L'ecologia DELL'evoluzione Il Pluralismo Evolutivo Letto Attraverso

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L'ecologia DELL'evoluzione Il Pluralismo Evolutivo Letto Attraverso UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI MILANO-BICOCCA FACOLTÀ DI SCIENZE DELLA FORMAZIONE Corso di Laurea in Scienze dell’Educazione L’ECOLOGIA DELL’EVOLUZIONE Il pluralismo evolutivo letto attraverso un caso di radiazione adattativa Relatore: Dott. Telmo Pievani Correlatore: Prof. Fulvio Carmagnola Tesi di Laurea di: Emanuele SERRELLI Matr. 598639 Anno Accademico 2002/2003 Ai miei maestri... Se vuoi costruire una nave non richiamare prima di tutto gente che procuri legna, che prepari gli attrezzi necessari, non distribuire compiti, non organizzare il lavoro. Prima desta invece negli uomini la nostalgia del mare lontano e sconfinato. (Antoine de S. Exupèry) Indice pag. 1 Introduzione: Pesci e conoscenza ------ 1 – L’ecologia profonda dell’evoluzione 5----- 2 – Genesi del lavoro e fonti: un lungo allenamento 11---- 3 – La Famiglia Cichlidae 12------ 3.1 I Ciclidi nel mondo 13------ 3.2 Caratteristiche 14------ 3.3 Ecologia e comportamento 15------ 3.4 Riproduzione 17------ 3.5 Struttura familiare 19------ 3.6 I Grandi Laghi dell’Africa centrale PRIMA PARTE: LA RETE DEGLI OSSERVATORI 25 Capitolo 1: Osservatori di un ecosistema 29---- 1.1 – “Nascita” di un oggetto: un gioco di pattern e livelli 31------ 1.1.1 I “tipi di organismi” sono pattern 33------ 1.1.2 Livello e gerarchia 34------ 1.1.3 Il “tipo trofico”: un pattern complesso 35------ 1.1.4 Il pattern è uno schema di relazioni ricorrente 37------ 1.1.5 Gerarchie molteplici 38------ 1.1.6 Pattern diacronici, pattern sincronici 40------ 1.1.7 La «radiazione adattativa»: schema o pattern? 42------ 1.1.8 Semplicità e complessità pag. 43------ 1.1.9 Una proposta epistemologica: il concetto di “sguardo organizzatore” 45---- 1.2 – We’d better learn more 53---- 1.3 – La gerarchia ecologica o «economica» 54------ 1.3.1 Il tipo trofico come livello tipologico: problemi? 57------ 1.3.2 Le specie non fanno parte degli ecosistemi 59------ 1.3.3 Popolazioni e avatara 60------ 1.3.4 Ecosistemi locali, ecosistemi regionali, habitat, tipi trofici 62---- 1.4 – Ecologia e mutamento 68---- 1.5 – Maestri dell’alimentazione 74------ 1.5.1 Tipo trofico: unità, differenziazione, identificazione 78---- 1.6 – Sguardo oganizzatore e rappresentazione degli individui 83---- 1.7 – Organismo e ambiente: adattamento, selezione, “filtrazione” 85------ 1.7.1 Non solo cambiamento 86------ 1.7.2 Intergenealogia 87------ 1.7.3 Non solo competizione 89------ 1.7.4 “Filtrazione” naturale, un termine utile 91 Capitolo 2: Genealogie 92---- 2.1 – Articolare pattern diacronici e pattern sincronici -------- 2.1.1 Tracce sincroniche 96------ 2.1.2 I pattern diacronici influenzano la percezione sincronica 98------ 2.1.3 La percezione sincronica influenza i pattern diacronici 99------ 2.1.4 Pattern sincronici “sottesi” ai pattern diacronici 102--- 2.2 – Darwin e la genesi dello sguardo genealogico 103----- 2.2.1 Differenza intergenerazionale e suddivisione delle discendenze 106----- 2.2.2 Specie, sottospecie, varietà…? pag. 108----- 2.2.3 La gerarchia linneana di somiglianze 109----- 2.2.4 La suddivisione delle somiglianze in analogie e omologie 111--- 2.3 – Gradualismo filetico, orologio molecolare, sistematica filogenetica 116----- 2.3.1 Una sola velocità, interna alla genealogia: l’orologio molecolare 120----- 2.3.2 Tra continuità e discontinuità: la sistematica filogenetica 127--- 2.4 – I tagli nel continuum 129----- 2.4.1 Primo movimento: la riproduzione e i suoi pattern 134----- 2.4.2 Secondo movimento: teorie della discontinuità 141--- 2.5 – Pattern riproduttivi ereditari nei ciclidi -------- 2.5.1 Coordinazione ereditaria e dimorfismo sessuale 142----- 2.5.2 Riconoscimento del partner attraverso indizi visuali 144----- 2.5.3 Cure parentali e struttura familiare 147----- 2.5.4 Alcuni pattern comportamentali 149----- 2.5.5 Un meccanismo squisitamente genealogico: selezione sessuale e speciazione simpatrica 155--- 2.6 – La gerarchia genealogica 157----- 2.6.1 Taxa, non tipi 158----- 2.6.2 La parte inferiore della gerarchia è basata sulla riproduzione 159--- 2.7 – Osservazioni sulla percezione evoluzionistica 165----- 2.7.1 Differenze di percezione tra filogenesi ed ecologia: gli Eretmodini del Tanganyika 173--- 2.8 – Organismo e ambiente: picchi adattativi, selezione del gene 175----- 2.8.l L’ambiente visto dall’interno della genealogia 180----- 2.8.2 Adattazionismo pag. 185----- 2.8.3 Un esempio: meccanismi isolanti o riconoscimento del partner? 187 Capitolo 3: Tipi ed essenze 189--- 3.1 – La strage dei furu e il pensiero tipologico -------- 3.1.1 Introduzione della perca, lag effect e mutamento improvviso dell’ecosistema 195----- 3.1.2 Dallo sguardo ecologico allo sguardo tipologico 198--- 3.2 – Specie tipologica e acquariologia -------- 3.2.1 La specie tipologica 200----- 3.2.2 Caratteri dello sguardo tipologico pre-darwiniano 202----- 3.2.3 La sotto-rete acquariofila 211----- 3.2.4 “Tutti” i caratteri dei ciclidi 213--- 3.3 – Essenzialismo e tipologia: il pattern (non) diacronico 214--- 3.4 – I pattern della forma 215----- 3.4.1 Discontinuità del morfospazio e pattern al livello dell’organismo 217----- 3.4.2 Formalismo e funzionalismo prima di Darwin 221----- 3.4.3 Darwinismo e palle da biliardo 224--- 3.5 – Evoluzione e tipologia -------- 3.5.1 Eclissi e rinascita dello sguardo tipologico 227----- 3.5.2 Prima della strage: Goldschmidt e le «specie sotto spirito» 229--- 3.6 – La gerarchia tipologica 230----- 3.6.1 Il problema dei caratteri: tre punti di vista 236----- 3.6.2 Pubblicazioni per acquariofili: tre esempi differenti 243--- 3.7 – Organismo e ambiente: un acquario non è un ecosistema pag. SECONDA PARTE: CONOSCERE (NEL)LA RETE DELLA VITA 249 Capitolo 4: Evoluzione e conoscenza secondo il pluralismo evolutivo ------ 4.1 – La proposta epistemologica del pluralismo evolutivo 250----- 4.1.1 I pattern nell’occhio dell’osservatore 253----- 4.1.2 Non solo nuovi pattern: una diversa strategia conoscitiva 256--- 4.2 – Tr a popolazione e specie 257----- 4.2.1 Le implicazioni della teoria speciazionale: equilibri punteggiati (1972) 260----- 4.2.2 Speciazione step-wise nei ciclidi 263----- 4.2.3 I pattern al livello della specie: la macroevoluzione 271--- 4.3 – Tra popolazione e organismo 273----- 4.3.1 Le uova finte sulla pinna anale delle femmine, gli spandrel di San Marco (1979) e l’exaptation (1982) 278----- 4.3.2 Il peso della storia: quantità e direzione della variazione 285----- 4.3.3 Teoria gerarchica e cross-level spandrel 287--- 4.4 – Tra genealogia ed ecologia 291----- 4.4.1 Strage e radiazione nei furu. Nulla di sostanziale senza eventi ecologici 293----- 4.4.2 Come funziona l’evoluzione? Il modello dello sloshing bucket 296 Conclusione: Per un’ecologia dell’evoluzione ------ 5.1 – Sintesi del lavoro 299--- 5.2 – Vincoli allo «sguardo organizzatore»: realtà, storia, individuo pag. 302----- 5.2.1 Una circolarità ineliminabile: epistemologia naturale 303----- 5.2.2 Prospettive di ricerca sull’epistemologia individuale 306--- 5.3 – Un’ultima suggestione: l’organismo come «grumo di relazioni» 311 Ringraziamenti 312 Fonti delle illustrazioni 314 Bibliografia 331 Bibliografia Internet INTRODUZIONE Pesci e conoscenza 1 – L’ecologia profonda dell’evoluzione Questa non è una ricerca sui pesci. Anche se fra i suoi protagonisti ci sono i ciclidi dei Grandi Laghi africani, lo scopo di questo lavoro non è fare una presentazione ordinata ed esauriente delle loro – pur notevoli – caratteristiche e particolarità1. Questa non è una ricerca sull’evoluzione dei ciclidi. Pur avendo una preferenza culturale per il pluralismo evolutivo e per la sua interpretazione della storia della vita, non vogliamo qui mettere alla prova differenti modelli evolutivi per scegliere quale renda meglio ragione della particolare – forse eccezionale – «radiazione adattativa» 2 dei ciclidi, e quindi fornendo ad esso un supporto empirico. Questa è una ricerca epistemologica, che riguarda cioè i processi di conoscenza. La scelta dei ciclidi come oggetto di studio è stata stimolata principalmente dal fatto che con questi pesci si trovano ad avere a che fare osservatori notevolmente diversi tra loro: pescatori, ecologi, biologi, genetisti, evoluzionisti di diversa impostazione, hobbisti acquariofili principianti e avanzati. Il grande interesse epistemologico di questa folla di personaggi deriva non soltanto dalla comparazione fra i differenti processi di conoscenza che si applicano al medesimo oggetto (operazione già di per sé interessante) bensì anche dalle loro molteplici e complesse interazioni concrete: 1 Il lettore interessato ad una rapida introduzione ai ciclidi può consultare il §3 di questa introduzione. 1 L’ECOLOGIA DELL’EVOLUZIONE nell’incontro sui ciclidi, infatti, gli osservatori si trovano a ignorarsi, a dialogare, a ibridarsi, a sfumare l’uno nell’altro. È questa “rete di processi” interattivi ad aver portato ad intitolare La rete degli osservatori la prima parte del lavoro, nella quale cerchiamo di mostrare la coerenza interna di ogni sguardo, ma anche le sovrapposizioni e i contrasti tra sguardi diversi, e alcuni punti di transizione dall’uno all’altro. Lo sguardo evoluzionista (presentato nel capitolo 2 in alcune sue versioni) non monopolizza affatto l’attenzione all’interno della nostra rete degli osservatori, non sfoggia uno statuto prioritario o di maggiore “realtà” che permetta di spiegare e ridurre gli altri sguardi. Tutt’altro: il primo passo della nostra ricerca è il tentativo di comprendere come gli organismi e la loro evoluzione si trovino prima di tutto al centro di una serie di processi conoscitivi, siano in una relazione complessa,
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