S 'Poetry & Prose: The Chapbook' Poetry Bookshop London 1921 3. "Prose (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 19 January 2015.

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Unit 9 Complexity of Drama

Drama Drama belongs simultaneously to the categories of theater and literature: it is the primary element in a theatrical performance, but it may also be appreciated by reading alone. Drama developed as a result of the evolution of theater as an art. The emergence of actors at the forefront, who combine pantomime with the spoken word, heralded the rise of drama as a type of literature. A number of elements contribute to the specific nature of drama. It has a plot—that is, it reproduces a course of events—its action has dramatic tension and is broken down into scenes and episodes, the utterances of its characters have continuity, and the narrative principle is lacking or subordinate. Intended for group perception, drama has always dealt with the most topical issues, and its most brilliant models have become popular. In A. S. Pushkin’s opinion, the purpose of drama is to “have an effect on the crowd, the many, and to attract their curiosity” (Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 7, 1958, p. 214). Drama is characterized by deep conflict. The fundamental principle is the tense and active experience by people of sociohistorical or “eternal” contradictions common to mankind. A dramatic quality, which is found in all forms of art, prevails inherently in drama. According to V. G. Belinskii, the dramatic is an important quality of the human spirit, evoked by situations in which something that is dearly cherished or greatly desired and demands fulfillment is threatened. Conflicts permeated with a dramatic quality are embodied in the action, in the behavior of the protagonists, and in their deeds and accomplishments. The structure of most drama is based on a single external action. (This corresponds to Aristotle’s principle of “unity of action.”) The external action is based, as a rule, on a direct struggle between the main characters. The action proceeds from the beginning, or exposition, to the denouement. It may cover a long period of time (in medieval and Oriental drama, such as Kalidasa’s Sakuntala), or it may begin only at its culminating moment, near the denouement (ancient tragedy, such as Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, and many modern drarnas, including A. N. Ostrovskii’s The Dowerless Girl). Classical 19th-century aesthetics tended to make these principles of dramatic structure into absolute rules. Following Hegel, Belinskii viewed drama as the re-creation of willful acts in collision with one another (“actions” and “reactions”). Belinskii wrote: “The action of a drama should be concentrated upon a single interest, and all side interests should be excluded. .. . In drama there should not be a single character that is not necessary to the mechanism of its development and flow” (Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 5, 1954, p. 53). Moreover “the decision of which path to choose depends on the hero of the drama and not on the events” (ibid., p. 20). However, in Shakespeare’s historical plays and Pushkin’s Boris Godunov the unity of external action is attenuated, and in A. P. Chekhov’s works it is entirely absent, and several different plot lines are developed simultaneously. A decisive role is often played by inner action, in which the protagonists do not accomplish much but experience situations of persistent conflict, clarify their own point of view, and think with intense concentration. Inner action, which is present even in ancient tragedies and is typified by Shakespeare’s Hamlet, prevailed in late 19th- and mid-20th-century drama, including works by H. Ibsen, M. Maeterlinck, Chekhov, Gorky, Shaw, and Brecht, as well as contemporary “intellectual” drama. The principle of inner action is presented polemically in Shaw’s The Quintessence oflbsenism. The most important formal features of drama are a continuing series of utterances, which function as the behavioral acts fractions of the characters, and as a consequence of this, the 55 depiction of the subject matter within a limited space and time. The universal basis of a dramatic composition is the episode; the time taken to depict the episode—so-called real time—must appear to correspond to the time perceived by the audience—so-called artistic time. In folk drama, medieval drama, and Oriental drama, as well as in Shakespeare, Pushkin’s Boris Godunov, and Brecht, the time and place of the action change quite frequently. European drama of the 17th through the 19th century was, as a rule, based on a few rather extended scenic episodes, corresponding to the acts in a theatrical performance. The extreme expression of compactness in the use of space and time are the famous “unities” based on Boileau’ Art of Poetry. These continued to be observed until the 19th century (for example, A. S. Griboedov’s Woe From Wit). Intended to be “played” on the stage and focusing its action within narrow limits of space and time, drama generally tends toward conventional treatment of characters, as Pushkin observed when he said that “of all the kinds of literary work the most untrue to life … are works of drama” (Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 7, 1958, p. 37). E. Zola and L. N. Tolstoy also spoke of this quality of works of drama. A readiness to rush headlong into passions and a tendency to make sudden decisions and sharp intellectual reactions and to express thoughts and feelings vividly and exquisitely are more typical of the protagonists in drama than of people in real life or figures in a narrative work. In the opinion of the French actor Talma, the playwright and the actors bring together “in a narrow space, for the course of some two hours, all the actions, all the emotions that even a passionate person might experience only in the course of a rather lengthy period of his life” (Tal’ma o stsenicheskom iskusstve, Moscow, 1888, p. 33). The playwright strives primarily to capture significant and vivid spiritual currents that completely fill the consciousness and consist chiefly of reactions by the characters to the situation at a given moment—to spoken words, to someone’s action, and so forth. Indistinct or vague thoughts, feelings, and intentions not connected with the situation of a given moment are represented less concretely and less successfully in drama than in the narrative form. From antiquity to the 19th century these qualities of drama fully corresponded to overall tendencies in art and literature. In art transformational, idealizing, or grotesque elements prevailed over representational ones, and the forms of artistic execution diverged from the forms of real life. Thus, drama successfully rivaled epic literature and was even regarded as the “crown of poetry” (Belinskii). In the 19th and 20th centuries drama yielded its primacy to other art forms, above all the novel, in which individual psychology and the opposition between the individual and his environment could be represented more subtly, broadly, and freely. The striving for verisimilitude and naturalism in art, which resulted in a degeneration of the elevated style of drama (especially in the West in the first half of the 19th century), also led to radical changes in the structure of dramatic works. Under the influence of the novel, the traditional conventionality and hyperbole in dramatic execution were reduced to a minimum (for example, the works of Ostrovskii, Chekhov, and Gorky, with their attempt to achieve complete authenticity in depicting psychology and everyday existence). However, even modern drama preserves some elements of “nonverisimilitude”: divergence between the forms of real life and of life created in drama is inevitable. Even in Chekhov’s plays, which seem to be the most true-to-life dramas, the characters often express themselves in a conventionally poetic and declamatory way. V. Nemirovich-Danchenko called Chekhov’s plays “poems in prose.” The use of narrative fragments and the increased role played by the montage of scenic episodes often gives the work of 20th-century playwrights a documentary tone. At the same time, however, it is precisely in these dramas that the illusion of reality is openly violated and

56 the open demonstration of convention is practiced (for example, when the characters address the audience directly, when a character’s dreams or recollections are performed on the stage, or when fragments of songs or lyrics are interjected into the action). Among the various artistic means of expression used in drama the specific features of the speech of its characters are invariably the most important. However, the text must be oriented both toward visually perceived forms of expression on the stage (mime, gesture, and movement) and orally delivered monologues and dialogues. It must also correspond to the possibilities of time and space on the stage and to stagecraft (staging mises en scene). Thus, in the eyes of the actor and director, the value of a drama lies invariably in its suitability for the stage, which is determined ultimately by the degree to which it presents conflict or dramatic action. As a type of literature, drama includes many genres. Two of them—tragedy and comedy—have existed throughout the history of drama. Characteristic of the Middle Ages were the mystery, miracle, and morality plays, and school drama. In the 18th century the drama proper developed, which subsequently became the prevailing genre. Other widespread forms are melodrama, farce, and vaudeville. Tragicomedy has assumed an important role in modern drama outside the Soviet Union. In the 19th and 20th centuries drama has sometimes included a lyric element (the so- called lyric dramas of Byron, Maeterlinck, and Blok) or a narrative element (the so-called epic dramas of Brecht). In the mid-20th century “documentary” drama became widespread, recapitulating real events, historical documents, and memoirs accurately and in detail (for example, J. Kilty#x2019;s Dear Liar, M. Shatrov’s The Sixth of July, and a stage version of The Diary of Anne Frank). However varied its forms, drama retain its specific features as a type of literature. European drama has its sources in the work of the ancient Greek tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides and the writer of comedies Aristophanes. Ancient Roman drama is represented by Terence and Plautus. Entrusted with the role of public educator, ancient drama had a high philosophical potential, flowing, sublime tragic images and comedy bright with carnival atmosphere and satirical play. The golden age of drama in the Orient dates from a later time. In India dramatic genres flourished and prevailed in the middle of the first millennium A.D. in the work of the world-famous Kalidasa (fourth and fifth centuries) and Sudraka (fifth century). The major dramatists in Japan were Zeami Motokiyo (early 15th century), in whose work the drama first received a polished literary form (the yokyoku genre), and Chikamatsu Monzaemon (late 17th and early 18th centuries). In the 13th and 14th century’s secular drama developed in China as a literary genre. The golden age of European drama coincided with the English and Spanish Renaissance and the baroque period. The loftiness and tragedy of the Renaissance personality, its titanic and ambivalent qualities, and its freedom from the gods and dependence on passion and the power of money, as well as the wholeness and contradictoriness in the course of history, were embodied in Shakespeare’s works in a genuine folk dramatic form, synthesizing the tragic and the comic and the real and the fantastic, showing great freedom in composition, and offering multilevel plots that combined the subtlest intellectual and poetic qualities with the most vulgar farce. The tragic plays of Calderón de la Barca embodied the ideas of the baroque—the dualism of the world (the antinomy between the worldly and the spiritual), the permanence of suffering on earth, and the stoic self-liberation of man through the spiritual mastering of need, compulsion, and personal de-sires. The drama of French classicism, including tragedies by Corneille and Racine, developed the conflict between personal feelings and duty to the nation

57 and state with a profound sense of psychology. The “high comedy” of Moliere, bordering on tragedy in the heat of its passions, combined the traditions of folk performances with the classical principles of representing character types and blended satire on social evils with the common people’s joie de vivre. The ideas and conflicts of the Renaissance were reflected in the dramas of Lessing, Diderot, Beaumarchais, and Goldoni. At the same time the genre of “middle-class drama” appeared, falling halfway between tragedy and comedy. The universality of the classical norms was challenged, and a democratization of drama and its language occurred. The early works of Schiller and Goethe were precursors of romantic drama. The later dramatic works of the two writers, created during the period of Weimar classicism, were models of the drama of great ideas that consciously expressed the meaning of history. In the first half of the 19th century the most effective dramatic writing was done by the romantics H. von Kleist, Byron, Shelley, and Hugo. The enthusiasm and passion of the free individual and protests against “bourgeois values” were expressed in brilliant and dynamic events, usually legendary or historical, and in the inspired lyricism of the monologues and dialogues. Realistic drama prevailed in Russian literature from the 1820’s and 1830’s (Griboedov, Pushkin, and Gogol). Ostrovskii’s dramatic writing in many genres, with its persistent conflict between spiritual worth and the power of money, its emphasis on the destructive force of the social, “conditions” of life and the despotism of everyday affairs, its bias toward showing the inner purity of character of the “little man,” and the prevalence in it of “lifelike” forms, played a decisive role in creating the Russian national repertoire of the 19th century. L. Tolstoy also wrote “lifelike” dramas, more or less free of the conventions of dramaturgy and permeated with unpitying realism and a psychological approach, which was “combined” with epic qualities. At the turn of the century drama underwent a radical shift with the work of Chekhov. The unity of outer conflict, willful action by the main characters, and peripeteia in the action ceased to be obligatory. Chekhov reproduced the spiritual drama of creative and honest intellectuals, tormentedly seeking but not finding general or supraindividual ideas, filled with exalted, romantic aspirations and with impotence and sometimes despair in the face of the prosaic destructiveness of everyday life. He clothed his profoundly dramatic themes in sadly ironic lyricism. The dynamic of his plays lies not in their eventfulness or in skirmishes of dialogue but in the lingering conversations and the flow of “impressionistic” states of mind. Cues and episodes are linked by association—by a contrapuntal principle. The complexity of emotions is revealed in the flow of ordinary events, creating meanings suggested but not overtly expressed in the text (a technique simultaneously developed by Maeterlinck). Western European drama began to prosper at the turn of the century: Ibsen and Shaw focused attention on urgent social, philosophical, and moral conflicts. Maeterlinck’s symbolic drama (written in 1896-1918) retained the themes of the “tragic quality of everyday life,” “the mystery of the soul,” and the principle of the suggested meanings (dialogue behind the words), but at the same time began to acquire realistic colors and optimistic social ideas. In the 20th century realistic traditions were further developed by R. Rol-land, J. B. Priestley, S. O’Casey, E. O’Neill, K. Capek, A. Miller, E. DeFilippo, F. Durrenmatt, E. F. Albee, and T. Williams. The so- called intellectual drama, which is associated with existentialism (J.-P. Sartre and J. Anouilh), has had an important place in art outside the Soviet Union. The severe sociopolitical collisions of the 1920’s through the 1940’s were reflected in the work of Brecht, one of the most important socialist realists of the West. Brecht’s theater is emphatically rationalistic, intellectually tense, and frankly conventional, and it has the features of a mass meeting with actors doing oratorical work.

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Soviet drama has taken its inspiration from Gorky, whose play The Enemies marks the beginning of the history of socialist realist drama. The heroic spirit of revolutionary struggle is conveyed in the plays of such writers as Vs. Vishnevskii (An Optimistic Tragedy), N. Pogodin (the trilogy on Lenin), K. Trenev (Liubov larovaia), and B. Lavrenev. Brilliant models of satirical drama were written by Mayakovsky (The Bedbug and The Bathhouse) as well as by such writers as M. Bulgakov (The Purple Island) and lu. Smuul (The Colonels Widow). The genre of the fairy tale play, in which bright lyricism, heroics, and satire are combined, was developed by E. Shvarts. Socio-psychological drama is represented by the creative work of A. Afinogenov, L. Leonov, A. Korneichuk, I. Mikitenko, A. Arbuzov, V. Rozov, A. Volodin, I. Drutse, and E. Rannet. Soviet drama, which is united in its social emphasis, is quite varied in its aesthetic and ethical ideas and its styles and genres. One of the basic forms or genres of dramatic writing, in addition to tragedy and comedy. Like comedy, drama above all re-creates the private life of its characters, but its chief aim is not to ridicule mores and personalities but to por-tray the individual in dramatic relation with society. Like tragedy, drama portrays its protagonists in their spiritual development or in the process of moral change. However, unlike tragic characters, the characters in dramas are not exceptional. Drama tends to represent sharp contradictions and collisions. At the same time, its conflicts are not as unrelenting as that in tragedy, and in principle the possibility of their being resolved is not precluded. Precursors of drama are found even in classical antiquity (for example, Euripides) and more often among Renaissance plays. However, drama first appeared as an independent genre and was given theoretical justification among Enlightenment writers only in the second half of the 18th century (for example, the middle-class drama of Diderot and Mercier in France and Lessing in Germany). The interest shown by drama in social reality, everyday life, the moral ideals of the democratic milieu, and the psychology of the “average” person helped to promote realistic trends in European art. In the early stages of the development of drama, works usually offered a favorable solution to the conflicts depicted. Later, the inner dramatic tension increased, the happy ending occurred less frequently, and the hero usually remained at odds with society and with himself. Increasingly, his fate was one of spiritual suffering or loneliness, as in Ostrovskii’s The Storm and The Dowerless Girl, Ibsen’s The Master Builder and Hedda Gabler, and plays by Chekhov and Shaw. The hero’s tense ideological struggle against his environment (the general conditions of life) is the outstanding characteristic of Gorky’s dramas. In the mid-20th century, psychological drama remains a dominant form. Certain varieties of drama tend to merge with other genres, actively using the forms of expression common to them (for example, the techniques of tragicomedy and the theater of masks). The realistic psychological drama is a widespread form of contemporary Soviet dramatic writing. T. M. RODINA [8-1425-1) The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition (1970-1979). © 2010 The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

Drama is 1. A work to be performed by actors on stage, radio, or television; play 2. The genre of literature represented by works intended for the stage 3. The art of the writing and production of plays

Taken from: http://vl-theatre.com Collins Discovery Encyclopedia, 1st edition © HarperCollins Publishers 2005

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Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. It is one of the literary genres, which is an imitation of some action. Drama is also a type of a play written for theaters, televisions, radios and films. In simple words, a drama is a composition in verse or prose presenting a story in pantomime or dialogue, containing conflict of characters, particularly the ones who perform in front of audience on the stage. The person who writes drama for stage directions is known as a dramatist or playwright.

Types of Drama Let us consider a few popular types of drama: • Comedy – Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary writers, and provide a happy conclusion. The intention of dramatists in comedies is to make their audience laugh. Hence, they use quaint circumstances, unusual characters and witty remarks. • Tragedy – Tragic dramas use darker themes such as disaster, pain and death. Protagonists often have a tragic flaw—a characteristic that leads them to their downfall. • Farce – Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama, which often overacts or engages slapstick humor. • Melodrama – Melodrama is an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and appeals directly to the senses of audience. Just like the farce, the characters are of single dimension and simple, or may be stereotyped. • Musical Drama – In musical drama, the dramatists not only tell their story through acting and dialogue, nevertheless through dance as well as music. Often the story may be comedic, though it may also involve serious subjects.

Example 1 Comedy: Much Ado about Nothing is the most frequently performed Shakespearian comedy. The play is romantically funny in that love between Hero and Claudio is laughable, as they never even get a single chance to communicate on-stage until they get married. Their relationship lacks development and depth. They end up merely as caricatures, exemplifying what people face in life when their relationships are internally weak. Love ove between Benedick and Beatrice is amusing, as initially their communications are very sparky, and they hate each other. However, they all of sudden make up, and start loving each other.

Example 2 Tragedy: Sophocles’’ mythical and immortal drama, Oedipus Rex, is thought to be his best classical tragedy. Aristotle has adjudged this play as one of the greatest examples of tragic drama in his book, Poetics by giving following reasons: • The play arouses emotions of pity and fear, and achieves the tragic katharsis. • It shows the downfall of an extraordinary man of high rank, Oedipus. • The central character suffers due to his tragic error called hamartia; as he murders his real father, Laius, and then marries his real mother, Jocasta. • Hubris is the cause of Oedipus’ downfall.

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Example 3 Farce: Oscar Wilde’s play, The Importance of Being Earnest, is a very popular example of Victorian farce. In this play, a man uses two identities; one as a serious person Jack (his actual name) that he uses for Cesily, his ward, and as a rogue named Ernest for his beloved woman, Gwendolyn. Unluckily, Gwendolyn loves him partially because she loves the name Ernest. It is when Jack and Earnest must come on-stage together for Cesily, then Algernon comes in to play Earnest’ role, and ward immediately falls in love with another Ernest. Thus, two young women think that they love the same man – an occurrence that amuses the audience.

Example 4 Melodrama: The Heiress is based on Henry James’ novel the Washington Square. Directed for stage performance by William Wyler, this play shows an ungraceful and homely daughter of a domineering and rich doctor falling in love with a young man, Morris Townsend wishes to elope with him, but he leaves her in lurch. Author creates melodrama towards the end, when Catherine teaches a lesson to Morris and leaves him instead.

Function of Drama Drama is one of the best literary forms through which dramatists can directly speak to their readers or audience as well as they can receive instant feedback of audience. A few dramatists use their characters as a vehicle to convey their thoughts, values such as poets do with personas, and novelists do with narrators. Since drama uses spoken words and dialogues, thus language of characters plays a vital role, as it may give clues to their feelings, personalities, backgrounds, and change in feelings, etc. In drama the characters live out a story without any comments of the author, providing the audience a direct presentation of characters’ life experiences. (Taken from: https://literarydevices.net/drama/)

References Aristotle. Ob iskusstve poezii. Moscow, 1957. Hegel, G. W. F. “Dramaticheskaia poeziia.” In his Soch., vol. 14. Moscow, 1958. Belinskii, V. G. O drame iteatre. Moscow-Leningrad, 1948. Brecht, B. O teatre. Moscow, 1960. (Translated from German.) Vol’kenshtein, V. Dramaturgiia. Moscow, 1969. Anikst, A. Teoriia dramy ot Aristotelia do Lessinga. Moscow, 1967. Sakhnovskii-Pankeev, V. A. Drama. Leningrad, 1969. Kariagin, A. A. Drama kak esteticheskaia problema. Moscow, 1971. Thompson, A. R. The Anatomy of Drama, 2nded. Los Angeles, 1946. Dürrenmatt, F. Theaterprobleme, 3rd ed. Zurich, 1955. Styan, J. L. The Elements of Drama. Cambridge (England), 1963. Clark, B. H. European Theories of the Drama. Revised by H. Popkin. New York, 1965. Bentley, E. The Life of Drama. London, 1966. Episches Theater. Cologne-Berlin, 1966. Kerr, W. Tragedy and Comedy. New York, 1967. Calderwood, J. L., and H. E. Toliver, eds. Perspectives on Drama. New York, 1968.

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Unit 10 Literary Movements

Literary movements are marked by shared traits of style, subject, and literary genre. While literature predates this list of movements, literary movements began in the early modern period, well after the Renaissance.

Date Event Neoclassicism (1660 to 1798) The neoclassical movement in literature was based on classical ideal, skepticism and 1660 satire. Noted authors during this movement include Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift. Revolutionary (1765 to 1830) 1765 The revolutionary literary movement incorporates both political and literary writings in colonial and early revolutionary America. Romanticism (1798 to 1832) 1798 Romanticism emphasized emotion and imagination. Eventually, romanticism led to the development of the Gothic novel. American Romanticism (1830 to 1865) American romanticism was predominantly fiction, rather than poetry. Unlike English 1830 romanticism, American romanticism had a strong and sometimes morbid interest in history. Victorian (1832 to 1901) Victorian literature dates to the period of Queen Victoria's reign. The novel came to 1832 prominence in this period, and a number of authors showed a growing interest in the grittier aspects of life. American Transcendentalism (1836 to 1860) 1836 American transcendentalism is a literary movement marked by a strong interest in nature. Emerson is the best-known of the American transcendentalists. Realism (1865 to 1914) 1865 Realists had an interest in everyday life and poverty, as well as simplicity. Noted authors include Flaubert and Tolstoy. Stream of Consciousness (Early 20th Century) Stream of consciousness writing eliminated authorial presence, sharing a loosely 2000 organized pattern of thoughts. James Joyce and Virginia Woolf are well-known authors in this movement. Modernism (Early 20th Century) 2000 Modernism is a more varied movement, incorporating different styles, as well as reactions to growing science and technology. Naturalism (1900 to 1930) Naturalism is a philosophical movement in literature. Naturalists identified humans as 1900 animals, studying their character in relation to their surroundings. Emile Zola is a well- known naturalist author.

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Edwardian (1901 to 1910) 1901 Edwardian literature marked a growing division between high and low literature, as well as the growth of children's literature. The Lost Generation (1918 to 1929) 1918 Several of the best known authors of the 20th century fall into this literary movement. These authors all lived and worked in Paris between the two world wars. Harlem Renaissance (1920s) 1920 During the 1920s, in Harlem, New York, a strong literary movement developed among African-American writers, including Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston. Beat (1950s and 1960s) The beat authors were primarily poets. This was a counterculture and youth culture 1950 movement beginning in the 1950s. Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg were well known beat poets. Postmodernism (1965 to Present) Postmodernism is a literary movement embracing diversity, word play and other 1965 attributes of modern literature. Jorge Luis Borges is an excellent example of modern literary postmodernism.

Reference: http://www.softschools.com/timelines/literary_movements_timeline/421/

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Unit 11 Critical Approaches to Literature

Literature Criticism What is literature criticism? It is a description and evaluation of its object: literature (literary writings, writers, literary classes, etc. Literary criticism is not an abstract, intellectual exercise; it is a natural human response to literature. If a friend informs you she is reading a book you have just finished, it would be odd indeed if you did not begin swapping opinions. Literary criticism is nothing more than discourse—spoken or written—about literature. A student who sits quietly in a morning English class, intimidated by the notion of literary criticism, will spend an hour that evening talking animatedly about the meaning of R.E.M. lyrics or comparing the relative merits of the three Star Trek T.V. series. It is inevitable that people will ponder, discuss, and analyze the works of art that interest them. The informal criticism of friends talking about literature tends to be casual, unorganized, and subjective. Since Aristotle, however, philosophers, scholars, and writers have tried to create more precise and disciplined ways of discussing literature. Literary critics have borrowed concepts from other disciplines, like linguistics, psychology, and anthropology, to analyze imagi- native literature more perceptively. Some critics have found it useful to work in the abstract area of literary theory, criticism that tries to formulate general principles rather than discuss specific texts. Mass media critics, such as newspaper reviewers, usually spend their time evaluating works—telling us which books are worth reading, which plays not to bother seeing. But most serious literary criticism is not primarily evaluative; it assumes we know that Othello or “The Death of Ivan Ilych” are worth reading. Instead, it is analytical; it tries to help us better understand a literary work.

Critical Approaches to Literature In the following pages you will find overviews of nine critical approaches to literature. While these nine methods do not exhaust the total possibilities of literary criticism, they represent the most widely used contemporary approaches. Although presented separately, the approaches are not necessarily mutually exclusive; many critics mix methods to suit their needs and interests. A historical critic may use formalist techniques to analyze a poem; a biographical critic will frequently use psychological theories to analyze an author. The summaries do not try to provide a history of each approach; nor do they try to present the latest trends in each school. Their purpose is to give you a practical introduction to each critical method and then provide one or more representative examples of criticism. If one of these critical methods interests you, why not try to write a class paper using the approach?

1. Formalist Criticism Formalist criticism regards literature as a unique form of human knowledge that needs to be examined on its own terms. “The natural and sensible starting point for work in literary scholarship,” René Wellek and Austin Warren wrote in their influential Theory of Literature, “is the interpretation and analysis of the works of literature themselves.” To a formalist, a poem or story is not primarily a social, historical, or biographical document; it is a literary work that can be understood only by reference to its intrinsic literary features—those elements, that is, found in the text itself. To analyze a poem or story, the formalist critic, therefore, focuses on the words of the text rather than facts about the author’s life or the historical milieu in which it was written. The critic would pay special attention to the formal features of the text—the style 64 irony in Vanity Fair; Humor in Dickens’ writing, simplicity in Sherwood Anderson or in Hemingway, etc.） structure (sentence structure: short, long, simple, complicated, loose sentence; repetition, parallelism, climax, anti-climax; oxymoron; normal or deviation, imagery, symbols, figure of speech, tone, and genre (poem: fiction: play or film implied meaning.). These features, however, are usually not examined in isolation, because formalist critics believe that what gives a literary text its special status as art is how all of its elements work together to create the reader’s total experience. As Robert Penn Warren commented, “Poetry does not inhere in any particular element but depends upon the set of relationships, the structure, which we call the poem. A key method that formalists use to explore the intense relationships within a poem is close reading, a careful step-by-step analysis and explication of a text. The purpose of close reading is to understand how various elements in a literary text work together to shape its effects on the reader. Since formalists believe that the various stylistic and thematic elements of literary work influence each other, these critics insist that form and content cannot be meaningfully separated. The complete interdependence of form and content is what makes a text literary. When we extract a work’s theme or paraphrase its meaning, we destroy the aesthetic experience of the work. When Robert Langbaum examines Robert Browning’s “My Last Duchess”, he uses several techniques of formalist criticism. First, he places the poem in relation to its literary form, the dramatic monologue. Second, he discusses the dramatic structure of the poem—why the duke tells his story, which he addresses, and the physical circumstances in which he speaks. Third, Langbaum analyzes how the duke tells his story—his tone, manner, even the order in which he makes his disclosures. Langbaum does not introduce facts about Browning’s life into his analysis; nor does he try to relate the poem to the historical period or social conditions that produced it. He focuses on the text itself to explain how it produces a complex effect on the reader.

But the formalist critic is concerned primarily with the work itself. From and content can’t be separated.

Example: Color Imagery in Tess; The Use of Figure of Contrast in "The Solitary Reaper"; The Major Writing Skills Washington Irving Used in His The Legend of Sleepy Hollow; Verbal Irony and an Irony of Fate in The Cop and the Anthem;

The formalist critic knows as well as anyone that poems and plays and novels are written by men—that they do not somehow happen—and that they are written as expressions of particular personalities and are written from all sorts of motives—for money, from a desire to express oneself, for the sake of a cause, etc. Moreover, the formalist critic knows as well as anyone that literary works are merely potential until they are read—that is, that they are recreated in the minds of actual readers, who vary enormously in their capabilities, their interests, their prejudices, their ideas. Speculation on the mental processes of the author takes the critic away from the work into biography and psychology. There is no reason, of course, why he should not turn away into biography and psychology. Such explorations are very much worth making. But they should not be confused with an account of the work. Such studies describe the process of composition, not the structure of the thing composed, and they may be

65 performed quite as validly for the poor work as for the good one. They may be validly performed for any kind of expression—non-literary as well as literary.

2．Biographical Criticism Biographical criticism begins with the simple but central insight that literature is written by actual people and that understanding an author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work. Anyone who reads the biography of a writer quickly sees how much an author’s experience shapes—both directly and indirectly—what he or she creates. Reading the biography will also change (and usually deepen) our response to the work. Sometimes even knowing a single important fact illuminates our reading of a poem or story. Learning, for example, that Josephine Miles was confined to a wheelchair or that Weldon Kees committed suicide at forty-one will certainly make us pay attention to certain aspects of their poems we might otherwise have missed or considered unimportant. A formalist critic might complain that we would also have noticed those things through careful textual analysis, but biographical information provided the practical assistance of underscoring subtle but important meanings in the poems. Though many literary theorists have assailed biographical criticism on philosophical grounds, the biographical approach to literature has never disappeared because of its obvious practical advantage in illuminating literary texts. It may be helpful here to make a distinction between biography and biographical criticism. Biography is, strictly speaking, a branch of history; it provides a written account of a person’s life. To establish and interpret the facts of a poet’s life, for instance, a biographer would use all the available information—not just personal documents like letters and diaries, but also the poems for the possible light they might shed on the subject’s life. A biographical critic, however, is not concerned with recreating the record of an author’s life. Biographical criticism focuses on explicating the literary work by using the insight provided by knowledge of the author’s life. Quite often biographical critics, like Brett C. Millier in her discussion of Elizabeth Bishop’s “One Art,” will examine the drafts of a poem or story to see both how the work came into being and how it might have been changed from its autobiographical origins. A reader, however, must use biographical interpretations cautiously. Writers are notorious for revising the facts of their own lives; they often delete embarrassments and invent accomplishments while changing the details of real episodes to improve their literary impact. John Cheever, for example, frequently told reporters about his sunny, privileged youth; after the author’s death, his biographer Scott Donaldson discovered a childhood scarred by a distant mother, a failed, alcoholic father, and nagging economic uncertainty. Likewise, Cheever’s outwardly successful adulthood was plagued by alcoholism, sexual promiscuity, and family tension. The chilling facts of Cheever’s life significantly changed the way critics read his stories. The danger in a famous writer s case—Sylvia Plath and F. Scott Fitzgerald are two modern examples—is that the life story can overwhelm and eventually distort the work. A savvy biographical critic always remembers to base an interpretation on what is in the text itself; biographical data should amplify the meaning of the text, not drown it out with irrelevant material.

Example: Isolation of Emily Dickinson as Revealed in Her Poems; Walt Whitman: A Lover of Death; A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man; A Biographical Study of David Copperfield

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3． Historical Criticism Historical criticism seeks to understand a literary work by investigating the social, cultural, and intellectual context that produced it—a context that necessarily includes the artist’s biography and milieu. Historical critics are less concerned with explaining a work’s literary significance for today’s readers than with helping us understand the work by recreating, as nearly as possible, the exact meaning and impact it had on its original audience. A historical reading of a literary work begins by exploring the possible ways in which the meaning of the text has changed over time. The analysis of William Blake’s poem “London”, for instance, carefully examines how certain words had different connotations for the poem’s original readers than they do today. It also explores the probable associations an eighteenth— century English reader would have made with certain images and characters, like the poem’s persona, the chimney-sweeper—a type of exploited child laborer who, fortunately, no longer exists in our society. Reading ancient literature, no one doubts the value of historical criticism. There have been so many social, cultural, and linguistic changes that some older texts are incomprehensible without scholarly assistance. But historical criticism can even help us better understand modern texts. To return to Weldon Kees’s “For My Daughter,” for example, we learn a great deal by considering two rudimentary historical facts—the year in which the poem was first published (1940) and the nationality of its author (American)—and then asking ourselves how this information has shaped the meaning of the poem. In 1940, war had already broken out in Europe and most Americans realized that their country, still recovering from the Depression, would soon be drawn into it; for a young man, like Kees, the future seemed bleak, uncertain, and personally dangerous. Even this simple historical analysis helps explain at least part of the bitter pessimism of Kees’s poem, though a psychological critic would rightly insist that Kees’s dark personality also played a crucial role. In writing a paper on a poem, you might explore how the time and place of its creation affected its meaning. For a splendid example of how to recreate the historical context of a poem’s genesis, read the following account by Hugh Kenner of Ezra Pound’s imagistic “In a Station of the Metro.”

4．Gender Criticism Gender criticism examines how sexual identity influences the creation and reception of literary works. Gender studies began with the feminist movement and were influenced by such works as Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (1949) and Kate Millett’s Sexual Politics (1970) as well as sociology, psychology, and anthropology. Feminist critics believe that culture has been so completely dominated by men that literature is full of unexamined “male-produced” assumptions. They see their criticism correcting this imbalance by analyzing and combating patriarchal attitudes. Feminist criticism can be divided into two distinct varieties. Feminist criticism has explored how an author’s gender influences—consciously or unconsciously—his or her writing. It is concerned with woman as writer—with woman as the producer of textual meaning, with the history, themes, genres, and structures of literature by women. Its subjects include the psychodynamics of female creativity; linguistics and the problem of a female language; the trajectory of the individual or collective female literary career; literary history; and, of course, studies of particular writers and works. Example: While a formalist critic emphasized the universality of Emily Dickinson’s poetry by demonstrating how powerfully the language, imagery, and myth-making of her poems combine

67 to affect a generalized reader, Sandra M. Gilbert, a leading feminist critic, has identified attitudes and assumptions in Dickinson’s poetry that she believes are essentially female. Another important theme in feminist criticism is analyzing how sexual identity influences the reader of a text. It is concerned with woman as reader—with woman as the consumer of male-produced literature, and with the way in which the hypothesis of a female reader changes our apprehension of a given text, awakening us to the significance of its sexual codes. It is a historically grounded inquiry which probes the ideological assumptions of literary phenomena. Its subjects include the images and stereotypes of women in literature, the omissions of and misconceptions about women in criticism. It is also concerned with the exploitation and manipulation of the female audience, especially in popular culture and film; and with the analysis of woman-as-sign in semiotic systems. The reader sees a text through the eyes of his or her sex. Finally, feminist critics carefully examine how the images of men and women in imaginative literature reflect or reject the social forces that have historically kept the sexes from achieving total equality. Recently, gender criticism has expanded beyond its original feminist perspective. Critics have explored the impact of different sexual orientations on literary creation and reception. A men’s movement has also emerged in response to feminism. The men’s movement does not seek to reject feminism but to rediscover masculine identity in an authentic, contemporary way. Led by poet Robert Bly, the men s movement has paid special attention to interpreting poetry and fables as myths of psychic growth and sexual identity.

Example: Female Characters in Lawrence’s Literary Works; Character Analysis of Scarlett in Gone with the Wind; Gender Influence in the Growth of Stephen

5．Psychological Criticism Modern psychology has had an immense effect on both literature and literary criticism. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theories changed our notions of human behavior by exploring new or controversial areas like wish-fulfillment, sexuality, the unconscious, and repression. Freud also expanded our sense of how language and symbols operate by demonstrating their ability to reflect unconscious fears or desires. Freud admitted that he himself had learned a great deal about psychology from studying literature: Sophocles, Shakespeare, Goethe, and Dostoevsky were as important to the development of his ideas as were his clinical studies. Some of Freud’s most influential writing was, in a broad sense, literary criticism, such as his psychoanalytic examination of Sophocles’ Oedipus. This famous section of The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) often raises an important question for students: was Freud implying that Sophocles knew or shared Freud’s theories? (Variations of this question can be asked for most critical approaches: does using a critical approach require that the author under scrutiny believed in it?) The answer is, of course, no; in analyzing Sophocles’ Oedipus, Freud paid the classical Greek dramatist the considerable compliment that the playwright had such profound insight into human nature that his characters display the depth and complexity of real people. In focusing on literature, Freud and his disciples like Carl Jung, Ernest Jones, Marie Bonaparte, and Bruno Bettelheim endorse the belief that great literature truthfully reflects life. Psychological criticism is a diverse category, but it often employs three approaches. First, it investigates the creative process of the artist: what is the nature of literary genius and how 68 does it relate to normal mental functions? (Philosophers and poets have also wrestled with this question, as you can see in selections from Plato and Wordsworth in the “Criticism: On Poetry”) The second major area for psychological criticism is the psychological study of a particular artist. Most modern literary biographies employ psychology to understand their subject’s motivations and behavior. One recent book, Diane Middle brook’s controversial Anne Sexton: A Biography, actually used tapes of the poet’s sessions with her psychiatrist as material for the study. The third common area of psychological criticism is the analysis of fictional characters. Freud’s study of Oedipus is the prototype for this approach that tries to bring modern insights about human behavior into the study of how fictional people act.

Example: Sigmund Freud (1856—1939) THE DESTINY OF OEDIPUS

Being translated by James Strachey. The lines from Oedipus the King are given in the version of David Qrene.

If Oedipus the King moves a modern audience no less than it did the contemporary Greek one, the explanation can only be that its effect does not lie in the contrast between destiny and human will, but is to be looked for in the particular nature of the material on which that contrast is exemplified. There must be something which makes a voice within us ready to recognize the compelling force of destiny in the Oedipus, while we can dismiss as merely arbitrary such dispositions as are laid down in Die Ahnfrau or other modern tragedies of destiny. And a factor of this kind is in fact involved in the story of King Oedipus. His destiny moves us only because it might have been ours—because the oracle laid the same curse upon us before our birth as upon him. It is the fate of all of us, perhaps, to direct our first sexual impulse towards our mother and our first hatred and our first murderous wish against our father. Our dreams convince us that that is so. King Oedipus, who slew his father Laius and married his mother Jocasta, merely shows us the fulfillment of our own childhood wishes. But, more fortunate than he, we have meanwhile succeeded, insofar as we have not become psychoneurotics, in detaching our sexual impulses from our mothers and in forgetting our jealousy of our fathers. Here is one in whom these primeval wishes of our childhood have been fulfilled, and we shrink back from him with the whole......

Example: Hamlet’s Philosophical and Psychological Dilemma in His “To Be or Not to Be” Soliloquy;

6．Socilological Criticism Sociological criticism examines literature in the cultural, economic, and political context in which it is written or received. “Art is not created in a vacuum,” critic Wilbur Scott observed, “it is the work not simply of a person, but of an author fixed in time and space, answering a community of which he is an important, because articulate part.” Sociological criticism explores the relationships between the artist and society. Sometimes it looks at the sociological status of the author to evaluate how the profession of the writer in a particular milieu affected what was written. Sociological criticism also analyzes the social content of literary works—what cultural, economic or political values a particular text implicitly or explicitly promotes. Finally, sociological criticism examines the role the audience has in shaping literature. A sociological 69 view of Shakespeare, for example, might look at the economic position of Elizabethan playwrights and actors; it might also study the political ideas expressed in the plays or discuss how the nature of an Elizabethan theatrical audience (which was usually all male unless the play was produced at court) helped determine the subject, tone, and language of the plays. An influential type of sociological criticism has been Marxist criticism, which focuses on the economic and political elements of art. Marxist criticism, like the work of the Hungarian philosopher Georg Lukacs, often explores the ideological content of literature. Whereas a formalist critic would maintain that form and content are inextricably blended, Lukacs believed that content determines form and that therefore, all art is political. Even if a work of art ignores political issues, it makes a political statement, Marxist critics believe, because it endorses the economic and political status quo. Consequently, Marxist criticism is frequently evaluative and judges some literary work better than others on an ideological basis; this tendency can lead to reductive judgment, as when Soviet critics rated Jack London a novelist superior to William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Edith Wharton, and Henry James, because he illustrated the principles of class struggle more clearly. But, as an analytical tool, Marxist criticism, like other sociological methods, can illuminate political and economic dimensions of literature other approaches overlook.

Example: Heathcliff: A Product of Social Environment; The American Dream in The Great Gatsby; Collapse of the American Dream in Death of a Salesman; The Twisted Human Nature in Wuthering Heights

7．Mythological Criticism Mythological critics look for the recurrent universal patterns underlying most literary works. (“Myth and Narrative,” for a definition of myth and a discussion of its importance to the literary imagination.) Mythological criticism is an interdisciplinary approach that combines the insights of anthropology, psychology, history, and comparative religion. If psychological criticism examines the artist as an individual, mythological criticism explores the artist’s common humanity by tracing how the individual imagination uses myths and symbols common to different cultures and epochs. A central concept in mythological criticism is the archetype, a symbol, character, situation, or image that evokes a deep universal response. The idea of the archetype came into literary criticism from the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung, a lifetime student of myth and religion. Jung believed that all individuals share a “collective unconscious,” a set of primal memories common to the human race, existing below each person’s conscious mind. Archetypal images (which often relate to experiencing primordial phenomena like the sun, moon, fire, night, and blood), Jung believed, trigger the collective unconscious. We do not need to accept the literal truth of the collective unconscious, however, to endorse the archetype as a helpful critical concept. The late Northrop Frye defined the archetype in considerably less occult terms as “a symbol, usually an image, which recurs often enough in literature to be recognizable as an element of one’s literary experience as a whole.” Identifying archetypal symbols and situations in literary works, mythological critics almost inevitably link the individual text under discussion to a broader context of works that share an underlying pattern. In discussing Shakespeare’s Hamlet, for instance, a mythological critic might relate Shakespeare’s Danish prince to other mythic sons avenging their fathers’ deaths, like Orestes from Greek myth or Sigmund of Norse legend; or, in discussing Othello, relate the 70 sinister figure of Iago to the devil in traditional Christian belief. Critic Joseph Campbell took such comparisons even further; his compendious study The Hero with a Thousand Faces demonstrates how similar mythic characters appear in virtually every culture on every continent.

Example: Northrop Frye (1912—1991) MYTHIC ARCHETYPES We begin our study of archetypes, then, with a world of myth, an abstract or purely literary world of fictional and thematic design, unaffected by canons of plausible adaptation to familiar experience. In terms of narrative, myth is the imitation of actions near or at the conceivable limits of desire. The gods enjoy beautiful women, fight one another with prodigious strength, comfort and assist man, or else watch his miseries from the height of their immortal freedom. The fact that myth operates at the top level of human desire does not mean that it necessarily presents its world as attained or attainable by human beings. . .

Example: “Lucifer in Shakespeare’s Othello”；

8．Deconstructionist Criticism Deconstructionist criticism rejects the traditional assumption that language can accurately represent reality. Language, according to deconstructionists, is a fundamentally unstable medium; consequently, literary texts, which are made up of words, have no fixed, single meaning. Deconstructionists insist, according to critic Paul de Man, on “the impossibility of making the actual expression coincide with what has to be expressed, of making the actual signs coincide with what is signified.” Since they believe that literature cannot definitively express its subject matter, deconstructionists tend to shift their attention away from what is being said to how language is being used in a text. Paradoxically, deconstructionist criticism often resembles formalist criticism; both methods usually involve close reading. But while a formalist usually tries to demonstrate how the diverse elements of a text cohere into meaning, the deconstructionist approach attempts to show how the text “deconstructs,” that is, how it can be broken down—by a skeptical critic— into mutually irreconcilable positions. A biographical or historical critic might seek to establish the author’s intention as a means to interpreting a literary work, but deconstructionists reject the notion that the critic should endorse the myth of authorial control over language. Deconstructionist critics like Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have therefore called for “the death of the author,” that is, the rejection of the assumption that the author, no matter how ingenious, can fully control the meaning of a text. They have also announced the death of literature as a special category of writing. In their view, poems and novels are merely words on a page that deserve no privileged status as art; all texts are created equal—equally untrustworthy, that is. Deconstructionists focus on how language is used to achieve power. Since they believe, in the words of critic David Lehman, that “there are no truths, only rival interpretations,” deconstructionists try to understand how some “interpretations come to be regarded as truth. A major goal of deconstruction is to demonstrate how those supposed truths are at best provisional and at worst contradictory.

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Deconstruction, as you may have inferred, calls for intellectual subtlety and skill, and isn’t for a novice to leap into. If you pursue your literary studies beyond the introductory stage, you will want to become more familiar with its assumptions. Deconstruction may strike you as a negative, even destructive, critical approach, and yet its best practitioners are adept at exposing the inadequacy of much conventional criticism. By patient analysis, they can sometimes open up the most familiar text and find in it fresh and unexpected significance.

9．Reader-Response Criticism Reader-response criticism attempts to describe what happens in the reader’s mind while interpreting a text. If traditional criticism assumes that imaginative writing is a creative act, reader-response theory recognizes that reading is also a creative process. Reader-response critics believe that no text provides self-contained meaning; literary texts do not exist independently of readers’ interpretations. A text, according to this critical school, is not finished until it is read and interpreted. The practical problem then arises that no two individuals necessarily read a text in exactly the same way. Rather than declare one interpretation correct and the other mistaken, reader-response criticism recognizes the inevitable plurality of readings. Instead of trying to ignore or reconcile the contradictions inherent in this situation, it explores them. The easiest way to explain reader-response criticism is to relate it to the common experience of rereading a favorite book after many years. Rereading a novel as an adult, for example, that “changed your life” as an adolescent, is often a shocking experience. The book may seem substantially different. The character you remembered liking most now seems less admirable, and another character you disliked now seems more sympathetic. Has the book changed? Very unlikely, but you certainly have in the intervening years. Reader-response criticism explores how the different individuals (or classes of individuals) see the same text differently. It emphasizes how religious, cultural, and social values affect readings; it also overlaps with gender criticism in exploring how men and women read the same text with different assumptions. While reader-response criticism rejects the notion that there can be a single correct reading for a literary text, it doesn’t consider all readings permissible. Each text creates limits to its possible interpretations. As Stanley Fish admits in the following critical selection, we cannot arbitrarily place an Eskimo in William Faulkner’s story “A Rose for Emily” (though Professor Fish does ingeniously imagine a hypothetical situation where this bizarre interpretation might actually be possible) poem would be forthcoming. This poem is not only a “refusal to mourn,” like that of Dylan Thomas, it is a refusal to elegize. The whole elegiac tradition, like its cousin the funeral oration, turns finally away from mourning toward acceptance, revival, renewal, a return to the concerns of life, symbolized by the very writing of the poem. Life goes on; there is an audience; and the mourned person will live through accomplishments, influence, descendants, and also (not least) in the elegiac poem itself. Merwin rejects all that. If I wrote an elegy for X, the person for whom I have always written, X would not be alive to read it; therefore, there is no reason to write an elegy for the one person in my life who most deserves one; therefore, there is no reason to write any elegy, anymore, ever.

Reference X. J. Kennedy, An Introduction to Poetry, New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1994 Gloria Henderson, William Day & Sandra Waller, Literature and Ourselves, New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1994 72

Unit 12 Trinities in Discoering Meaning on Literature

TRINITIES IN DISCOVERING MEANINGS ON LITERATURE Instructional Scheme on Literary Studies

Sarif Syamsu Rizal ([email protected]) English Study Program Faculty of Humanities Universitas Dian Nuswanroto, Indonesia

Abstract: This paper’s title is Trinities in Discovering Meaning on Literature aiming to discuss Instructional Scheme on Literary Studies. Methods of the study consist of qualitative design in explaining discourse, library research in collecting data, and problem-based approach in answering the problem statements, the three-substances of which are significant to English teaching on literary studies. Literary studies are the humanistic studies of literature and literary research is the final project for the students who are going to complete their study at notably English Literature Study Programs. Their final project must compose scientific written report. It is in the form of writing literary analysis. The most significant point to emphasize is that literary analysis is an argument about a literary work and that whatever recommendations are made throughout the interpretation from the need to write persuasively about a clear, scientific, and debatable thesis. The writing on literary analysis is getting branched out being up to date in any academic atmosphere, of course, in line with the development of theory, history, and criticism on literature. This article is an alternative way for instructional manuscript blending theoretical or conceptual ideas with practical ideas about an alternative pedagogy in the area of English literary studies teaching and research. It is designed to help teachers specialized in literature introducing the writing literary analysis to their students. I deliver this article because I am sure that the trinities in the science of literature must be comprehended by the teachers before they transmit it in the classroom activities in teaching English Literary Studies. The term “Trinities” above is going to be explained in a discussion.

Keywords: trinities, literature, instructional scheme, literary studies

The variety or pluralism of knowledge makes us, the teachers and the students, hard to comprehend its definition. The knowledge has its observation medium and theory. It has its type of hypothesis. The pluralism of knowledge is located not only in its material object but also in its formal object. The material objects are such three major literary works as text of fiction, drama, and poetry (Klarer, 1999:3). It can be said that these objects are genres of literary works to analyse. The formal objects are aspects being used as paradigms and theoretical base, including paradigm of inquiry, approaches, methods, techniques, and way and instruments. These aspects can be applied in chapter methodology of literary research such as statement of the problems, sources of data, units of analysis, techniques of data collection, techniques of data analysis and research steps. Frequently people are not interested in studying literature because there is an assumption that studying as researching abstract findings and less giving certainty. But in real matter of doing literary research, deep-studying the literature is able to represent one of 73 possibilities that open to infiltrate the human being’s problems. During the time, the literature represents knowledge applying in one same horizon in education institution that is in faculty of languages and letters, faculty of humanity and culture, or faculty of cultural studies. Literary research is a final project for the students who are going to finish their study at notably Literary Studies section. The final project must compose scientific written report. It is in the form of writing on literary analysis. The most significant point to emphasize is that literary analysis is an argument about a literary work and that whatever recommendations are made throughout the argument from the need to write persuasively about a clear, scientific, and debatable thesis. The writing on literary analysis is getting branched out being up to date in any academic atmosphere, in line with the development of theory, history, and critic on literature. This article is an instructional manuscript blending theoretical or conceptual ideas with practical ideas about an alternative pedagogy in the area of English literary studies teaching and research. This article is designed to help teachers specialized in literature introduce the writing on literary analysis to their students. I deliver this article because I am sure that the trinities in the science of literature must be comprehended by the teachers before they transmit it in the classroom activities in teaching English Literary Studies. The term “Trinities” above is going to be explained on the following discussion.

DISCUSSION Literature can be work of art and work of science. As the work of art, it can entertain the readers, but as the work of science, it can educate the readers. In this case, the good teachers and the good students should be the good readers. As what Budianta said that Horatio, a roman philosopher, in Art Poetica, stated that literature has two significant aspects, i.e. dulce et utile (2002: 19). This discussion is delivered to share any of the scientific principles of literary studies, the scientific areas of literary studies, and the analytic levels on literary studies.

The First Trinity on Literature: The Scientific Principalities of Literary Studies In comprehending a science philosophically, there are three principalities which anyone must comprehend; i.e. ontology, axiology, and epistemology. Ontological principality represents essence of study object. (Setiardja, 2005: 5-7). Axiological principality represents target of science beneficial for the shake of human beings, meaning that the science has to be exploited as medium to increase the human life level (Setiardja, 2005: 41-55). Epistemological principality represents scientific methodology. The methodology is a set of administration to science which is systemic and systematic. Systemic and systematic represent method criteria of the science. Systemic means in unity there is relevancy of inter-elements and systematic means in unity there is logical sequence of inter-steps (Setiardja, 2005: 55-64). The discussion delivers the principalities of the science saying that there are three aspects with reciprocal relevancy in process of scientific development. In understanding literary studies, these three principalities must be comprehended; i.e. ontology, axiology, and epistemology of literary studies. Or, it gains understanding of circumstantial interpretative about essence of study object, target of significant benefit, and methodologies of literary studies systemically-systematically-comprehensively so that it can be useful as enrichment insights of literary studies development.

The Ontological Principality of Literary Studies The ontological principality of literary studies means the essence or object of literary studies. Based on this principality of science, the writer explains the object of literary study.

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Setiardja (2005:4) states that each science must have certain object. The essence of the study object consists of material object and formal object. The material object indicates study material of its pertinent sciences such as linguistics, semiotics, stylistics, ideology, sociology, psychology, and many more contemporary disciplines. Because of the pertinent sciences, the literary study is interdisciplinary one. Besides material object, the science has formal object. The formal object is facets of evaluating a pertinent science; meaning that the science has to look for causes of its material object. The science, social, and humanities always look for how structure or formation building of its object form science. The material object of literary studies is literary works-fiction, drama, poetry-and any interrelation of the works to universe, artist, and audience. It means that things exist and possible things exist in the literature. Ontologically, literature can be as the art and as the science. Literature as the art can be seen from the aspect of its aesthetics, meaning that representing a product of creativity such as fiction, drama, and poetry. Literature as the science can be seen from the characteristic of scientific aspects; objective, theoretical, and methodological. The scientific aspects can be studied from three branches of literary studies; i.e. theory of literature, history of literature, and literary criticism.

Art Aesthetic Subjective Literary Work: Fiction Drama Literature Poetry

Science Scientific Objective Literary Studies: Theoretic Literary theory Methodic History of literature Literary criticism

Scheme 1 Onthology of Literature The Writer

Literature represents one of artistic form using language up on its activity. This activity here is literary symptoms. Use of language in the literary activity differs from use of language of other activity. This difference gives special impression to the activity. In literary activity, language is used in a particular way, language might possibly digress from rule of grammar and has ambiguous meaning even though a man of letters (author, poet, and playwright) passes his work in order to submit message to audiences. Literary activity according to its delivery of meaning can be spoken (oral), written and or audio-visual. From that symptom, wecan see forms such as literary works and any relation to its production process, its reproduction process, its writer (poet, author, and playwright), its reader (audience), and its context (the influencing pertinent environmental fact/ universe) The spoken (oral) literature can be in the form of folklore, charm or chant, folksong, and traditional theatre. The written major genres of literary work are poem (poetry), prose, and drama (play). The audio-visual literature is in the form of film representing transformation of the oral literature and or the written one into the audio-visual literature.

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Spoken Literary Works: Folklore Folksong Charm Audio-Visual Literary Work: Literary Work Traditional theatre Film Written Literary Works: Poetry Prose Play

Scheme 2 Forms of Literature The Writer

From its production process of building literary work, a literary work is formed upon two elements; i.e. intrinsic element and extrinsic element. The intrinsic element is element developing literary work structurally and this element can be detectable inside of the literary work building structurally. Each genre contains intrinsic element in which some are the same and some others are different. The intrinsic elements of poem (poetry) are line, metre, stanza, rhyme, rhythm, persona (voice), theme, and imagery. The intrinsic elements of prose are plot, character, characterization, setting, conflict, theme, message, and narrative perspective (Staton, 2007: 22-52). The intrinsic elements in drama (play) are character, dialogue, and plot. Evaluating this intrinsic element in theory of literature is conceived as understanding of autonomous structuralism. The extrinsic element is the element from outside of the literary work influencing and colouring its contents. This element covers some aspects like religion, economics, culture, politics, biography, law, sociology, and psychology (Noor, 2006: 37-65). Thus, evaluating the extrinsic element in theory of literature is conceived as understanding of genetic structuralism and as understanding of dynamic structuralism. Besides the two elements, literary work in its production process cannot get out of the universe (environmental fact/ context), artist/ writer (author, poet, playwright), and audience (reader). Therefore, the production process of literary work can be mapped in specified orientation of literary studies like the following scheme.

Universe

Work

Artist Audience

Scheme 3 Critical Orientation on Literary Studies The Mirror and the Lamp (Abrams, 1971: 6-7)

Simply in literary studies, visible symptom can be found from the object of the study which is related to. On the other word, it can be studied based on the object orientation. Literary studies can be conducted by seeing from the form focusing upon four orientations, i.e. the study focusing on the reader (reader-oriented approaches) or pragmatics study, focusing on the writer (author-oriented approaches) or expressive study, focusing on its context (context- oriented approaches) or mimetic study, and focusing on the literary work (text-oriented approaches) or objective study (Klarer, 1999: 75-100). 76

reader-oreinted approaches pragmatics study

Orientation

Orientation author-oriented approches expressive study

Approaches of Orientation

Literary Studies context-oriented approaches mimetic study Orientation text-oriented approaches objective study Orientation Scheme 4 Orientations of Literary Studies The Writer

From the four orientations, the study area can develop into broader coverage, such as on sociology of literature and on psychology of literature. The former can be studied from four studies; the first is expressive socio-literary study. This study centres the analysis on social phenomenon of the writer. The concentration of course does not discharge its relevancy with the written work because social phenomenon of writer is reflected in his work. The second is pragmatic socio-literary study. This study centres the analysis on social phenomenon of the reader related to literary reception. The concentration does not discharge its relevancy with the reading work. The third is socio-context of production-consumption literary study. This study centres the analysis on its relevancy among literary work with social system. Production of literature is not such an individual production, but social production. The production has long networking system. The networking covers writer, mediator, publisher, distributor, sponsor, censor, and others that existence of literature is very influenced by social system around, so is the consumption which is not an individual consumption but social consumption. The consumption covers social institute such as education, study group, group of critic and others. The forth is objective socio-literary study. This study centres the analysis on intrinsically social problems narrated in literary work. The problems come into structure and detail element of the work. The structure and element of the work can be analyzed by sociological objective based on intrinsic social items structural objectivity (Harsono, 2000: 6-11) The latter is on psychology of literature. This study is based on an assumption that literary work always discusses event of human life with its various behaviour, and to recognize human being exhaustively needing psychology. The domain of psychology of literature covers; the first is expressive psycho-literary study. This study centres the analysis on psychological condition of writer and his creative process. In course of creative process, there are direct or indirect relevancy between the psychological condition of writer and the process of literary creation. Creative process relates to actions and inner experiences of the writer. The second is pragmatic psycho-literary study that centres the analysis on psychological condition of reader. Each literary work has relation psychologically to its reader. The relation can be pragmatic, receptive, and therapeutic. Being pragmatic means how far the literary work can influence psychological condition of its reader. Being receptive means how psychological condition of reader happens in process of interpretation. Being therapeutic means function of the literary work as catharsis medium of its reader. The function can clean psychological emotion of its reader. The third is objective psycho-literary study. This study centres the analysis on psychological problems in the work intrinsically. In this case, psychology of literature has autonomous characteristic, i.e. studying literature is rid of the writer, the reader and the universe. This study covers structure and psychological items in the work as well the psychological meanings inside (Harsono, 2000:16- 77

23) The other literary symptom can be seen from sign and its significance in the work can be studied from the study semiotics on literatures (Wardoyo, 2004: 1-26). From the literary symptoms above, the ontology of literary studies can be schemed as the following.

Pragmatics study Reader-oriented approaches of literature Expressive study Author-oriented approaches of literature Mimetic study Context-oriented approaches of literature Objective study Text-oriented approaches of literature Pragmatic socio-literary study On sociology of literature Expressive socio-literary study On sociology of literature Socio-context of production-consumption literary On sociology of literature study On sociology of literature Objective socio-literary study On psychology of literature Pragmatic psycho-literary study On psychology of literature Expressive psycho-literary study On psychology of literature Objective psycho-literary study Sign and significance on literature Semiotics study Literary Studies Approaches of Literary Studies

Scheme 5 Approaches to Literary Studies The Writer

The literary symptom basically is universal, because all of society has literary work. In addition, there are a number of differences, among the literary works; there are same characteristics in general. Therefore, the literary studies can take the objects from any language literary work. But, of course, literary researcher at foreign study program must present and justify report process and his result of study in the foreign language according to his study program. Even though appreciation will be given more, the foreign literary researcher studies the literary work written in foreign language, by foreign nation, and in background of foreign socio-culture.

The Axiological Principality of Literary Studies In this discussion, the writer refers to Axiological principality to represent target of science significant benefit for the shake of human beings, meaning that the science has to be exploited as medium to increase the human life level (Setiardja, 2005: 41-55) and Farkhan (2007: 1-139) explains an understanding of circumstantial interpretative about the benefit and way of good presentation of the literary studies as the following. Hence, the axiological principality of literary studies means the target of literary studies benefits. Target of literary studies benefit is for the shake of human being. It means that literary studies must be exploited as medium to increase the human life level. To axiological principality, activity in the study can aim to produce a verified knowledge, to obtain/ generate deep-understanding, and to offer a counter interpretation Target of literary studies benefit is for the shake of human being. It means that literary studies must be exploited as medium to increase the human life level. To axiological principality, activity in the study can aim to produce a verified knowledge, to obtain generate deep-understanding, and to offer a counter interpretation. Based on the target of its benefit, the literary studies can be schemed as the following.

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To produce a verified knowledge To generate deep-understanding To offer a counter interpretation

Literary Studies Benefit

Scheme 6 Target of Literary Studies Benefit The Writer

First, literary studies aim to produce four types of knowledge; i.e. exploratory knowledge, descriptive knowledge, explanatory knowledge, and predictive knowledge. Literary studies yields knowledge which can be formulated with sentence and selected pursuant to its types of knowledge. Thus, the study aiming to produce the knowledge such as to produce an exploratory knowledge on..., to produce a descriptive knowledge on..., to produce an explanatory knowledge on...), and to produce a predictive knowledge on... about the object of study.

Exploratory knowledge Descriptive knowledge Explanatory knowledge Predictive knowledge

Knowledge of Literary Studies

Scheme 7 Kinds of Knowledge of Literary Studies The Writer

Second, literary studies aim to produce circumstantial knowledge which can be selected from five types of understanding: i.e. understanding on spoken or written text (textual understanding), understanding on speaker or writer (intentional understanding), understanding audience or reader (receptive or experiential understanding), understanding on researcher (interpretative understanding), and understanding among speaker or writer, audience or reader, and researcher (shared-understanding). The understanding on spoken or written text is an understanding which is solely based on what is said or what is written. This understanding is discharged at all from its speaker or writer. The understanding on speaker or writer is an understanding as meant by the speaker or the writer. The spoken or written is assumed inseparable its speaker or its writer. The understanding on audience or reader is an understanding experienced by audience or reader. Real meaning of meaning (significance) is contained in message received or got by that audience or that reader. The understanding on researcher is an understanding concluded by interpreter conducted systematically-comprehensively. The shared-understanding is crisscross of the understanding based on the spoken or written text, according to the speaker or writer, according to the audience or reader, and the interpretation given by the researcher. Based on the consideration above, literary studies produce(s) knowledge which can be formulated with sentence and selected on its types of understanding. Thus, the study aims to produce; the textual understanding( to generate a textual understanding on...), the intentional understanding (to generate an intentional understanding on...), receptive or experimental understanding (to generate an experiential understanding on...), the interpretative understanding (to generate an interpretative understanding on...), and share understanding (to generate a shared-understanding on...) about the object of study.

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Textual understanding Intentional understanding Receptive or experiential understanding Interpretative understanding Shared-understanding

Understanding of Literary Studies

Scheme 8 Understandings of Literary Studies The Writer

The Epistemological Principality of Literary Studies The epistemological principality of literary studies means the methodology of literary studies. Based on this principality of science, the writer explains that epistemological principality represents scientific methodology. The methodology is a set of administration to science which is systemic and systematic. Systemic and systematic methodology represents method criteria of the science. Systemic methodology means in unity there is relevancy of inter-elements and systematic methodology means in unity there is logical sequence of inter- steps (Setiardja, 2005:4) Starting from how scientific study is conducted, the writer based on the epistemological principality, shares science methodology of literary studies. The scientific methodology is a set of administration to produce scientific knowledge systemically and systematically. Systemically means there is relevancy of inter-elements, while systematically means there is logical sequence of inter-steps. There are steps which must be done in conducting a study. Before taking choice of approach, method, techniques and or ways and instruments as well, literary researcher before hand specifies points of view used for objects and benefits as target of study. This point of view refers to paradigm of inquiry. On the other words, the paradigm is fundamental viewpoint regarding to subject matter of, target of, and nature of analyzed object. A paradigm is consisted of a number of approaches. In an approach is consisted of a number of methods. A method is consisted of a number of techniques. Hereinafter in a technique, there are some ways and instruments.

Step I Paradigm of Inquiry

Step II Approach

Step III Method

Step IV Technique

Step V Way and Instrument

Scheme 9 Steps on Conducting Literary Studies The Writer

The methodology of literary studies recognizes three major paradigms; i.e. positivistic paradigm, interpretative paradigm, and reflexive paradigm. In this case, positivistic paradigm is the same as quantitative research design, interpretive paradigm is the same as qualitative

80 research design, and reflexive paradigm is the same as critical research design. Based on the methodologies above, the literary research can be selected from the existing paradigms.

positivistic paradigm/ quantitative research design interpretative paradigm/ qualitative research design reflexive paradigm / critical research design

Paradigms in Literary Studies

Scheme 10 Paradigms in Literary Studies The Writer

The followings are distinction and brief clarification of the three types of paradigm. The first is target of benefit. According to the positivistic paradigm, every study has to find a law enabling human being predict and control reality. The interpretive paradigm has to understand and interpret meaning of reality. The reflexive paradigm has to empower and liberate human being from a shackle of spurious awareness or understanding. The second is basic nature of reality. According to positivistic paradigm, reality is stable and patterned, so that the reality can be found or formulated. Interpretative paradigm assumes that reality is melting and streaming, so that the reality represents result of agreement and interaction of human being. Whereas, according to reflexive paradigm, reality is full of oppositions and influenced by under covered constitute structure. The third is nature of human being. According to positivistic paradigm, nature of human being is rational and personal interest, and also influenced by outside strength. Interpretative paradigm assumes that human being is capable to form and give meaning to their world. While reflexive paradigm assumes that human being is creative and adaptive, but tends to be oppressed by spurious awareness, they are less capable to present their potency. The fourth is common sense role. According to positivistic paradigm, common sense differs from knowledge of science. Interpretative paradigm assumes that common sense represents a set of theory used to benefit certain people. Meanwhile reflexive paradigm assumes that common sense represents spurious beliefs covering up substantive reality. The fifth is theory. According to positivistic paradigm, theories represent deductively logical system and depict interrelation among a number of definition, axiom, and law. Interpretative paradigm interprets theory as a set of explanation on how meaning interpretation is produced and maintained. Any paradigm selected by literary researcher, literary research must be conducted systematically, relied on data, based on theory, presented explicitly, encouraged by reflective action, and covered by open-ended results. In conducting literary studies which is pursuant to positivistic paradigm, steps of the study are as follows: 1) determining problem statement, covering choosing up eligible problem and 2) making up framework in formulating hypothesis, including observation of theory and result report of previous study 3) formulating hypothesis, as temporary answer to problems 4) electing or developing study design 5) developing instruments and data collecting device 6) collecting data 7) processing data to test hypothesis 8) interpreting result of study 9) concluding based on data processing result, 10) integrating result of study into previous knowledge structure, and also suggesting to next study. If the study does not produce explanatory knowledge, but knowledge exploratory, descriptive and predictive, hence the steps related to proffering and examining hypothesis are not needed, because the study does not test hypothesis, theory study and analysis of previous 81 study result are only needed to clarify and formulate variable or concept tested, and also give picture about how far the studies in the topic have been conducted by other researcher. Any study of literature, study activity of positivistic paradigm has to comply with the following criteria, i.e. 1) validity, it proves that what being collected is true (factual) according to what really will be collected; 2) reliability, it proves that whenever and by whoever data collected, it will give the same more or less result; 3) objectivity, it proves that there is no personal influence of researcher to study result; and 4) generality, it proves that inference or conclusion of the study can be generally accepted. In conducting literary studies which is pursuant to the interpretative paradigm, the study activities strike 1) determining study focus including choosing up to eligible and meaning problem, 2) developing theoretical sensitivity with relevant to book materials observation and result of previous study, 3) determining materials study, covering choosing where and who from the data obtained, 4) developing protocol of data acquirement and processing, including determining apparatus, steps, and technique in data acquirement and processing used, 5) executing the acquirement, cinsisting of field data collection or studied reading text, 6) processing the data acquirement, covering coding, categorizing, comparing , and discussing, 7) negotiating the result of study with study subject, and 8) formulating conclusion, covering interpreting and integrating findings into previous knowledge building, and suggestion to the next study. Because nature of the study materials and the target reached, the framework steps can be altered according to field dynamics. Study focus is for the example; it is possible repeating sharpening and formulating after conducting field investigating. It can be done as long as the data availability to increase the meaning of study. Thus, the interpretative paradigm must requires the following criteria 1) credibility, proving that the data acquirement and conclusion are believable, 2) dependability, proving that findings and conclusion relies on the raw data, 3) conformability, proving that the findings and conclusion can be traced on the data acquirement, and transferability, proving that the findings and conclusion can be gone into the same effect to other cases having equal conditions. In conducting literary studies which is pursuant to the reflexive paradigm, the study activities strike 1) determining topic of study, including choosing and formulating valuable problem to arose human being awareness, 2) stipulating philosophy or ideological perspective, covering observing relevant idea and formulating explicitly specific or basic idea used as basis for proffering critics, 3) electing cases or materials, by determining where and who from the data obtained 4) developing strategy of data acquirement and data processing, consisted of determining data apparatus, steps, and techniques used, 5) executing the acquirement, consisting of field data collection or studied text reading, 6) processing the data acquirement, covering coding, categorizing, contrasting , and discussing, 7) formulating conclusion, conducted according to reflexive thinking, and 8) proffering recommendation either to advance study or to next empowerment agenda. Like two types of previous study, the study of reflexive paradigm claims to the following requirements such as credibility, dependency, conformability, and transferability. Besides, because of the particular aspiration of the reflexive paradigm is to awaken awareness of change, therefore the counter interpretation must present eligible criteria, covering 1) relevance proving that the selected topic and or ideological perspective is relevant to human challenge or problem, 2) coherence proving that the entire building of offered interpretation does not interfere each other, 3) criticalness proving that the observation succeed to unload a

82 discourse to the root, and 4) reasonableness) proving that reflexive thinking has logical thinking base.

The Second Trinity on Literature: The Scientific Areas of Literary Studies The scientific areas of literary studies can be derived into three branches; i.e. literary theory or theory of literature, history of literature, and literary criticism. The followings are brief clarification of those three branches of the literary studies.

Literary theory As what Bressler (1998:6) wrote that “literary theory-the assumptions either conscious or unconscious, that undergird one’s understanding and interpretation of language, the construction of meaning, art, culture, aesthetics, and ideological positions.” In line with Bressler, Noor explained that this branch is the scientific areas consisting of conceptual understandings of literature and any study areas interrelated in it including such as definitions of literature, the literary terminologies, the essence and function of literature, the literary studies, the beauty of literary works, genres of literature, literary research, the history of literature, and literary criticism (2006: 21)

History of literature Noor explained that this branch is the scientific areas of literary studies on historical periods of literature from time to time, including such as the creation history of literature, the development of literary style and -isms, the chronological literary dialect, and the development of literary thoughts (2006: 20).

Literary criticism Further, Bressler (1998: 6) said that “because anyone who responds to a text is already a practicing literary critic and because practical criticism is rooted in the reader’s preconditioned mindset concerning his or her expectations when actually reading a text every reader exposes some kind of literary theory.” Noor explained that this branch is the scientific areas of literary studies on to scrutinize, research, examine, analyze thoroughly, and to appreciate literary works by giving advantages and disadvantages of the literary works (2006: 20).

From the concepts above, the writer can conclude that those scientific areas of literary studies are interrelated with one another in doing literary analysis. The literary theory, of course, needs literary criticism, for example to compose theories of style, and narrative technique. It needs as well the history of literature, for example, to compose theories about periods, isms, and wholly development of literature. The history of literature needs literary theory, for example to compose history of creation, progression, and development of literary works needs differences of literary theories from time to time. The literary criticism also needs literary theory to give any critic to literary works, for example theory of approaches and theory of genres. The literary criticism needs the history of literature, for example, to find out the originality, intertextuality, and comparison of the literary works from age to age.

The Third Trinity on Literature: The Analytic Levels of Literary Studies Matthew Arnold states in Bressler (1998:4-5), that “...literary criticism as ‘A disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the best way that is known and thought in the world.:...that literary criticism is a discipline activity that attempts to describe study, analyze,

83 justify, interpret, and evaluate a work of art’.” Based on that quote, in analyzing a text, literary critics asks basic questions concerning the philosophical, psychological, and functional aspects of literary text. In line with the basic questions of literary work as object of literary research is the human expression of a vision, mission, and consideration of some aspects of life. It can be concluded that literature qualifies as an art form that may be approached on three levels. They are psychological, philosophical, and functional levels.

Psychological Level This level can be seen from what Klarer (1999:92) stated that “reception theory focuses on the reader’s point of view. ...Some of these approaches do not postulate a single objective text, but rather assume that there are many texts as readers. This attitude implies that a new individual text evolves with every individual reading process” Based on this theory, the researcher can do expressive study using reader-oriented approach in the form of, for example, reader-response criticism.

Philosophical Level This level, according to Sigmund Freud in Klarer (1999: 92) is that “... psychoanalytic literary criticism is a movement which sometimes deals with the author,...... literary text can be an explanation of certain psychological phenomena,” because there is a direct link between the literary text and the biography of an author such as dates, facts, and events in the author’s life juxtaposed with literary elements of his or her works in order to find aspects which connect the biography of the author with the text. The researcher can do author-oriented approach using pragmatics study on literature, for example, in the form of biographical criticism, psychoanalytic criticism, and phenomenology.

Functional Level This level, by tracing Plato’s statement, is that “many contend that literature’s primary function is moral” (Bressler, 1998: 12). For this, the value of a text is found within the text or inseparably linked to the work itself. To do this analytic level, Klarer (1999: 79) stated that the literary researcher can do objective study on literature using text-oriented approaches. The text-oriented approach is primarily concerned with questions of the materiality of the texts, including edition manuscripts, analyses of language, style, and formal of structure of literary work. The researcher can do such as philology, rhetoric, stylistics, formalism, structuralism, new criticism, semiotics and deconstruction. Another study of this level is mimetic study on literature as what Bressler (1999: 94) stated that context-oriented approach refer to ha heterogeneous group of schools and methodologies which do not regard literary text as self- contained, independent works of art but try to place them within a larger context. Depending on the movement, this context can be history, social, political background, nationality, and gender.

The researcher can have the context-oriented approach in the form of, for example literary history, Marxism literary, feminist literary, new historicism, and cultural studies.

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As the writer, I insist that, the trinities’ scheme in discovering meanings on literature as trilogy to English teaching on literature be mastered by the teachers as well as the students who study the literature.

CONCLUSION There are three aspects with reciprocal relevancy in the process of scientific development. In understanding literary studies, these three principalities should be comprehended; i.e. ontology, axiology, and epistemology of literary studies. Or, on the other hand, it gains understanding of circumstantial interpretative about essence of study object, target of benefit, and methodologies of literary studies systemically-systematically- comprehensively so that it can be useful as enrichment insights of literary studies. The three scientific areas of literary studies can be derived into three branches. They are literary theory or theory of literature, history of literature, and literary criticism. The first branch is the scientific areas consisting of conceptual understandings of literature and any interrelated study areas, The second branch is the scientific areas of literary studies on historical periods of literature from time to time, and the third branch is the scientific areas of literary studies on to scrutinize, research, examine, analyze thoroughly, and to appreciate literary works by giving advantages and disadvantages of the literary works. Literary work as object of literary research represents a human expression of a vision, mission, and consideration of some aspects of life, and literature qualifies as an art form that may be approached from three levels; the first is psychological level, the second is philosophical level, and the third is functional level.

REFERENCES Abrams, M.H. 1971. The Mirror and the Lamp. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Budianta, Melani, dkk. 2002. Membaca Sastra. Magelang: Indonesia Tera. Bressler, Charles E. 1998. Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. New Jersey 07458: Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River. Farkhan, Muhammad.2007. Proposal Penelitian Bahasa dan Sastra. Jakarta: CV. Fasco Jaya. Harsono. Siswo. 2000. Sosiologi dan Psikologi Sastra. Semarang: Deaparamartha. Klarer, Mario. 1999. An Introduction to Literary Studies. London: Routledge. Noor, Redyanto. 2006. Pengantar Pengkajian Sastra. Semarang: Fasindo. Setiardja, A Gunawan.2005.Manusia dan Ilmu: Telaah Filsafat atas Manusia yang Menekuni Ilmu Pengetahuan. Semarang: Universitas Diponegoro. Staton, Robert. 2007. Teori Fiksi. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Taum, Yoseph Yapi.1997. Pengantar Teori Sastra: Ekspresivisme, Strukturalisme, Pascastrukturalisme, Sosiologi, Resepsi. Bogor: Mardiyuana. Wardoyo, Subur Laksmono. 2004. “Teori dan Praktik Semiotika Sastra”. (Makalah disampaikan dalam Perkuliahan Semiotik di Universitas Diponegoro, Program Pasca Sarjana, Magister Ilmu Susastra. Semarang: Universitas Diponegoro).

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