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INSTITUTE FOR ANIMATION AND GAMING, ENUGU (A STUDY ON PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES AS AN EFFECTIVE TOOL IN THE DESIGN OF SUSTAINABLE LEARNING SPACES)
ODOH, PETER .E
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE, FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS,
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE.
SUPERVISOR: ARC. DR. OKEY NDUKA JUNE, 2014. ii
CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this project was done by ODOH PETER EJIKE and has been read and
approved by the Department of Architecture, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus.
………………………………………. ………………………………
Odoh, Peter Ejike Date
Student
………………………………………. ………………………………
Arc. (Dr.) Okey Nduka, Ph.D Date Supervisor
………………………………………. ………………………………
Arc. Udeh. C.A Date Head, Department of Architecture iii
DEDICATION
To The Holy Spirit, for His Gift of Knowledge.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I thank God Almighty for seeing me through to the completion of this work.
I would like to show my appreciation to my thesis supervisor Arc. Dr. Okey Nduka for his assistance, great support and continuous advice throughout the whole process of this study. Thank you for your patience, evaluations and inspiring comments about the study.
I owe special thanks to all members of my family; to my amiable parents Mr. and Mrs. Odoh
Cyprian, to my siblings John Chiemezie, Michael Chidiebere and Victor Okwuchukwu, and to my aunt Miss Odoh Benedette, who have supported me endlessly and encouraged me to be the person
I am today.
I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to my mentors; Arc. Eme-Anele Ngozi, Dr.
Akubue Jideofor, Prof. Chukwuali C.B, Arc. Baderin Joy, and Arc. Afolabi Michael, for their immense contribution to my understanding of architecture.
I would like to appreciate my colleagues especially Prisco, Loveday, Grace, Chisom, Ikenna,
Okoro and Joy, my friends especially Shittu, Casablanca, Bobby, and Andrew, and my roommates
Valentine, Mathias, Anthony and Ekene, for always standing next to me during this process.
Finally I would like to express my gratitude to all my lecturers from the Department of Architecture
for their various contributions towards the actualization of this project.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS:
Title Page…………………………………………………………………………………..…..i
Certification……………………………………………………………………………….…..ii
Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………..iii
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………….iv
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………...v
List of Figures………………………………………………………………………...……....xiii
List of Plates………………………………………………………………………………...... xvi
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………..xx
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………..xi
CHAPTER 1: 1.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………….…………….1
1.1 Background of study………………………………………………..……..….…..2
1.1.1 How Do Passive and Sustainable Design Relate…….……………………...5
1.2 Statement of architectural problems…………………….…………………….….5
1.3 Aim ………………………………………………….…….………………….…..6
1.4 Objectives………………………………………………………………………...6
1.5 Motivation…………………………………………………………...…….……..7
1.6 Scope and limitations…………………………………………….…………..…..7
1.7 Research methodology………………………………………….………………..8
1.7.1 Analysis of collected data…………………………………...…...... 9
CHAPTER 2: 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………….…...11
2.1 Brief history of animation……………………..………………………...…....…12 vi
2.2 Animation and gaming institutes –a brief overview………………………...... 15
2.2.1 Core departments within the institute……………………..…..….…….16
2.2.2 Curriculum………………………………………………….….……….17
2.2.3 Importance of animation institutes…………………………..…..…...…18
2.2.4 Key learning spaces in an animation institute………………...….…..…20
2.3 Learning spaces; what do we know about them?...... 24
2.3.1 Perspectives on learning spaces…………………………….…..…..…...28
2.4 Types of learning spaces in a higher institution…...... 31
2.5 Learning theory: (a look on how higher education students approach learning
in 21st century Nigeria); …………………………………….………………….….32
2.6 Implications of learning theory on the design of learning spaces in
higher institutions…………………………………………………….………...... 35
2.7 Functions of learning spaces in higher institutions……………………….…….….37
2.8 Designing sustainable learning spaces for effective learning ………………....…..40
2.8.1 Day-lighting and student performance…………………………..……...... …41
2.8.2 Indoor air quality and student performance………………………………...... 45
2.9 Benefits of passive design strategies in higher educational buildings...... ……...…48
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN CONSIDERATION: PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES: A Key to Sustainable Building Design………………56
3.1 Sources of Passive Energy ………………………………………………………………….58 vii
3.2 Understanding the Hot-Humid Climate of Enugu: An Overview………………………..60
3.2.1 Passive Design Guidelines in Hot and Humid Climates……………………….62
3.3 Principles of Passive Design……………………………………………………………...64
3.3.1 Orientation……………………………………………………………………….65
3.3.1.1 Solar Radiation……………………………………………...66
3.3.1.2 The Sun’s Path………………………………………………67
3.3.2 Window Design (Glazing)………………………………………………………..69
3.3.2.1 Types of Windows…………………………………………..70
3.3.2.2 Low-Emmisitivity Glass…………………………………….73
3.3.3 Insulation………………………………………………………………………...78
3.3.4 Thermal Mass……………………………………………………………………79
3.3.5 Natural Ventilation………………………………………………………………80
3.3.6 Zoning…………………………………………………………………………...83
3.4 Improving Comfort in Educational Buildings Using Passive Design Strategies…………84
3.4.1 Micro-Climatic Analysis………………………………………………………..84
3.5 Passive Cooling…………………………………………………………………………..86
3.5.1 Excluding Heat Gains…………………………………………………………..87
3.5.1.1 Dealing with Solar Radiation………………………………87 viii
3.5.1.2 Dealing with High Outside Temperature…………………..89
3.5.1.3 Dealing with Internal Gains……………………………….90
3.6 Complementing Passive Cooling In Tropical Humid Climates………………………….91
CHAPTER 4: 4.0 CASE STUDIES AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EXISTING AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES…………………………………………………………………………..….….94 4.1 THE ERSKINE INSTITUTE BUILDING, CANTERBURY UNIVERSITY, CHRISTCHURCH –NEW ZEALAND…………………………………………….……....…94 4.1.1 PROJECT OUTLINE: Project details…………………………………….…..…….96
4.1.2 Background of the Building…………………………………………….……...……97
4.1.3 Building Design……………………………………………………….……..……...98
4.1.3.1 Building Structure and Fabric…………………………………….…….103 4.1.4 Passive Design Strategies Used In the Building……………………………..…..104
4.1.4.1 Cooling Elements Employed……………………………………..….…104
4.1.4.2 Passive Ventilation Systems Employed in the Erskine Building…...... 106
4.1.4.3 Lighting………………………………………………...…………...….108
4.1.5 Energy and Thermal Performance…………………………………….…..….…..109
4.1.5.1 Annual Energy Use…………………………………………..…....……110
4.1.5.2 Summer and Winter Inside Temperatures……………………...…...….110 ix
4.1.6 Occupant Perceptions of the Erskine Building…………………………………111
4.1.6.1 The Survey……………………………………………………………111 4.1.6.2 Analysis of Collated Results From The Survey…………...... ……..…113
4.1.6.3 Users’ Comments…………………………………………………...... 115 4.1.7 Lessons Learnt From the Survey Conducted…………………………………...117
4.2 KATANA FILM AND ANIMATION INSTITUTE, THAILAND……………….….120
4.2.1 Project Outline...... …...121
4.2.2 Building Design……………………………………………………….....…….121
4.2.3 Building Structure and Fabric…………………………………………………126
4.2.4 Lessons Learnt………………………………………………………..……….128
4.3 FACULTY OF LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF TURIN, ITALY.………………………………………………………………………………………129
4.3.1 Building design………………………………………………....………………129
4.3.2 Building envelope……………………………………………..………………..135
4.4 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY [NIIT] TRAINING CENTRE, PORT HARCOURT, RIVERS STATE…………….………….138
4.4.1 Background study……………………………………………………….……..139
4.4.2 Building design…………………………………………………….………….140 x
4.4.3 Lessons Learnt………………………………………………………………...143
4.5 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY [NIIT] TRAINING CENTRE, IKEJA, LAGOS STATE………………….…………………….144
4.5.1 Background study………………………………...………………………...…145
4.5.2 Building Design…………………………………………………………….…145
4.5.3 Lessons Learnt…………………………………………………………..…….149
4.6 Summary of research findings……………………………………..…………………....151
References…………………………………………………………………………………..153
CHAPTER 5: 5.0 PRESENTATION OF ANALYSES………………………………………………….155
5.1 Site analysis and design…………………………………………………….…………..155
5.1.1 Nigeria- a general overview………………………………………………...... 155
5.2 Enugu – a general overview…………………………………………………………158
5.2.1 History………………………………..……………………………………..159
5.2.2 Cityscape and architecture……………………………………………..……...160
5.2.3 Economy……………………………………………….……………………161
5.2.4 Energy………………………………………………………………………161
5.2.5 Demographics…………………………………………………………………162 xi
5.2.6 Transport………………………………………………………………………163
5.2.7 Education………………………………………………………………………..164
5.2.8 Climate………………………………………………………………………...164
5.2.8.1 Air masses……………………………………………………………...170
5.2.8.2 Vegetation……………………………………………………………...171
5.2.9 Architectural solutions with regards to Enugu climate…………………………...171
5.3 Site location studies…………………………………………….…………………………172
5.3.1 Site location………………………………………………………………………172
5.3.2 Factors that influenced the choice of site………………………………………...173
5.4 Site analysis………...…………………………………………………………………….174
5.4.1 Land use analysis…………………………………………………………………174
5.5 Physical features analysis………………………………………………………………...175
5.5.1 Sun and wind analysis……………………………………………………………175
5.5.1.1 Sun path analysis and shading……….…………………………………176
5.5.2 Topography…………………………………....………………………………….178
5.5.3 Access to the site…………………………………………...…………………….179
5.6 site zoning………………………………………………….…………………...………….180 xii
CHAPTER 6:
6.0 DESIGN SYNTHESIS………………………………………………………………….183
6.1 Design Brief………………………………………………………………………………183
6.2 Design Concept…………………………………………………………………………...183
6.2.1 Function Related Concept……………………………………………………………….183
6.2.2 Institutional Design Plan Option…...... 184
6.3 Recommendation and Conclusion…………………………………………………………185
References……………………………………………………………………………………...186 xiii
LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 1.0: Carbon dioxide emissions from energy use in buildings, 2004 ………………………3
Figure. 2.1: Learning Spectrum………………………………………………………………….27
Figure 2.2: Prototype design for smooth Teaching Space………………………………………..30
Figure 2.3: Breakdown of energy use in schools…………………………………………………49
Figure 3.1 Some Passive House Details…………………………………………………………59
Figure 3.2 World map showing the climatic zone of Enugu………………………………….….60
Figure 3.3 Typical design in a tropical climate…………………………………………….…...64
Figure 3.4 Predominant Sun and wind Path in Enugu showing how they influence orientation..65
Figure 3.5a: Showing Typical Sun’s movement…………………………………………….…..67
Figure 3.5b: showing the relationship between Angle of Incidence and Intensity of Sun Rays..67
Fig. 3.6Diagram showing Sun Chart on Latitude 8°N (Enugu is located at Lat. 7.7°N)……….68
Fig 3.7: Showing how Low-E Glass reacts to solar rays………………………………………..74
Figure 3.8 Low-E glass coatings……………………………………………………………..…75
Figure 3.9: This thermal image clearly shows the heat being transmitted through the metal frame
and glass…………………………………………………………………………………………78
Fig.3.10: Single-Sided Ventilation…………………………………………………...………….82
Fig. 3.11 Cross Ventilation………………………………………………………………………82
Fig.3.12 Stack Effect through an Atrium………………………………...... 83 xiv
Figure 4.1: Typical mid-floor plan …………………………………………………………..98
Figure 4.2: Cross-section of the building (atrium bridges and stairs omitted for clarity) …....101
Figure 4.3: Cross section of floor and ceiling slab……………………………………………106
Fig 4.4: Room temperature monitoring DURING SUMMER (6/2/2001–12/2/2001)…………111
Fig. 4. 5 Floor plan Katana Film and Animation Institute………………………………..……122
Fig. 4.6 Detailed floor plan Katana Film and Animation Institute……………………………..123
Fig. 4.7 Conceptual Block Plan, Katana Film and Animation Institute……………..…………124
Fig. 4.8 Sections- Katana Film and Animation Institute……………………………………….125
Figure 4.9: Site plan, faculty of law and political sciences building, university of Turin,
Italy…………………………………………………………………………………….…….…131
Figure 4.10: Floor plan, faculty of law and political sciences building, university of Turin, Italy.
………………………………………………………………………………………..…...……131
Fig 4.11: The floor layout of the NIIT training centre Port Harcourt Rivers state………….…140
Fig 4.12 The floor layout of NIIT training centre ikeja, Lagos state………………………..…146
Figure 5.1: Map of Africa showing the countries with Nigeria……………………………….156
Figure 5.2: Map of Nigeria showing the 36 states and Enugu state…………………………….157
Figure 5.3: map of Enugu state showing Enugu East L.G.A………………………………….158
Figure 5.4: Typical sun path in Enugu town………………………………………...... 169 xv
Figure 5.5: Map of Nigeria showing rainfall distributions…………………………….………170
Figure 5.5: Wind & Sun patterns across the Proposed Site……………………………....……176
Figure 5.6: sun path over the proposed site……………………………………………...…….177
Figure 5.7: Shading considerations……………………………………………………….……177
Figure 5.8: slope patterns on the Proposed Site………………………………………..………178
Figure 5.9: Existing Traffic around the Proposed Site………………………………...……….179
Figure 5.10: Proposed Traffic around the Proposed Site………………………………………180
Figure 5.11: Zoning around the Proposed Site………………………………………….……..181
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LIST OF PLATES:
Plate 2.1: A scene from Micky Mouse, one of Walt Disney’s animated films in the 1930s…….12
Plate 2.2: A scene from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs……………………………………13
Plate 2.3: Poster of the 3D animation movie ‘AVATAR’ released in 2009……………..……..14
Plate 2.4: Students in a studio within an animation institute………………………….…….…..15
Plate 2.5; Traditional learning lab……………………………………………………….…….21
Plate 2.6; Traditional Studio lab……………………………………………………………….21
Plate. 2.7; Traditional Shooting Stage………………………………………………………....22
Plate. 2.8; Traditional Motion Capture Studio………………………………………..……….23
Plate. 2.9; Traditional 3D Lecture Theatre………………………………………………….…23
Plate. 2.10: Peer Informal learning groups is increasingly popular in higher institutions………25
Plate. 2.11: Striated/Traditional Teaching Space………………………………………………..28
Plate. 2.12; Smooth learning spaces……………………………………………………………..29
Plate. 2.13; using furniture to create spaces for individual work…………………………………32
Plate. 2.14; Day lighting in learning spaces…………………………………………………..…42
Plate 2.15: Students in a social learning space within an animation institute……………………46
Plate 3.1 Example of a Passive Building (good landscaping, shading and orientation)...... 58
Plate 3.2 Passive window designs ………………………………………………………………69
Plate 3.3 Sliding style windows………………………………………………………..………..70
Plate 3.4 Hopper style windows………………………………………………..………..………71
Plate 3.5 Side hung casement windows……………………………………………………….…71
Plate 3.6 Bi-fold doors……………………………………………………..………………….....72 xvii
Plate 3.7 louvres………………………………………………………………………………….72
Plate. 3.8 The saviour of many bad designs, the domestic air-conditioning unit…………………85
Plate 3.9 Shading used in buildings………………………………………………………….…..88
Plate. 3.10 Double Roofing Systems…………………………………………………………….88
Plate 4.0: The aerial view of The Erskine Institute Building, Canterbury University, and
Christchurch –New Zealand…………………………………………………………….……….95
Plate 4.1: View from the north of the academic towers of ERSKINE building, Christchurch,
NZ……………………………………………………………………………………………….96
Plate 4.2: The south-west elevation of the teaching block. …………………………………..100
Plate 4.3: Typical double-height space with staff offices clustered around a common area…...100
Plate 4.4: The academic towers orientate staff offices to the northern sun…………..…….…..101
Plate 4.5: The atrium showing the interconnectivity of the two wings of the building………..102
Plate 4.6: Sine-wave ceiling to computer labs……………………………………………..…..104
Plate 4.7: Air handling units located on the top of each academic tower……………….……..105
Plate 4.8: Some of the nine AHUs located in the basement, each one serving a different computing
laboratory……………………………………………………………………………………....107
Plate 4.9: Natural light from the atrium penetrates the building’s internal circulation……….109
Plate 4.10 Katana Film and Animation Institute……………………………………..………..120
Plate 4.11 Canteen- Katana Film and Animation Institute…………………………………….125 xviii
Plate. 4.12 Exterior Brick Walls showing Apertures for ventilation and relaxation. ………….126
Plate 4.13 Exterior Brick Walls with Inset of wall Details………………………………...…..127
Plate 4.14: Due to its calm and cool serene, Circulation between the four buildings becomes an
opportunity for reflection……………………………………………………………...... 128
Plate 4.15: The aerial view of the site layout the faculty of law and political sciences, university
of Turin, Italy…………………………………………………………………….……...…….129
Plate 4.16: Approach View into the Complex; brushed metal and ribbons of glazing characterize
the façade………………………………………………………………………………………129
Plate 4.17: Roof Design, faculty of law and political sciences building, university of Turin,
Italy…………………………………………………………………………………….………132
Plate 4.18: Interiors are awash with light………………………………………………...…….133
Plate 4.19: A large overhanging roof links the two main architectural spaces ………………..134
Plate 4.20: Flexible Classroom Layout designed to take advantage of natural Lighting…...….134
Plate 4.21: Typical Lecture Hall designed to take advantage of natural Lighting………………135
Plate 4.22: The campus is flexible enough for myriad programming…………………….……..136
Plate 4.23: The aerial view of NIIT ICT training centre, Port Harcourt………………..……….138
Plate 4.24: The approach view of NIIT ICT training centre, Port Harcourt…………………..138
Plate 4.25: The approach view of NIIT ICT training centre, Port Harcourt…………………..139 xix
Plate 4.26: The reception/ counselling office ………………………………………………….141
Plate 4.27: The waiting area…………………………………………………..……………….141
Plate 4.28: View showing circulation lobby…………………………………………….……..142
Plate 4.29: View of the training studio during a lecture……………………….……………….142
Plate 4.30: View of the training studio during a lecture………………………….…………….143
Plate 4.31: The aerial view of NIIT ICT training centre, Ikeja…………………..…………….144
Plate 4.32: The approach view of NIIT ICT training centre, Ikeja……………………..………144
Plate 4.33: View of the help desk of the reception lobby from the waiting area……………….147
Plate 4.34: View from outside a computer studio during a lecture…………………………..148
Plate 4.35: View showing the coloured aluminium and glass partitions taken from within a
counselling cubicle……………………………………………………………………………..149
Plate 4.36: View from circulation lobby……………………………………….…………..150
Plate 5.1: Enugu’s Architecture………………………………………..………………………160
Plate 5.2: Roads A3 and A343……………………………………………………..………….161
Plate 5.3: Enugu viewed from the west………………………………………………..……….165
Plate 5.4: Aerial View Showing the Proposed Site and Its Surrounding Environment……..….173
Plate 5.5: Land use Map…………………………………………………………………….…..175 xx
LIST OF TABLES:
Table 2.1; Differences in the Teaching and Learning Paradigms………………..…………….34
Table 3.1 Low-E Coatings and Performance……………………………….…………..……….76 Table 4.1: Showing project Details………………………………………….…………….…….97
Table 4.2: Table of Average Staff Scores for the Survey on Occupants Assessment of the Erskine Building……………………………………………………………………….……….114
Table 4.3: Number of Respondents ………………………………………………………….116
Table 4.4 Project details of the Katana Animation film Institute. ……………………….……121
Table 5.2: Climate data for Enugu…………………………………………………………….166 Table 5.3 : Climatic variation between the two climatic zones identified by the National
University Commission………………………………………………………….……………..167
Table 5.4 : Summary of the characteristics of the Atkinson system of climate classification…167
Table 5.5 : Recommended thermal properties for walls and roofs……………………...... ……168
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ABSTRACT:
Every decision that architects, engineers, builders, and homeowners make about the design and operation of their buildings carries with it an energy cost, and all energy costs in turn have environmental costs. For example, changing the orientation of a window, or the colour of the roof, or adding a sun control will change the amount of electricity it uses for lighting and air conditioning. Passive design; an idea within the growing trend of green buildings, is a creative way to use the natural resources such as sunlight and breezes, to our advantage, both for heating and cooling, based on the design of buildings. Passive design can greatly reduce resource demands. Passive design is also, by necessity, coupled with and supportive of sustainable practices. Employing passive design strategies in urban environments has the benefits of reducing resource consumption, making urban living more adorable, and connecting human experience more deeply into a direct relationship with resources. This study is aimed at identifying passive design features through extensive literature study that can be incorporated into educational buildings to make them energy efficient. The study is also aimed at identifying changes in the design process that can affect energy efficiency in educational buildings. The findings from this study indicate that proper orientation, reducing openings and increasing the thickness on external walls on east and west, and use of appropriate horizontal overhang ratios for all four orientations can reduce the cooling load of educational buildings in Enugu, hence reduce the total energy use of such buildings. Finally it can be concluded that the process of designing energy efficient educational buildings is not a ‘one-man’s show’. Architects, builders, engineers, developers, interior designers and clients must collaborate to bring a change in the design practice.
Keywords: Energy- efficient; passive design features; educational building; sustainable practices.
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INTRODUCTION
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1.0 INTRODUCTION;
As the entertainment and advertising world is growing, there is a huge demand for professionals in the field of animation, multimedia, video editing and graphic designing in Nigeria. Computer animation is of immense benefits to our generation, it has been useful in areas such as education, communication, project designs, in entertainment and in the media. In Nigeria, its application is more in the advertising sector. Communication corporations like MTN, GLO and
Airtel are always in need of professional animators to head their advertising departments. In order to cater for the demand of the industry, a training institute is proposed to provide hands- on experience to students, promote freshers within the industry and produce experienced professionals.
The Proposed Institute of Gaming and Animation will be in an excellent position to:
Promote undergraduate and postgraduate courses with a clear industrial and
commercial relevance where students learn, develop and work.
Promote an enabling environment in which research and scholarship thrive to produce
graduates with the potential to play a significant role in the creative industries.
Animation and gaming institutes are a fast rising entity and they include established firm; such
GAIF animation institute USA, and new upstarts such as Aardman animation institute UK.
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1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
“Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think.” -Albert Einstein
Educational spaces consume lots of energy due to the need to create comfortable indoor environment`. The economic and environmental implication of reliance on non-renewable energy has led to changes in climatic conditions around the world
Climate change due to increasing temperature is an important environmental concern throughout the world. Rising sea level has a consistent trend with global warming by contribution from thermal expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps, and the polar ice sheets. In both Hemispheres, overall mountain glaciers and snow cover have shrunk. In addition, precipitation has decreased in some parts of the world such as Mediterranean and southern
Asia. Over the last 50 years, frost and cold days and nights have become less frequent while hot days and nights, and heat waves have become more frequent. Wind patterns have also changed and the areas affected by drought have been globally expanded since the 1970s (IPCC,
2007b). To deal with these issues it is essential to know about the reasons for this dramatic change.
Human activities have contributed to striking raises of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change -IPCC, 2007b). The energy balance of the climate system has been altered by changes in atmospheric concentration of GHGs and aerosols, solar radiation and land cover. Global GHG emissions rose by 70% from 1970 to
2004; during the same period, the annual emissions of the most significant GHG, carbon dioxide (CO2), increased by roughly 80% (IPCC, 2007 b). Moreover, IPCC Special Report on
Emissions Scenarios (SRES) predicted a rise of 25% to 90% in global GHG emissions from
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2000 to 2030. Further warming and changes in global climate would be caused by continuous global GHG emissions at or above present rates (IPCC, 2007a).
Energy consumption in various sectors of the economic world is the main source of CO2 emissions. Buildings account for approximately 40% of final energy consumption (WBCSD,
2007) and related CO2 emissions in most countries. In 2004, an approximately 10.6Gt GHG emission was from the building sector (IPCC, 2007). Figure 1.0 shows the estimated CO2 emissions caused by energy use in buildings.
Figure 1.0: Carbon dioxide emissions from energy use in buildings, 2004 Source: IPCC, 2007
Sustainability is defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development as
“meeting the needs of today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” In considering ways to reduce GHGs in educational buildings, a sustainable design approach offers many advantages over traditional design of schools. These advantages
4
include reducing carbon emissions through design of integrated passive systems for facilities; daylighting, acoustical sensitivity, natural ventilation, and use of eco-friendly materials that promote learning by creating healthier interior environments. Sustainable design incorporates collaborative and integrative planning processes from the start of a design plan.
Considering the above mentioned, the study explores ways to enhance energy use in educational buildings through the use of passive design.
Passive design refers to a design approach that uses natural elements, often sunlight and wind, to cool, heat, or light a building.
Systems that employ passive design require very little maintenance and reduce a building’s energy consumption by minimizing or eliminating mechanical systems used to regulate indoor temperature and lighting.
Houses today are more energy efficient than ever before. However the vast majority of new houses still ignore a lot of energy saving opportunities - opportunities available in the sunlight falling on the house, in the landscaping, breezes and other natural elements of the site, and opportunities in the structure and materials of the house itself, which, with thoughtful design, could be used to collect and use free energy. Passive solar (the name distinguishes it from
"active" or mechanical solar technologies) is simply a way to take maximum advantage of these opportunities.
Passive design approach can include the structure of the building itself, building orientation, window placement, insulation and building materials, or specific elements of a building, such as window shades.
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1.1.1 HOW DO PASSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE DESIGN RELATE
Passive solar heating and passive ventilation for cooling assist in creating sustainable buildings by reducing dependency on fossil fuels for heating and cooling buildings, as well as reducing the need for electricity to support lighting by using practices of daylighting in buildings.
In LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Awards, Passive Design assists in gaining points in the Energy and Atmosphere category, as well as in Indoor Air Quality as
Passive Design promotes natural ventilation and daylighting strategies.
However, not all Sustainably Designed buildings are strongly passive, and not all Passively
Designed buildings are by default strongly sustainable, although this is more likely than the reverse.
1.2 STATEMENT OF ARCHITECTURAL PROBLEM:
The architectural problems that prompted this study include;
i. In the tropics, we are faced with the challenge of making our buildings cooler. Poor
understanding of sustainable design strategies (such as site preservation,
daylighting, cooling, resource conservation and building enclosure) in the design of
educational buildings that have led to poor design solutions, this in turn leads to
poor output from students.
ii. Non-utilization of site potentials, altering sites and poor micro-climatic analysis are
banes facing energy efficient solutions within Enugu State.
iii. Lack of integrative design process in other to create high performance buildings,
with a holistic thought process on life cycle utilization.
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iv. Excessive dependence on non-renewable energy sources within buildings in Enugu
and its environs.
The research intends to provide pragmatic solutions to the above mentioned architectural problems through designing cooler, efficient and sustainable learning spaces by harnessing renewable energy sources. This can be achieved through an in-depth understanding of the microclimate and natural resources.
1.3 AIM;
The main aim of this research is to create a model learning facility that contributes to the understanding of sustainable solutions in tropical climates.
1.4 OBJECTIVES;
This aim can be achieved through;
(1) Investigating the experience of existing design method.
(2) Investigating the relevant technical solutions comprising both innovative and
traditional design elements, that can be applied within the region
(3) Identifying the drivers and barriers to develop the applied solutions.
(4) Including specific design features that promote learning, and that create a welcoming,
healthy, cost effective and environmentally responsible building.
Other specific objectives to be sought after are;
a. Day lighting through the educational and studio spaces.
b. Find Alternative sources of energy from natural means.
7
c. Optimum orientation
d. Construction of bio retention areas to minimize storm water runoff.
e. Higher R-value thermal envelope.
f. Cross ventilations
g. Use of Architectural Shades overhang.
h. Reduce number of Air-Conditioning Units.
i. Keep the budget within a cost efficient rate.
1.5 MOTIVATION:
The primary motivation in carrying out this research is to conserve energy and other resources while also enhancing students’ learning environment. Another source of motivation stems from the desire to be better stewards of the environment and to teach others about conserving resources by using principles of sustainable design as we build or renovate facilities.
1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY:
The scope of this study will be limited to the experience of energy efficient learning spaces with focus on the applied design and technical solutions.
Some key limitations of this study will include:
This is the first time an institute and studios for animation is ever been proposed within the region, so most case studies to be conducted will be on similar educational buildings.
8
Lack of some fundamental data about energy consumption and costs in the buildings under this study will also be a constraint.
1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
Architectural research is the search for new knowledge and ideas about the built environment.
The overall objective of this research is to contribute to the understanding of pragmatic sustainable solutions to develop energy efficient buildings in the tropical climate of Enugu.
This aim will be achieved by means of answering the following research question:
How can sustainable design strategies and techniques be applied to improve energy
efficiency of higher institutional buildings in Enugu?
To answer the aforementioned research question and achieve study objectives the following approach and methods was taken. The research method used in this project includes both primary and secondary source of data collection. This type of research method is aimed at exploring and investigating specific areas of phenomena in order to gain more insight into the particular problem under investigation and proffer solutions to them.
The primary stage of data collection was face-to-face interviews with the supervisor who is experienced on the subject of energy efficiency in buildings as well as searching on related websites to find relevant contact persons and addresses.
Studying a number of buildings design and construction projects was adopted as a useful method to gain a deep understanding of applied technical solutions with the aim of improving energy efficiency. Therefore, six energy efficient educational building design or construction cases were selected to review. The published information about chosen cases was collected via
9
the internet while detailed unpublished information was obtained through semi structured and qualitative interviews by email contacts and phone calls.
Data was also sought from other secondary sources such as several literatures including books, articles, master theses and doctoral dissertations on the subject of various types of energy efficient and sustainable buildings as well as proposed and implemented design solutions were reviewed to gain an understanding about energy efficient building concepts and characteristics.
Secondly, different approaches adopted to enhance energy efficiency in buildings specifically with consideration to their relevance to warm climates were studied.
1.7.1 ANALYSIS OF COLLECTED DATA
At the first stage, the boundary for data analysis was limited to architectural design aspects of applied energy efficient solutions. Data on utilized solutions in each case were scrutinized to understand why and how they are used.
At the next stage, a wider boundary for data analysis was used to assess the energy efficient building as a system comprising the use of energy efficient technical solutions as a main process. Therefore, each technical solution was reviewed in all relevant cases as a sub-process.
At this phase, it was necessary to assess some inputs to these sub-processes such as policies and related regulations, energy efficient products and know-how. Besides, the relevant costs and energy saving were reviewed as the outputs of the whole process. This generalization of specific data led to the drawing of the main conclusions from this study.
C 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
A STUDY ON PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES AS AN EFFECTIVE TOOL IN THE DESIGN OF SUSTAINABLE LEARNING SPACES
This review studies the idea of learning spaces in the 21st century and the effect of sustainable
design strategies on the learning environment in higher institutions. As a first step, this chapter
discusses the history of animation, the features of an animation institute and its importance; then
proceeds to discuss changes in learning spaces in the 21st century and concludes with a study on
how sustainable design can be used to improve the learning landscape in higher institutions.
In order to acquire an in depth understanding of the research, some key operational words that
make up the topic are defined;
1. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE: This is a research or training organization that is
sometimes part of a university or an autonomous school.
2. ANIMATION: This is the generation of animated images by using computer graphics, for
education and leisure.
3. SUSTAINABLE DESIGN: Sustainable Design is a fully integrated, “whole building”
approach to design, construction, and operation. Sustainable buildings, also referred to as
green or high performance buildings, are designed to: provide optimal environmental and
economic performance; increase efficiencies thereby saving energy, water, and other
resources; furnish satisfying, productive, and quality indoor spaces; use environmentally
preferable materials; and educate building occupants about efficiency and conservation.
4. LEARNING; for the purposes of this review, learning is defined broadly as education;
training or learning intended to equip persons to develop knowledge and skills in learners
in order to operate successfully in the world of work. 12
5. LEARNING SPACES; for the purposes of this review, a learning space is an assigned
territory in physical and virtual space, where some method of exploration and/or collation
of facts and details is being conducted.
2.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF ANIMATION
Animation is a graphic representation of drawings to show movement within those drawings. A series of drawings are linked together and usually photographed by a camera. The drawings are slightly changed between individualized frames so when they are played back in rapid succession
(24-30 frames per second) there appears to be seamless movement within the drawings. Picture animation was invented in 1831 by Joseph Antoine Plateau. Other Pioneers of animation include
Winsor McCay and Walt Disney of the United States and Emile Cohl and Georges Melies of
France. Some consider McCay's Sinking of the Lusitania of 1918 as the first animated feature film.
Plate 2.1: A scene from Micky Mouse, one of Walt Disney’s animated films in the 1930s.
Source: www.thewaltdisneycompany.com, 2013. 13
Early animations, which started appearing before 1910, consisted of simple drawings photographed one at a time. It was extremely labor intensive as there were literally hundreds of drawings per minute of film. The development of celluloid around 1913 quickly made animation easier to manage. Instead of numerous drawings, the animator now could make a complex background and/or foreground and sandwich moving characters in between several other pieces of celluloid, which is transparent except for where drawings are painted on it. This made it unnecessary to repeatedly draw the background as it remained static and only the characters moved. It also created an illusion of depth, especially if foreground elements were placed in the frames.
Walt Disney took animation to a new level. He was the first animator to add sound to his movie cartoons with the premiere of Steamboat Willie in 1928. In 1937, he produced the first full length animated feature film, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (see Plate 2.2).
Plate 2.2: A scene from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
Source: www.wall.alphacoders.com, 2013.
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With the introduction of computers, animation took on a whole new meaning. Many feature films of today had animation incorporated into them for special effects. A film like Star Wars by George
Lucas relied heavily on computer animation for many of its special effects.
Toy Story, produced by Walt Disney Productions and Pixar Animation Studios, became the first full length feature film animated entirely on computers when it was released in 1995. This film was the first to be created using 100% CGI (Computer Generated Imagery). Many have been completed since, but Toy Story was the film that broke the mould, using the voices of real actors, the animators not only created realistic animation, but for 90 minutes, immersed the audience in a computer created universe which seemed as real as day to day life. The film cost a whopping $30 million to create, the most expensive animated film at that point in history. However, to this day the film has a made a magnificent $361,958,736 worldwide and that number is still rising.
In 2009, animation took on a whole new challenge and passed with flying colours. The film
AVATAR created a fully immerseable 3d universe (plate 2.3)
Plate 2.3: Poster of the 3D animation movie ‘AVATAR’ released in 2009 Source: www.lightmasterstudios.co.uk, 2013 15
The animated characters were played by human actors whom wore specially designed equipment that recognized facial and body movements, this is called motion capture. The animated film cost a total $450 million to create and promote. When you consider that this is more than Toy Story has made since its release, this figure is staggering. The fact that the film has made this money back and smashed box office records worldwide has shown that it was a success. The film, currently, has made $2,782,275,172 worldwide, and the number is still growing. The film is seen as the future of cinema, and the closest we have come yet to projecting human imagination onto big screen.
2.2. ANIMATION AND GAMING INSTITUTES –A BRIEF OVERVIEW
Animation and gaming schools are created to consistently provide specialized career training in the art and science of computer animation and visual effects as it relates to motion pictures, television and games. Computer animation and visual effects for gaming and film are exciting fields for those with the right blend of talent and skill. This can make a huge difference in a student's development. Every lesson plan is based on objectives faced by professionals on a daily basis.
Plate 2.4: Students in a studio within an animation institute. Source: SCAD, Hong Kong, 2013 16
Animation institutes exist to prepare talented students for professional careers, emphasizing learning through individual attention in a positively oriented university environment. Admission is offered in the Associates, Bachelors or Master’s program. Prospective students may have completed senior secondary school, with a basic knowledge of computer applications, though students can still be admitted without this since most institutes are built on the educational philosophy that all students interested in studying art and design deserve the opportunity to do so.
The aim of the proposed institute is to stimulate the development of a new creative environment in which animation art can grow - locally rooted but international in vision. This will be followed by the promotion of further animation education and academic research. In pursuit of these aims, three goals have been identified:
Training a new generation of talented animators.
Combination of humanist tradition and animation techniques to create a fresh new image
for Nigerian animation
Expansion of the broadcasting and educational role of animation, promoting further media
and art culture
In addition, it is also hoped that the establishment of the Graduate Institute of Animation will serve to promote closer interaction between the traditional Nigerian animation industry and international computer animation industries and academia, in response to the arrival of a new era of animation and media art in the 21st Century.
2.2.1 CORE DEPARTMENTS WITHIN THE PROPOSED INSTITUTE
The two main departments to be provided within the proposed institute are; the school of animation and cartoon, and the school of gaming. Their functions are enumerated below; 17
a. The School of Animation & cartoon;
The Animation and cartoon school is the largest in most colleges. It trains students on; Set animation design, layout design, cartoon, 3D animation and other professional applications.
Students are also trained with knowledge needed to master the basic skills of the Movie/TV
Animation design. Graduates from this department could work in Movie/TV networks, publishing
firms, advertising and other units engaged in media production.
b. The school of gaming
In this school, students are trained to; Set up game visual arts, digital visual effects and other
professional applications. Lessons are also taught on multimedia integration, lighting, color,
texture, animation and other skills. They are also taught have team management ability in visual
effects projects, to enable them coordinate inter-disciplinary contributions during production.
2.2.2 CURRICULUM
The program includes courses ranging from traditional character animation to stop motion and
computer animation. The first year courses promote teamwork and emphasize on animation
history, basic training in traditional character animation, and stop motion animation. The second
year courses direct students in adapting technology and emphasize on computer and experimental
animation, meanwhile cultivating students’ independent working abilities. The third year courses
encourage students in pursuing social and educational function of the art. To enrich the program,
professionals of the field from around the world will be invited regularly for lecturing and
academic exchange. This program requires three years of study, a total of 60 credits minimum.
Required courses are Animation History and Research Method. Required workshop courses are
Character Animation, Stop Motion Animation, Computer Animation, and Experimental 18
Animation. In addition, Group Project, Independent Project, and Thesis Project are required under the guidance of project advisors.
2.2.3 IMPORTANCE OF ANIMATION INSTITUTES
Animating something means giving life to it. The easiest way to make something look alive is to make it move. However it is very difficult to make artificial objects look very lifelike just by making them move, because the motion of an object is very complex and difficult to model.
Different animation software like 3ds max, Macromedia and Maya are used to make animation easier.
The importance of any school to the society is seen in the works of students graduating from it.
Therefore the, importance of the institute is appreciated in the various applications of animated films produced within its territory. These applications include; a.) CARTOONS
The most common use of animation, and perhaps the origin of it, is cartoons. Cartoons appear all the time on television and the cinema and can be used for entertainment, advertising, presentations and many more applications that are only limited by the imagination of the designer. The most important factor about making cartoons on a computer is reusability and flexibility. The system that will actually do the animation needs to be such that all the actions that are going to be performed can be repeated easily, without much fuss from the side of the animator. Speed here is not of real importance, as once the sequence is complete; it can be recorded on film or video, frame by frame and played back at an acceptable speed. 19
b.) SIMULATIONS
Many times it is much cheaper to train people to use certain machines on a virtual environment (i.e. on a computer simulation), than to actually train them on the machines themselves. Simulations of all types that use animation are supposed to respond to real-time stimuli, and hence the events that will take place are non-deterministic. The response to real-time stimuli requires a fast response and the non-determinism, requires a fast system to deal with it. This means that speed is the most important factor in simulation systems. c.) SCIENTIFIC VISUALIZATION
Graphical visualization is very common in all areas of science. The usual form that it takes is x-y plots and when things get more complicated three dimensional graphs are used. However there are many cases that something are more complex to be visualized in a three dimensional plot, even if that has been enhanced with some other effect (e.g. colour). Here is where animation comes in.
Data is represented in multiple images (frames) which differ a little from each other, and displayed one after the other to give the illusion of motion. This adds a fourth dimension and increases the information conveyed. Speed here is again the most important factor, as huge sets of data might have to be displayed in real-time. Someone might argue, that results may be filmed and played back, but that depends on how often the sequence has to be recalculated.
The uses of scientific visualization can be classified into two main categories: analysis and teaching. Both of these are described below;
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i. Analysis And Understanding
Very frequently, scientists have large sets of data (often in the form of lists of numbers) that need to be understood and often a theory needs to be formulated that explains their relationship. It would be very difficult to go through these lists manually or otherwise and make any sense out of them, unless some graphical technique is used for the initial approach. If the data set is massive, a short
(or long) animation of the data can give the scientists a first idea of how to approach the situation.
ii. Teaching And Communicating
One of the most difficult aspects of teaching is communicating ideas effectively. When this becomes too difficult using the classical teaching tools (speech, blackboard etc.) animation can be used to convey information. From its nature, an animation sequence contains much more information than a single image or page of text. This, and the fact that an animation can be very pleasing to the eye, makes animation the perfect tool for learning.
2.2.4 KEY LEARNING SPACES IN AN ANIMATION INSTITUTE
Animation institutes contain a variety of non-conventional learning landscapes that point the way
to future design and planning of higher institution environments. Below is a list of learning spaces
in a typical animation institute;
i. The Learning Lab
Students beginning their training find themselves in the Learning Lab. The Learning Lab is
arranged in a traditional classroom seating plan with a computer workstation for each student.
Students start their training on workstations complete with industry-standard technology. All 21
systems are equipped with battery backups and utilize software from companies such as NewTek,
Autodesk, Pixologic, Adobe, The Foundry, Pixelfarm, and Vicon.
Plate 2.5; Traditional learning lab Source: The Dave School, Florida. 2012.
ii. The Studio Lab
Students meet in the Studio Lab the second half of the school year. This setting is a more
collaborative environment similar to a working animation or design studio. Workstations found in
this lab are real workhorses that can handle most anything thrown at them and are equipped for
both video editing and DVD authoring.
Plate 2.6; Traditional Studio lab Source: The Dave School, Florida. 2012.
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iii. The Shooting Stage
Visual effects courses and projects require shooting scenes and elements on a Green Screen stage.
A stage with a permanent 60 by 25 foot seamless L-shaped chroma key green cyclorama is usually installed with a lighting rig using Keno-Flow lights. Keno-Flow is the industry standard for Green
Screen photography and compositing.
Plate. 2.7; Traditional Shooting Stage Source: The Dave School, Florida. 2012.
iv. The Motion Capture Studio
Motion Capture is a process where an actor wears a special suit covered with sensors. These reflective sensors, in conjunction with multiple cameras, are used to record the actor's motion data to the computer, which is then applied to a computer animated character. Motion Capture can be used in Visual Effects to populate the deck of a computer generated ship (Titanic), in video games to animate characters (Call of Duty: Modern Warfare), or to bring an animated creature to life
(Cesar in Rise of the Planet of the Apes).
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Plate. 2.8; Traditional Motion Capture Studio Source: The Dave School, Florida. 2012.
v. 3D Lecture Theatre
Most lectures and guest presentations take place in our lecture theater. Part of the curriculum
includes film study and project analysis; therefore the theater is equipped with a stereo sound
system and a stereoscopic 3D projector system.
Plate. 2.9; Traditional 3D Lecture Theater Source: The Dave School, Florida. 2012.
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Computer Animation is definitely the ultimate tool of the future, with animation institutes as
‘power houses’. Its popularity is increasing in the area of entertainment, but scientific visualization is the application that will utilize animation to all of its extent.
Animation institutes requires efficient and comfortable learning environment to be able to function properly. The design of such learning spaces in the face of technological advancements of the 21st century requires an understanding of the changes in the learning environment.
2.3 LEARNING SPACES; what do we know about them?
What does the term learning space mean? Why not use classroom instead? As recently as a decade ago, classrooms were the primary locus for learning in higher education. Other spaces included the library, the faculty office (for individual mentoring), and perhaps the cybercafé in town. But classrooms were by far the single most important space for learning.
Since then, a great deal has changed. The World Wide Web has emerged as the primary way most people use the Internet. The Web has spawned a wealth of new, network-based applications, from digital music stores to new venues for scholarly publishing. Indeed, the availability of network access, in one form or another, is today almost taken for granted. Handheld devices have acquired a growing set of functions, providing a telephone, a digital camera, and an operating system running a variety of applications. Laptop prices have declined while increasing in functionality— to the point that their use exceeds that of desktops for most students.
These developments impact the locus of learning in higher education. The notion of the classroom has both expanded and evolved; virtual space has taken its place alongside physical space. 25
Plate. 2.10: Peer Informal learning groups is increasingly popular in higher institutions Source: www.fastcodesign.com, 2013
The resources used in higher education are increasingly digital and delivered via the network. In
addition, network connectivity is increasingly portable. These two developments make it possible
for learning to happen informally, in areas outside the traditional classroom, library, and faculty
office. Student project teams can meet outside on the green, in a lounge, in any campus café—and
they can meet almost any time of day. With wireless networking, numerous digital devices, and
longer battery life, we are closer than ever to realizing the goal of fully ubiquitous access. This
means that learning, too, can occur anytime and anywhere.
Net Gen students, using a variety of digital devices, can turn almost any space outside the
classroom into an informal learning space. Similar to the traditional classroom, educators have an
important opportunity to rethink and redesign these non-classroom spaces to support, encourage,
and extend students' learning environment. 26
The JISC report argues that “a learning space should be able to motivate learners and promote learning as an activity; support collaborative, as well as formal, practice; provide a personalized and inclusive environment; and be flexible in the face of changing needs”(JISC, 2006). It states that the design of individual spaces within an educational building needs to be:
• Flexible – to accommodate current and evolving pedagogies;
• Future proofed – to enable space to be reallocated and reconfigured;
• Bold – to look beyond tried and tested technologies and pedagogies;
• Creative – to energize and inspire learners and tutors;
• Supportive – to develop the potential of all learners; and
• Enterprising – to make each space capable of supporting different purposes.
By looking at the campus as a connected learning experience it is possible to strategically
understand the balance and mix of learning space. A new model called the Places for Learning
Spectrum begins to consider this continuum and develops a dialogue to discuss any space on
campus (Figure 2.1). 27
Figure. 2.1: Learning Spectrum.
Source: JISC, 2006.
Campuses need to be contemplated as a complete network of connected learning environments. In
this framework the process of learning does not exist singularly but rather it happens within a range
of different types of pedagogies, spaces and technologies. This learning space continuum has two
types of conditions at its extremities; wholly independent self-directed unstructured learning at
one end and structured teacher-led didactic learning environments at the other. Within this range
a spectrum of other pedagogies, spaces and technologies provide an effective learning framework.
This model looks at an institution as a whole and rather than it being made up of a series of learning
silos we consider space as a highly connected network of places for learning. This model proposes 28
that every square meter has the potential to support the learning process and so every coffee shop, every corridor; every courtyard is incorporated into the design.
2.3.1 PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING SPACES
Learning spaces could then be delineated in particular ways, seen as bounded by time, place,
institutional and disciplinary culture. However, work by Deleuze and Guattari is helpful in
examining learning spaces from a different perspective to those already considered in this chapter.
They argue for smooth and striated learning spaces. For them the notion of smooth space is one of
becoming, it is a nomadic space where the movement is more important than the arrival. Whereas
in a striated space, the focal point is one of arrival, arrival at the point towards which one is
oriented: ‘in striated space, lines or trajectories tend to be subordinated to points: one goes from
one point to another. In the smooth, it is the opposite: the points are subordinated to the trajectory’
(Deleuze and Guattari, 1988: 478). Striated learning spaces and smooth learning spaces are
depicted below in somewhat stark utopian terms in order to illustrate their difference. However,
there is doubtless more overlap than is immediately suggested here.
i.) Striated/Traditional Learning Spaces:
Plate. 2.11: Striated/Traditional Teaching Space Source: Scott Burrows, Aperture Architectural Photography 29
These spaces are characterized by a strong sense of organization and boundedness. Learning in such spaces is epitomized though course attendance, defined learning places such as lecture theatres and classrooms, and with the use of (often set) books. These spaces may not be necessarily located in an institution – the learning spaces may be in the work place. However, what is common to these kinds of spaces is the strong sense of authorship, a sense of clear definition, of outcomes, of a point that one is expected to reach. Such spaces are therefore authored in design (whether inked or virtual) and in the way they are enacted in classroom practices, with a sense of subordination to a body of knowledge and the power of the expert. In such spaces students will be expected, for example, to take notes in lectures and learn and subsume disciplinary practices, rather than challenge them.
ii.) Smooth learning spaces
Plate. 2.12; Smooth learning spaces Source; Scott Burrows, Aperture Architectural Photography 30
Figure 2.2 : Prototype design for smooth Teaching Space Source; AMA Alexi Marmot Associates
Smooth learning spaces are open, flexible and contested spaces in which both learning and learners
are always on the move. Students here would be encouraged to contest knowledge and ideas
proffered by lecturers and in doing so create their own stance toward knowledge(s). Yet the
movement is not towards a given trajectory, instead, there is a sense of displacement of notions of
time and place so that the learning space is not defined, but becomes defined by the creator of the
space. The location of learning spaces in a variety of sites and spheres results in the learner and 31
learning being displaced from and within striated contexts, and therefore such displacement might be seen by some academics and managers as dubious and risky.
Students located in smooth spaces may be seen as a threat to the stability of disciplinary practices because their disjunction will prompt them to question what is allowed and disallowed within the discipline. For this reason smooth learning spaces are often seen as suspect, or as privileged spaces for the undisciplined. However, this is not to say that striated spaces cannot contain smooth spaces, yet when they do this presents difficulties about the relationship between the two spaces and the relative value of each.
2.4 TYPES OF LEARNING SPACES IN A HIGHER INSTITUTION
The Scottish Funding Council’s recent study of learning spaces, carried out by the Alexi Marmot
Associates architectural practice and the Haa design consultancy (SFC, 2006), argues that seven
types of learning space could be identified in further and higher education. These space types were
for:
1. Group Teaching and Learning; where flexible furniture arrangements were needed to
accommodate groups of varying sizes, using varying layouts, preferably in square rather
than rectangular rooms (the former being more adaptable).
2. Simulated environments; where practical learning can take place in technological
subjects requiring space for observation as well as for performing the task in hand. 32
3. Immersive environments; such as “HIVEs” (highly interactive virtual environments),
with advanced ICT, possible in many subjects but more likely to be found in scientific or
technological ones.
4. Peer-to-peer environments; where informal learning can take place, for example in cyber
cafes.
5. Clusters; where student group work can take place, for example in learning centres.
6. Individual Work; in quiet areas.
Plate. 2.13; using furniture to create spaces for individual work
7. External Work – areas outside the building suitable for individual or small group activity.
2.5 LEARNING THEORY: (A look on how higher education students approach
learning in 21st century Nigeria);
A shift in the teaching and learning paradigm is well under way in higher institutions in Nigeria,
moving away from a transmission paradigm to a constructivist paradigm. In the 20th century, basic
literacy skills included reading, writing, and calculation. Knowing meant being able to remember 33
and repeat, which was appropriate to an industrial age in which practices changed slowly. Workers anticipated having a single profession for the duration of their working lives. Education in Nigeria was based on a factory-like, "one size fits all" model. Talent was developed by weeding out those
who could not do well in a monochromatic learning environment.
The 21st century is characterized by rapid change. Literary skills in schools now include critical
thought, persuasive expression, and the ability to solve complex scientific and organizational
problems. ‘Knowing’ now means using a well-organized set of facts to find new information and to solve novel problems. In the 20th century, learning consisted largely of memorization; today it
relies chiefly on understanding.
This shift has come about partly due the emergence of a constructivist theory of learning. Stated
simply, this theory holds that; “Learners construct knowledge by understanding new information
building on their current understanding and expertise.”
Constructivists contradict the idea that learning is the transmission of content to a passive receiver.
Instead, it views learning as an active process, always based on the learner's current understanding
or intellectual paradigm. Knowledge is constructed by assimilating new information into the
learner's knowledge paradigm. A learner does not come to a classroom or a course Web site with
a mind that is a tabula rasa, a blank slate. Each learner arrives at a learning "site" with some
preexisting level of understanding.
Knowledge exists at multiple levels, ranging from novice to expert. It is the sophistication and
depth of this understanding that differentiates experts from novices. Experts have a deep and rich
set of well-organized facts, as well as the capacity to use that understanding to solve problems in 34
their fields of expertise. Novices lack that depth and, as a result, have a much harder time solving problems.
The constructivist theory has important implications. The theory implies that learning is best served when it is:
Contextual—taking into account the student's understanding
Active—engaging students in learning activities that use analysis, debate, and criticism (as
opposed to simply memorization) to receive and test information.
Social—using discussions, direct interaction with experts and peers, and team-based
projects
Problem-based learning, which encourages learners to construct knowledge based on the
experience of solving problems, is significantly different from methods such as recall and
repetition. This is but one of many ways the older, traditional teaching paradigm contrasts with the
learning paradigm. Table 2.1 summarizes some other important ways these two paradigms differ.
Table 2.1; Differences in the Teaching and Learning Paradigms
Traditional Paradigm Constructivist Paradigm
"Teaching" "Learning"
Memorization Understanding
Recall Discovery
One size fits all Tailored; option rich
Talent via weeding out Talent cultivated and sought out
Repetition Transfer and construction 35
Acquisition of facts Facts + conceptual framework
Isolated facts Organized conceptual schemas
Transmission Construction
Teacher = master and commander Teacher = expert and mentor
Fixed roles Mobile roles
Fixed classrooms Mobile, convertible classrooms
Single location Plurality of locations and space types
Summative assessment Summative and formative assessment
2.6 IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING THEORY ON THE DESIGN OF
LEARNING SPACES IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS
The convergence of the learning paradigm, IT, and the Net Generation students is occurring now at colleges and universities. There are a number of implications of learning theory for learning spaces namely;
1. Current and future planning must encompass and encourage this convergence by thinking
of learning spaces (classroom, informal, virtual) as a single, integrated environment. We
should connect what happens in the classroom with what happens in informal and virtual
spaces.
2. The vision and design principles should emphasize the options students have as active
participants in the learning process. Design principles should include terms such
as analyze, create, criticize, debate, present, and classify—all directed at what the space
enables the students to do. 36
3. Learning spaces should accommodate the use of as many kinds of materials as possible
and enable the display of and access to those materials by all participants. Learning space
needs to provide the participants—instructors and students alike—with interactive tools
that enable exploration, probing, and examination. This might include a robust set of
applications installed on the computer that controls the room's displays, as well as a set of
communication tools. Since the process of examination and debate leads to discovery and
the construction of new knowledge, it could be important to equip spaces with devices that
can capture classroom discussion and debate, which can be distributed to all participants
for future reference and study.
4. Learning does not stop once the instructor has left the classroom. Instead, the end of the
class meeting marks a transition from one learning mode to another. As a result, institutions
must address real and virtual spaces outside the classroom to ensure that they, too,
encourage learning.
5. The design of "neutral" spaces, such as hallways and corridors, could be rethought and re-
equipped to promote learning.
6. Informal learning spaces—those outside the classrooms—present particularly intriguing
opportunities for pioneering and cultivating new teaching and learning practices. These
spaces, while informal, are key areas for student academic work. Students spend far more
time in these spaces than they do in formal classrooms. Research, Web browsing, writing,
statistical analysis, and compiling lab reports all take place in the library, study hall, media
center, dorm room, and learning commons. Because of their enthusiasm for IT and their
experiential, hands-on approach to learning tasks, Net Gen students will easily "tune into"
the virtual aspects of informal spaces. Well-designed and integrated physical layouts and
IT "tool sets" will find a ready audience with Net Gen students. 37
2.7 FUNCTIONS OF LEARNING SPACES IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS;
An educational building is an expensive long-term resource. The design of its individual spaces needs to be:
Flexible – to accommodate both current and evolving pedagogies
Future-proofed – to enable space to be re-allocated and reconfigured
Bold – to look beyond tried and tested technologies and pedagogies
Creative – to energize and inspire learners and tutors
Supportive – to develop the potential of all learners
Enterprising – to make each space capable of supporting different purposes
A learning space should be able to motivate learners and promote learning as an activity, support
collaborative as well as formal practice, provide a personalized and inclusive environment, and be
flexible in the face of changing needs.
An efficient 21st century learning space should perform the following functions;
I. Motivation
Well-designed learning spaces should have a motivational effect. Learning areas infused with
natural light, for example, provide an environment that is easy and pleasurable to work in. Wireless
connectivity within a brightly lit atrium, learning café or open-plan social area will encourage
engagement in learning, and instill a desire to continue activities beyond timetabled classes.
Involving learners in aspects of the design is important. This signals that they can have a measure
of control over the learning environment and over their own learning. The Stevenage Centre at
North Hertfordshire College UK, for example, introduced digital local radio transmissions in 38
learning zones within the internet café at the request of students accustomed to working with background sound.
II. Collaboration
Learners have been shown to benefit academically from social interaction with their peers. Open-
plan informal learning areas provide individualized learning environments which also support
collaborative activities, and they can often be created from previously underutilized spaces. An
example is the internet café. In many institutions, entrance spaces now include open-access IT
areas with refreshments and informal seating. Utilization data have proved the worth of such areas
– their value lies in the way they encourage learning through dialogue, problem solving and
information sharing in the most supportive of contexts.
III. Personalization and Inclusion
Barriers surrounding the use of IT are being re-assessed and priority given to enabling, rather than
controlling, access to learning. Technology-enabled learning will not be achieved without cost.
However, institutions in all parts of the sector are exploring the use of password-enabled wireless
local area networks (WLANs), laptop loan schemes and 24/7 access to digital resources in
technology-rich learning centers and through virtual learning environments (VLEs). Another
significant trend is to adopt a more customer-focused and permissive approach, backed up by
learning space design that encourages self-regulation. Greater maturity among IT users has been
promoted by integrating IT into day-to-day activities, installing bookable and open-access
computers in previously underutilized locations along circulation routes and in social areas, for
example. Learning and information sharing then become seen as an integral part of everyday life.
Flexible furniture and wider doorways meet the needs of a variety of learners, not only wheelchair
users. Audiovisual cues and changes in furniture layout can assist learners’ navigation around a 39
building, and help them to adjust their behavior according to the purpose of the space. These represent shifts in attitude that welcome and support all types of learners and promote different ways of learning.
IV. Flexibility
Following two decades of rapid technological change and increasing student numbers, flexibility
in the design of learning spaces has become essential. Technologies that are as far as possible
mobile and wireless will support a wider variety of pedagogic approaches, and make those spaces
more easily re-purposed. But the ultimate in flexibility – large open-plan centers in which both
learning and teaching take place – still present challenges in management of sound, heat and
student activity, and a mix of formal and informal learning spaces is still more frequently chosen.
Furniture plays a significant role in enabling a learning environment to be flexible. To achieve this
goal, institutions have frequently invested in bespoke furniture design. However, even where
standard furniture is used, combinations of circular and oblong tables, or palette chairs, as opposed
to standard ones, will establish preferred uses of that space, so even in the most constrained
circumstances, consideration of room layout and choice of furniture can make a significant
difference to learning outcomes. Learners can be reluctant to change an inherited configuration,
even when self-management of the space is encouraged, so they are likely to adopt the mode of
learning signaled by the existing layout and type of furniture.
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2.8 DESIGNING SUSTAINABLE LEARNING SPACES FOR EFFECTIVE
LEARNING
Sustainable building design is a fully integrated; “whole building” approach to design, construction, renovation, and operation. This approach differs from the traditional design/build process, as the design team examines the integration of all building components and systems and determines how they best work together to save energy and reduce environmental impact.
Consideration is given to site selection, architectural design, building method and materials, and landscaping practices for both new buildings and those undergoing improvements.
Sustainable schools also referred to as green or high performance schools benefit the outdoor environment, the indoor environment, and the students, teachers, and administrators who study and work in these buildings. These schools are energy and water efficient and make use of passive renewable energy and green materials to the fullest extent possible. These schools provide environmental benefits through reduced pollution and reduced landfill waste. Sustainable schools have also proven to be cost neutral in upfront costs compared to traditional construction and are much less costly to operate over the life of the building. Sustainable building practices provide optimally safe, healthy, comfortable, and productive learning environments for students and pleasant working environments for faculty and staff. If students are uncomfortable or distracted by poor lighting, heating, cooling, ventilation and noise, their ability to learn will suffer. It only makes sense: a safe, healthy, comfortable environment for students, teachers, and staff will benefit
student performance.
Two elements of sustainable building design, daylighting and indoor air quality, have direct effects
on student performance. Studies now show that better indoor air quality in schools results in
healthier students and faculty, which in turn results in lower absenteeism and further improves 41
student achievement (CHPS, 2003). Recent studies on the effect of daylighting in schools reveal that students perform better in day lit classrooms, as well as indicate the health benefits of daylighting. Passive design, by definition, makes use of day lighting principles and helps improve indoor air quality, which helps to eliminate conditions related to sick building syndrome and other building-related illnesses.
2.8.1 Daylighting and Student Performance
Daylighting reduces the need for electrical lighting and cooling, and can cut lifetime energy expenses by 30 to 70 percent. It also makes school buildings more attractive, and improves students’ health and productivity. Daylighting includes baffles, roof monitors, skylights, and clerestory structures, not just eyelevel windows. The design must bring in diffuse light, not direct sunlight, which adds heat.
Many of the classrooms built since the 1960’s have little daylighting. Schools windows were commonly built with “black glass” that allows a view out, but no useful daylight in, and many classrooms were designed with no windows at all. This was done to make air-conditioning more efficient, reduce external noise, lower maintenance costs and bolster security. More recently, schools are being built with more windows and lights, but the justification for natural lighting has in large part depended on subjective arguments.
The 1990s spurred numerous studies that have shown the positive effect that daylighting has on student performance. The 1992 "Study into the Effects of Light on Children of Elementary School
Age: A Case of Daylight Robbery" was conducted in Alberta, Canada by the Policy and Planning
Branch of Alberta Education. Over a two-year period, the study compared children attending 42
elementary schools with full spectrum light versus children attending similar schools with normal lighting conditions.
The two-year study found that students under full spectrum light with trace ultraviolet (Hathaway, et al., 1992): learned faster, tested higher, grew faster and had 2/3 fewer cavities than expected, and had 1/3 fewer absences due to illness (3.5 fewer days absent per year).
Plate. 2.14; Day lighting in learning spaces Source: Turner Construction Company, March 15, 2011.
In 1999, the Heschong Mahone Group (HMG) completed a study for Pacific Gas & Electric
(PG&E) and the California Board for Energy Efficiency on the effect of daylighting on human
performance—one of the largest and most rigorous studies investigating the relationship between
daylighting and student performance. The study found that students in classrooms with the most
daylighting progressed faster and cored higher on standardized tests than students in students with
the least daylighting. Student performance data for over 21,000 students from three elementary
school districts in Orange County, California, Seattle, Washington, and Fort Collins, Colorado was 43
compared to the amount of daylight provided by each student’s classroom environment. At the
Capistrano school district in Orange County, California, students with the most daylighting in their classrooms progressed 20 percent faster on math tests and 26 percent faster on reading tests in one year than those with the least daylighting. Students in classrooms with the largest window areas progressed 15 percent faster in math and 23 percent faster in reading than those with the least window area. Also, students in classrooms where windows could be opened progressed 7-8 percent faster than students with fixed windows. These results occurred regardless of whether the classroom also had air conditioning.
HMG also found that student that had a well-designed skylight in their room, one that diffused the daylight throughout the room, and which allowed teachers to control the amount of daylight entering the room, progressed 19-20 percent faster than those students without a skylight (HMG,
1999). These results could be used to support more personal lighting controls in schools.
Administrators, teachers and students could be given control over the lighting dependent upon the
school environment in question.
Results for the Seattle and Fort Collins school districts showed positive and highly significant
effects for daylighting as well. Students in classrooms with the most daylighting were found to
have 7 percent to 18 percent higher scores than those with the least. The three school districts
analyzed have different curricula and teaching styles, different school building designs, and
different climates, and yet the results of the studies showed a uniformly positive and statistically
significant correlation between the presence of daylighting and better student test scores in all three
districts. This data consistency makes a persuasive argument that there is a valid and predictable
effect of daylighting on student performance. 44
In 2001, HMG published a re-analysis of its 1999 report. A panel of experts reviewed the original study and was generally satisfied with the soundness of the methodology and the rigor of the statistical analysis.
The reanalysis effort confirmed and expanded the original results that demonstrated daylight has a positive and highly significant association with improved student performance. The researchers reanalyzed the 1997–1998 school year student performance data from the Capistrano Unified
School District (California) and the Seattle Public School District (Washington) to answer
questions from the peer review panel. The reanalysis findings were as follows (HMG, 2001):
Overall, elementary school students in classrooms with the most daylight showed a 21%
improvement in learning rates compared to students in classrooms with the least daylight.
A teacher survey and teacher bias analysis found no assignment bias that might have
skewed the original results; more experienced or more educated teachers (“better” teachers)
were not significantly more likely to be assigned to classrooms with more daylighting.
A grade level analysis found that the daylighting effect does not vary by grade.
An absenteeism analysis found that physical classroom characteristics (daylighting,
operable windows, air conditioning, and portable classrooms) did not have an effect on
student absenteeism. (This seems to contradict claims that have been made about the health
effects of daylight or other environmental conditions, as reflected in absenteeism rates of
building occupants, as well as the 1992 Alberta, Canada study mentioned above.)
The results of these studies, along with a rising interest in “natural” and “healthy” sustainable
environments, have contributed to a resurgent interest in daylighting in schools, and have
important implications for the use of daylighting in the design of schools and other buildings.
45
2.8.2 INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
Air quality concerns are magnified for indoor environments; U.S. EPA studies indicate that indoor
air pollutants may be two to five times and sometimes up to 100 times higher than the air outdoors
(U.S. EPA, 2000). The significant amount of time that students and teachers spend inside schools,
underscores the importance of good indoor air quality.
Poor indoor air quality can trigger symptoms including: headache, fatigue, shortness of breath,
sinus congestion, cough, sneezing, eye, nose, and throat irritation, skin irritation, dizziness, and
nausea, as well as trigger asthma attacks and allergic reactions, spread disease, and expose
occupants to toxic substances.
These symptoms are collectively referred to as "sick building syndrome" (SBS), a term used to
describe situations in which building occupants experience acute health and comfort effects that
appear to be linked to time spent in a building, but no specific illness or cause can be identified. In
contrast, the term "building related illness" (BRI) is used when symptoms of diagnosable illness
are identified (e.g. certain allergies or infections) and can be attributed directly to airborne building
contaminants (CHPS, 2003, U.S. EPA, 2003).
While the health impacts of poor indoor air quality are well documented, there is little causal
research available that is specific to SBS and student performance. However, school administrators
can recognize the logical inference that the physical wellbeing of students, as well as the faculty
and staff, is an important factor in increasing student performance. 46
Plate 2.15: Students in a social learning space within an animation institute. Source; SCAD, Hong Kong, 2013
Schools with good indoor air quality are also likely to have high teacher retention rates and will spend less on substitute teachers to replace sick members of the staff. This can improve continuity in school programs and provide students with higher quality education (CDSA, 2003).
Research on asthma in school children by Smedje and Norback confirmed that asthma prevalence in schools is associated with elements of poor air quality: higher relative air humidity, higher concentrations of volatile organic compounds, and mold or bacteria. Smedje and Norback also found that reported asthmatic symptoms were less common in schools that had installed a new ventilation system, as the new system resulted in higher air-exchange rates, lower concentrations of several airborne pollutants, and lower relative humidity. Further evidence suggests that lower outdoor air ventilation rates, known to cause generally higher concentrations of the pollutants produced indoors, were related to reduce performance among occupants (Wargocki, 2000;
Smedje, 1997). 47
Two major sources of indoor air quality problems are Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
(HVAC) systems, and contaminants. The HVAC system controls the circulation of air throughout a building, the introduction of fresh air into the mix, and the filtration of airborne particles. Poorly ventilated or seldom cleaned, these systems can pump contaminants through a building again and again. One of the most common pollutants contributing to these effects is mold, which can significantly impact health, but also contributes to significant building bio-deterioration and premature aging of a building’s mechanical systems. Problems can also occur when a building is operated or maintained in a manner that is inconsistent with its original design or prescribed operating procedure (CHPS, 2003). Efficient mechanical and ventilation systems are needed to ensure adequate fresh air in all occupied areas and minimize collection of dirt, moisture, and microbial growth (U.S. DOE, 2001).
There is no debate that poor indoor air quality can impact the comfort and health of students and
staff, which in turn can affect concentration, attendance, student performance, and achievement.
Integrated design and construction helps address indoor air quality well before the site is even
selected. Highly efficient building systems that balance the exchange between indoor and outdoor
air do create a healthy building environment. But the benefits of integrated design and construction
arise only when schools establish “sustainable design” as a specific design goal for their building
project from the very beginning.
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2.9 BENEFITS OF SUSTAINABLE DESIGN STRATEGIES IN HIGHER
EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS
Using sustainable design strategies in higher educational school buildings can produce substantial energy, environmental, and economic benefits, including:
Reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other environmental impacts.
Improving energy efficiency in school buildings can help reduce GHG emissions and air
pollutants by decreasing consumption of fossil fuels. For example; fossil fuel combustion for
electricity generation accounts for 40 percent of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the US, a
principal GHG, and 67 percent and 23 percent of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NO2)
emissions, respectively, which can lead to smog, acid rain, and trace amounts of airborne particulate matter that can cause respiratory problems for many people (U.S. EPA, 2008; U.S.
EPA, 2008m).
Reduce energy costs.
Schools spend approximately $75 per student on gas bills and $130 per student on electricity each
year (U.S. EPA, 2008). Figure 2.3 provides a breakdown of energy consumption in schools at the
end of a session. By implementing passive energy efficiency measures, many schools have been
able to reduce energy costs by as much as 30 percent in existing facilities (U.S. EPA, 2004b).
According to EPA, modification of a pre-existing building for energy efficiency (a process known
as retro commissioning), can save a typical 100,000-square-foot school building between $10,000
and $16,000 annually, and simple behavioral and operational measures alone can reduce energy
costs by up to 25 percent (U.S. EPA, 2008). Schools that have earned the ENERGY STAR label
for superior energy performance cost $0.40 per square foot less to operate than conventional
schools (U.S. EPA, 2008b). 49
Figure 2.3: Breakdown of energy use in schools. Source: U.S DOE, 2006b.
Increase economic benefits through job creation and market development.
Investing in sustainable energy can stimulate the local economy and encourage development of
energy efficiency service markets. According to the Department of Energy (DOE), approximately
60 percent of energy efficiency investments go to labor costs, and half of all energy-efficient
equipment is purchased from local suppliers (U.S. DOE, 2004). Across the nation, energy
efficiency technologies and services are estimated to have created more than 8 million jobs in 2006
(ASES, 2008).
Improve student performance.
Green school building designs often use natural daylight to reduce the energy needed to light a
building. Natural light has also been proven to have a positive effect on student performance.
According to a study for the California Board for Energy Efficiency, students exposed to natural
daylight in classrooms progress as much as 20 percent faster on math tests and as much as 26
percent faster on reading tests than students with no daylight exposure (HMG, 1999). Another 50
study concluded that students in schools that offer systematic environmental education programs have higher test scores than students in schools with no such programs (U.S. EPA, 2008).
Improving energy efficiency in school buildings can also have the indirect benefit of improving
acoustic comfort (i.e., enabling effective communication by minimizing audible disturbance from
outside and inside), which can also lead to improved student performance (U.S. EPA, 2008).
Improve indoor air quality.
Some energy efficiency upgrades can improve occupant health by enhancing indoor air quality.
Installing energy recovery ventilation equipment, for example, can reduce infiltration of air
contaminants from outdoors while significantly reducing heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) energy loads (U.S. EPA, 2003). One study on building performance found the average
reduction in illness as a result of improved air quality in buildings is about 40 percent (Carnegie
Mellon, 2005).
Increase attendance.
An indirect benefit of energy efficiency measures in school buildings is an increase in school
attendance rates. According to an analysis for the State of Washington, incorporating green
building measures in school designs improves indoor air quality and can reduce absenteeism rates
by as much as 15 percent (Washington, 2005). Also, since many school operating budgets are
determined by average daily attendance, even a small reduction in absenteeism can save money
(CHPS, 2006).
From the literature analyzed, it has been established that sustainable design strategies can influence
educational buildings in the following ways;
Reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other environmental impacts.
Reduce energy costs. 51
Increase economic benefits through job creation and market development.
Improve student performance.
Improve indoor air quality.
Increase attendance.
This research seeks to enhance the efficiency of higher education learning spaces in the tropical climate of Enugu through the use of passive energy designs.
The facts encountered in the review uphold green design as an indispensable tool in educational buildings. This thought process is implemented in the design stage.
C 3
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
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3.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES: A Key to Sustainable Building Design
This chapter analyzes the process of harnessing passive energy in the design of sustainable buildings in tropical climates.
Passive design is the process by which buildings and spaces within are designed to benefit from
natural light, ventilation and temperatures (Level.org.nz, 2013). According to Cairns regional
Council- ‘Passive design is design that works with the environment to exclude unwanted heat or cold and take advantage of sun and breezes, therefore avoiding or minimising the need for mechanical heating or cooling’.
Passive design in the tropics means designing a building to make the most of natural light and cooling breezes, and using shading, orientation and appropriate building materials to reduce heat gain and storage. The use of passive design principles in the tropics results in a building that is comfortable, energy efficient and results in substantial savings in running costs of both cooling and lighting.These natural elements are referred to as passive energy. Simply put –
‘Passive design is the design of buildings and spaces within it to benefit from passive energy’.
In a physical sense, a passive system is one that uses only locally available energy sources and
utilizes the natural flow paths of that energy to produce work; In an architectural design sense, the
work that needs doing is usually the heating, cooling and lighting of enclosed spaces but, in more
recent times, the term passive design has moved beyond meaning simply 'using passive systems',
57 to encompass the general design of energy-efficient and low-energy buildings. In this modern world of compromise, the concept of passive design does not even exclude the use of low- energy active systems.
The following terms are also used synonymously with passive design; Bioclimatic architecture,
Green architecture/buildings, and low-tech sustainable design. All these terms are used to describe
buildings that are designed to suite climatic conditions.
In a bid to be more sustainable and eco-friendly, designers and architects often set goals as to what
percentage of energy savings they hope to achieve using passive design strategies and work
towards realizing them. A number of systems fall within the umbrella of passive energy. In fact,
there's a high probability that the structure you are in right now takes advantage of passive energy
in some form or another. For example, it may have shading on the east-facing windows if it is in
the tropics, so that it can prevent direct sunlight from heating up the living spaces. Many people
use passive energy unconsciously, as seen when people orient their furniture in a way which allows
them to take advantage of natural light and air instead of using artificial systems for cooling and
lighting. People have been using passive energy in construction for hundreds of years, with many
of the steps taken to harness this energy being common sense.
Structures specifically designed to be environmentally friendly often integrate passive systems as
part of their design. One great advantage of passive energy is that it usually does not require money
or energy for maintenance and function, which means that once the system is installed, it will work
for years. This is in contrast with active systems, which often require periodic replacement or
repair, and may demand regular maintenance.
58
Passive design guidelines vary depending on the climatic zone, and the challenges associated with the climate there. For example passive buildings in temperate regions look to conserve energy by increasing access to direct solar gain during winter periods to reduce heat loads, but buildings in the tropics conserve energy by shading from direct sunlight to reduce cooling loads.
3.1 SOURCES OF PASSIVE ENERGY
There are many sources of energy available locally within a building site. These include direct and diffuse radiation from the Sun, air movement from winds and temperature differences, biomass from vegetation, as well as geothermal and hydro-kinetic sources.
This does not mean that the site has to be covered in solar panels and huge wind turbines, with a massive concrete dam underneath and the occasional geyser spewing steam out of the ground.
Instead, windows can be designed to allow in natural light and heat from the Sun, and opened to cooling afternoon breezes. Rainwater can be collected from the roof and stored in the ceiling, using gravity to feed the taps and faucets below. Alternatively inlet air can be drawn through underground cavities providing some level of geothermal cooling.
Plate 3.1 Example of a Passive Building (good landscaping, shading and orientation) Source: http://www.essentialhabitat.com/passivehouse.html, 2014.
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Figure 3.1 Some Passive House Details Source: www.pinterest.com, 2014.
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The effective use of these low-grade energy sources in a building requires only some careful thought and a little innovative design. Many projects have shown that such buildings do not have to cost any more than less carefully designed buildings, and can be significantly cheaper to run.
3.2 UNDERSTANDING THE HOT-HUMID CLIMATE OF ENUGU: AN OVERVIEW
For the purpose of this research, the study focuses on passive design guidelines in the hot humid
(or tropical-moist) climate of Enugu state, Southern Nigeria, West Africa. Firstly, we explore the
climatic conditions in Enugu before proposing guidelines.
Figure 3.2 World map showing the climatic zone of Enugu. Source: Google Maps, 2014.
The following factors influence the climate of any place, they include; air temperature, wind
(velocity & direction), humidity, precipitation (as rain, frost, hail, snow, fog) and solar radiation,
- therefore the climatic condition of Enugu will be analysed based on them.
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Air Temperature: Annual temperature ranges in Enugu are as follows,
Maximum temp. = 27°c – 37°c
Minimum temp. = 21°c – 27°c.
(Source: NIMET, 2014)
It is important to note that the variation in temperatures during the rainy and dry season is
very narrow.
Humidity: Humidity remains high around 75% but varies from 55-85%. (Source:
NIMET, 2014)
Precipitation: The rainy season lasts approximately from April till October and is
accompanied by heavy humidity and strong rain falls. The southwestern winds bring heat
and humidity in the nights, and moderately hot but still humid weather during the day.
Heaviest rainfall occurs between June and July, with around 360 mm in July. The rain is
mostly preceded by strong winds and skies full with lightning. The annual rainfall in
Enugu State is between 1500mm and 2000mm. (Source: NIMET, 2014)
Wind: Enugu has typically low wind velocities. The prevailing wind patterns are the
South-western monsoon winds from the Atlantic Ocean which is the dominant wind
pattern, and the North-East Trade wind from the Sahara Desert mainly responsible for the
dry and dusty harmattan winds in January and February. (Source: NIMET, 2014)
Solar Radiation:
The intensity of solar radiation is moderately high all year round.
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Since the beginning, climate has had its effects on man, surroundings and architecture. A climate responsive architecture takes advantage of the free energy in the form of heat and light to create an adaptive thermal comfort design.
3.2.1 PASSIVE DESIGN GUIDELINES IN HOT AND HUMID CLIMATES
How we design and construct buildings can affect the natural environment, both directly – by
placing buildings and paved surfaces on previously vegetated areas, and indirectly – through
extracting resources to create building materials; emitting greenhouse gases in the manufacturing
and transportation of materials to the site; and through using energy sources such as electricity
once the building is operating. Sustainable building design is about reducing these impacts by
designing and constructing buildings that are appropriate for the climate, have minimal
environmental impacts, and are healthy and comfortable for building users.
Sustainable building design for the tropics differs considerably from sustainable building design
for temperate areas. The majority of available information on sustainable design has been produced
for temperate climates and is not applicable in the tropics.
These guidelines have been developed specifically for the humid tropical climate of the Sub-
Saharan region, and provide information on the key sustainable building design elements for the
tropics.
Comfort has been defined as the condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the
environment. In a bid to create comfortable spaces, Architects in Enugu must follow these
guidelines;
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AVOID HEAT GAIN:
– Orient the building to reduce exposure to midday sun.
– Use materials with low thermal mass (as a general rule).
– Shade walls and windows, particularly any walls with high thermal mass.
– Use glazing on windows that cannot be effectively shaded.
– Use insulation, light colours and heat reflective surfaces.
ENCOURAGE NATURAL VENTILATION:
– Orient the building and windows towards prevailing easterly winds.
– Include operable windows and ceiling vents that enable the building to naturally ventilate.
– Ensure Continuous air circulation to reduce heat and relief from stickiness.
MAKE USE OF NATURAL LIGHT:
– Install shaded windows.
– Install shaded skylights, light tubes and other natural lighting devices.
CREATE COOL OUTDOOR AREAS:
– Use verandahs and deep balconies to shade and cool incoming air.
– Use landscaping to provide shade without blocking cooling breezes and use planting to reduce
ground temperature and minimize reflected heat.
– Create a temperature difference between the inside and outside environments to facilitate
evaporation and heat dissipation.
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Figure 3.3 Typical design in a tropical climate. Source: Google Images, 2014.
3.3 PRINCIPLES OF PASSIVE DESIGN
Good passive design for thermal comfort is based on the following six major principles:
a. Orientation
b. Window design (Glazing).
c. Insulation.
d. Thermal mass.
e. Natural Ventilation
f. Zoning.
Each of these elements works with the others to achieve a sustainable building design.
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3.3.1 ORIENTATION
Design for orientation is a fundamental step to ensure that buildings work with the passage of the
sun across the sky.
Figure 3.4 Predominant Sun and wind Path in Enugu showing how they influence orientation. Source: author’s sketch, 2014. Solar Energy reaching the earth is incredible. By one calculation, 30 days of sunshine striking the
Earth have the energy equivalent of the total of all the planet’s fossil fuels, both used and unused!
All chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of the thermonuclear reactions remain behind
on the sun, while only pure radiant energy reaches the Earth. The surface receives about 47% of
the total solar energy that reaches the Earth. Only this amount is usable
There are two categories of Solar Energy namely:
Active Solar: A method specifically designed to acquire energy from sun and move it to
where needed, including:
o Photovoltaic electric power generation
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o Solar Thermal power generation
o Active solar heating using solar collectors
Passive Solar: A design of buildings that inherently takes advantage of the sun for day-
lighting and winter heating, and avoids solar gain in summer to minimize need for cooling.
Knowledge of sun paths for any site is fundamental in design building facades to let in light, as well as reducing glare and overheating to the building interior. It is important to remember that the position of the sun in the sky is dynamic, changing according to time of day, time of year and the site’s latitude. A Sun chart is a graph of the ecliptic of the Sun through the sky throughout the year at a particular latitude, and it’s crucial to study it in planning orientation of buildings.
3.3.1.1 SOLAR RADIATION
The earth receives almost all its thermal energy from the sun in the form of radiation. Thus the sun is the dominant factor that influences climate. The spectrum of solar radiation extends from ultra violet through visible light, to infrared radiation. The latter is the main medium of energy, in the form of heat. All the elements of a building are vulnerable to heat gains. Proper shading is therefore a very important aspect in solar passive building design.
The solar energy from the sun is always constant. How much heat is received at a given point on earth depends on: The angle of incidence, atmospheric conditions and the length of the day.
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3.3.1.2 THE SUN’S PATH
Figure 3.5a: Showing Typical Sun’s movement.
Figure 3.5b: showing the relationship between Angle of Incidence and Intensity of Sun Rays. Source: Google Images, 2014.
Understanding Angle of Incidence and Intensity of Sun Rays At an angle of 30°, a given area (a) only receives half the amount of solar rays it would at an angle
of 90°. The distance (d) that solar rays have to pass through the atmosphere at an angle of 30° is
double that if the angle were 90°. This increased distance reduces the energy received on the earth
surface considerably, especially if the atmosphere is humid or dusty. This is the reason why areas
closest to the equator are hotter than areas around the poles. The angle of incidence changes not
only in the course of the day, but also with the seasons. This is due to the earth’s path around the
sun.
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Below is a diagram of the sun’s Chart (Solar Geometry) within Enugu Metropolis.
Fig. 3.6Diagram showing Sun Chart on Latitude 8°N (Enugu is located at Lat. 7.7°N) Source: Google Images, 2014. From the diagram above, the sun path at mid-day ranges from 85°N (June 22) to 60°S (December
22). The hottest parts of the day (with most sunlight intensity) is between 11am - 2pm, this is
because the angle of incident during this period is between 75° and above; this implies that the sun is closest to the ground during this period.
Well-designed buildings should be oriented, and the spaces arranged in such a way, that the
majority of rooms face towards the equator. In this way the eastern and western sides are exposed
to the low-angle sun in the morning and evening. The high angle of the sun in the sky in mid-day
makes it easy to shade windows using only a generous roof overhang or horizontal shade at the
69 southern and northern facades. The roof overhang or shading on the equator side should provide adequate protection from high-angle Sun in the afternoons.
If the majority of windows are designed into the equator-facing wall (for buildings close to the
equator), sun penetration into the building will be minimized. Living areas should be sited to gain
maximum benefit from cooling breezes in hot weather. This does not mean that the orientation of
the building should be varied towards prevailing breezes as it does not have to face directly into
the breeze to achieve good cross-ventilation.
It is important to remember that orientation is about protection and mitigation of sunlight in
buildings as well as accommodating solar gain. There is no single design procedure to design for
orientation, understanding the sun path movement across the site is key.
3.3.2 WINDOW DESIGN (GLAZING)
Windows, glass doors, panels and skylights play a crucial role in admitting heat and light, and can
have a significant impact on energy consumption. They are also the most difficult parts of the
building envelope to adequately insulate. Care needs to be taken to ensure that windows are
positioned, sized and protected so as to get the most benefit from sun while avoiding overheating.
In the tropics, it is important to shade glazing from direct sunlight.
Plate 3.2 Passive window designs Source: www.pinterest.com, 2014.
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Non–shaded, untreated glass windows are a high heat source in buildings. The heat load through
windows can be reduced by;
• shading the glass
• Selection of glass with special properties,
• Or a combination of these.
It is important to extend your window openings as close as possible to the ceiling level to
encourage the venting of hot air which may collect against the ceiling. Considerable heat can be
transmitted into the room if the windows have metal frames. They conduct heat very well and will
radiate heat into the room even after sunset.
3.3.2.1 TYPES OF WINDOWS
Understanding the implication of the window type to use goes a long way in determining how
efficient the interior space is. There are five main types of “windows” namely:
1. Sliding:
Plate 3.3 Sliding style windows and sliding doors restrict approximately 50% of the airflow compared to a full opening. Source: www.mywindowsstore.com, 2014.
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2. Hopper:
Plate 3.4 Hopper style windows also impose significant restrictions to airflow for a given sized opening. Source: www.pinterest.com, 2014. 3. Casement:
Plate 3.5 Side hung casement windows opened towards the direction of the cooling breeze help direct the airflow into the house that might otherwise go past the opening. Casement windows are the best for “catching” breezes, but like the folding doors they suffer from “security” problems when in the opened position. (Source: www.pinterest.com, 2014.)
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4. French and folding doors:
Plate 3.6 Bi-fold doors can be installed to maximize ventilation and access to entertainment areas. Source: www.pinterest.com, 2014.
5. Louvres:
Plate 3.7 unlike other windows, louvres can be opened on an angle when it is raining and allow breezes to enter whilst restricting the rain. Louvres can be fitted with relatively unobtrusive bars that provide security for open louvres but do not restrict airflow. Source: www.pinterest.com, 2014.
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Careful thought should go into choosing your window type as their effect on your internal environment is important and the cost of changing style at a later date is expensive.
3.3.2.2 LOW-EMMISITIVITY GLASS
The type of glass selected in designing windows considerably changes the amount of heat that
enters a room. A report (Jacob, Dr. Leon “The performance of various glass types – Rock Hampton Research
House for Department of Public Works, March 2008) comparing the performance of various glass types
reached the conclusion that
“… It could be concluded that in sub-tropical and tropical climates single glazing incorporating a
tinted or reflective glass with a low-E coating to the inside surface of the glass would be a suitable
method of improving the energy performance and comfort within homes. Recommendations for
glazing based on the study are:
• For existing homes use a reflective film with a low-E coating applied to the inside surface of the
existing glazing
• For new homes use a laminated solar control glass with a low-E coating applied to the inside
surface of the laminated composition. ”
The “Low E “glass (i.e. low emissivity) is a type of insulated glass that increases the energy
efficiency of windows by reducing the transfer of heat. The unique properties of Low E coatings
allow the glass to retain very high daylight transmission and act as a barrier to the absorbed heat
in the glass, reflecting it outside for better solar control. Using glass which is only tinted will not
74 achieve the same level of benefit. The research shows there was little difference in the results achieved between using the clear glass and tinted glass. No appreciable temperature difference occurred between outside air temperature and the room temperature when the window was fitted with tinted glass.
Fig 3.7: Showing how Low-E Glass reacts to solar rays Source: http://educationcenter.ppg.com/glasstopics/how_lowe_works.aspx
There are a couple different methods used for coating Low-E windows. Pyrolytic coatings are
applied at very high temperatures at the plant when the glass is manufactured. Pyrolytic coatings
75 are usually tin dioxide and are also called ‘hard-coat’. Hard coat Low-E glass surfaces are considered to be medium grade energy efficient windows and perform much better than plain clear glass. The second method is called Magnetron Sputtering. This process takes place when the glass is placed in a vacuum chamber and has several thin layers of silver with antireflective properties applied to it. This is considered ‘soft-coat’ and must be enclosed in double-pane window units to
protect it. Soft coat Low-E glass is the most efficient and highest performing of the two energy
efficient window types.
Figure 3.8 Low-E glass coatings Source: http://www.nachi.org/forum/f16/window-glass-anomaly-79745/
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Whether a low-e coating is considered passive or solar control, they offer improvements in performance numbers. The following are used to measure the effectiveness of glass with low-e
coatings:
U-Value is the rating given to a window based on how much heat loss it allows.
Visible Light Transmittance is a measure of how much light passes through a window.
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient is the fraction of incident solar radiation admitted through a
window, both directly transmitted and that is absorbed and re-radiated inward. The lower
a window's solar heat gain coefficient, the less solar heat it transmits.
Light to Solar Gain is the ratio between the window's Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
(SHGC) and its visible light transmittance (VLT) rating.
Here’s how the coatings measure up by minimizing the amount of ultra-violet and infrared light
that can pass through glass without compromising the amount of visible light that is transmitted.
Table 3.1 Low-E Coatings and Performance Source: http://educationcenter.ppg.com/glasstopics/how_lowe_works.aspx
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As a general rule, pyrolytic coatings work well in temperate climates, while Magnetron Sputtering coatings is good for cooling in tropical climates.
When thinking of windows, size, tint and other aesthetic qualities come to mind, but low-e coatings play an important role in the overall performance of a window and can significantly affect the overall heating, lighting, and cooling costs of a building.
Other elements to consider as it affects window design are:
i. Flyscreens: Flyscreens help control insects but do restrict the airflow. They need to be
kept clean as dirty flyscreens can significantly restrict airflow regardless of the window
type. Research (BEDP Environment Design Guide Tec 2, May 2007 page 9 - “Natural
ventilation in passive design” by Richard Aynsley) revealed that the drop in wind speed
because of flyscreens can be significant, in the order of +30%, depending on flywire type
and thread density. Dirty wire can also cause drops in wind speed through the flyscreen in
the order of a further 10%. The retractable flyscreen allows for maximum ventilation when
insects are not present.
ii. Window Frames: The type of materials used in frame construction can seriously change
the amount of heat transmitted through the frame into the room, particularly if the frame is
exposed to external heat, either directly from the sun or radiated from unlined eaves and
verandahs or concrete areas. Ensure that if using metal window frames they do not have a
“thermal bridge” effect. This will prevent external heat being transmitted into the room
through the frame. The simple solution is to shade all windows in the first place.
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Figure 3.9: This thermal image clearly shows the heat being transmitted through the metal frame and glass.
Source: Google Images, 2014.
3.3.3 INSULATION
Insulation specifications are another important design feature especially in temperate regions or
regions with high diurnal temperature difference. The building envelope provides a barrier against
the extremes of the outdoor environment, allowing the thermal comfort levels indoors to be
adjusted to suit the occupants. The energy required for heating or cooling will be greatly reduced
if the building envelope is well insulated to reduce incidental losses. This means insulating the
ceiling, walls and floor of the building, an easy task during construction, but often more difficult
for existing buildings.
Insulation reduces the rate at which heat flows through the building fabric, either outwards or
inwards. In temperature controlled buildings, this will result in significant energy savings and
79 increased thermal comfort. In passive buildings, it means that any low-grade energy available will be more effective at its job of heating or cooling.
In the climate of Enugu, insulation is not suited to the temperature range, this is because the temperature range do not fall within any extremes.
3.3.4: THERMAL MASS
Thermal mass is basically the ability of a material to store heat. It can be easily incorporated into
a building as part of the walls and floor. Thermal mass affects the temperature within a building
by:
Stabilizing internal temperatures by providing heat source and heat sink surfaces for
radiative, conductive and convective heat exchange processes.
Providing a time-lag in the equalization of external and internal temperatures.
Providing a reduction in extreme temperature swings between outside and inside.
Material selection to capitalize on thermal mass is an important design consideration. For instance,
heavyweight internal construction (high thermal mass) such as brick, solid concrete, stone, or earth
can store the Sun's heat during cold days, releasing the warmth to the rooms in the night after it
conducts through.
For maximum energy efficiency, thermal mass should be maximized in the equator-facing sides
of a building. Any heat gained through the day can be lost through ventilation at night. In using
this technique, the thermal mass is often referred to as a 'heat bank' and acts as a heat distributor,
delaying the flow of heat out of the building by as much as 10-12 hours.
Thermal mass design considerations include:
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Where mass is used for warmth, it should be exposed to incident solar radiation.
Where mass is required for cooling, it is better placed in a shaded zone.
Buildings may be preheated using electric or hot water tubing embedded in the mass
(mostly concrete floors).
Buildings may be pre-cooled using night-purge ventilation (opening the building up to cool
breezes throughout the night), although this requires significant amounts of exposed mass,
and may be necessary only at certain times of the year.
Thermal mass is particularly beneficial where there is a big difference between day and
night outdoor temperatures.
Temperatures in Enugu will not benefit much from thermal mass in fact its effect can
actually be detrimental. This is because both surfaces will tend towards the average daily
temperature which, which is slightly above or below the comfortable range, and this will
result in even more occupant discomfort due to unwanted mean radiant gains or losses.
Thus in warm tropical and equatorial climates, buildings tend to be very open and
lightweight.
3.3.5: NATURAL VENTILATION:
Ventilation of a building is critical in the tropics as the building must provide sufficient ventilation
and breeze paths to assist with cooling. Doors and windows should be positioned to facilitate
prevailing cooling breezes. An analysis of local wind directions at different times of the year may
be necessary in order to best locate windows and design systems to 'catch' or funnel the breezes
through them. Cooling through natural ventilation demands a good exposure of the building and
its windows to the dominant breezes.
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Passive ventilation strategies use naturally occurring air flow patterns around and in a building to introduce outdoor air into the space. Wind and buoyancy caused by air temperature differences create air pressure differences throughout occupied spaces. Buildings can be designed to enhance these natural air flows and take advantage of them rather than work against them.
Passive ventilation must be considered during the design process because many architectural features affect air flows through a building, including the building shape, layout of interior walls, floors and even furniture. Design features must strike a balance between privacy/noise attenuation needs and the desired path of least resistance for air distribution. Ventilation rates will also be affected by prevailing wind direction.
There are three common approaches to passive ventilation. The simplest form is single-sided ventilation with operable windows, where ventilation air enters and exhausts through the same window(s) on the same side of the occupied space. There are design limitations on how large a space can be effectively ventilated this way: single-sided ventilation does not achieve a significant result unless ceilings are very high.
More effective is cross-ventilation, where operable windows on adjacent or opposing walls draw ventilation air across the occupied space. Designs should strive for at least two exposed walls per residential or commercial unit to allow for cross-ventilation.
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Fig.3.10: Single-Sided Ventilation Source: Passive Design Toolkit, July 2009.
Fig. 3.11 Cross Ventilation Source: Passive Design Toolkit, July 2009.
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Fig.3.12 Stack Effect through an Atrium Source: Passive Design Toolkit, July 2009.
Finally, in larger buildings with significant core spaces, induced ventilation with high spaces such
as atria, stacks and wind towers may be necessary to provide adequate ventilation by strictly
passive means. These strategic architectural features create optimized pathways for natural,
passive ventilation.
The passive elements that contribute to natural ventilation include the following: Operable
windows; Buffer spaces and double facades; Building shape; Space planning; Orientation;
Strategic architectural features; Openings to corridors; Central atria and lobbies; and Wind towers.
3.3.6 ZONING
Substantial savings can be made through proper zoning.
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3.4: IMPROVING COMFORT IN EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS USING PASSIVE
DESIGN STRATEGIES
Educational buildings can be more sustainable without any extra costs if micro-climatic analysis
are fully taken into consideration;
3.4.1 MICRO-CLIMATIC ANALYSIS:
The invention of the Carrier air-conditioning system is widely seen as having liberated the architect
from the constraints of climate. The capability of mechanical services to produce a controllable
and comfortable internal environment within any building is almost unquestioned in modern
architecture. This capability is well understood by architects and - together with electric lighting
technology - underpins the majority of modern building design. The new designs are relying far
too much on unsustainable, consumptive technologies. Take note of the number of air conditioners
now being installed in these new homes instead of adapting the design to our climate.
It is estimated the average household with air conditioning (one in each bedroom and one in the
lounge room) will spend approximately N9.9 million on power costs over the next ten years and
produce over 145 tons of greenhouse gases with this level of consumption.
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Plate. 3.8 The saviour of many bad designs, the domestic air-conditioning unit.
Source: Google Images, 2014.
However, this does not mean that the architect can completely ignore the local climate (though many would appear to). Inappropriate building designs add enormously to the utility bills of owners and tenants every year. Whilst it may appeal to some aesthetic concern to leave shading devices off a west-facing glass facade, someone is going to have to pay real money to support that oversized air-conditioning system for the next 40 to 50 years. Ultimately we will all pay with increased greenhouse gasses and higher taxes as such design decisions are just a pure waste.
Understanding the micro-climate in and around a site is key in designing eco-friendly buildings.
Good orientation, layout, and location on site, will help regulate the amount of sun (and sometimes rain) a building receives and therefore control its year-round temperatures and increase comfort.
It will also help preserve the existing topography, maximize access to wind direction, and improve
86 the building’s relationship with the site. The following must be considered when studying the
Micro-climate around the site;
i. Prevailing Wind Pattern
ii. Solar Access
iii. Topography
iv. Vegetation & Soil Conditions
v. Water/Water runoff
3.5 PASSIVE COOLING:
Before refrigeration technology first appeared, people kept cool using natural methods: breezes
flowing through windows, water evaporating from trees and fountains as well as large amounts of
stone and earth absorbing daytime heat. These ideas were developed over thousands of years as an
integral part of all building designs.
Today this is called "passive cooling" and, ironically, is considered an 'alternative technology', as
if untried and untested compared with reliable and robust mechanical cooling that requires
complicated refrigeration systems. By employing passive cooling techniques in modern buildings
however, you can often eliminate the need for mechanical cooling or at least significantly reduce
the size and cost of the equipment.
The two main objectives in any passive cooling design are to exclude unwanted heat gains as much
as possible and to generate cooling potential wherever possible.
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3.5.1 EXCLUDING HEAT GAINS
There are three main sources of heat gain that have to be dealt with. These are direct solar radiation,
high outside air temperatures and internal gains from occupancy, lighting and equipment.
3.5.1.1 DEALING WITH SOLAR RADIATION
Unwanted heat from solar radiation can enter a space either directly through a window or indirectly
through opaque elements of the building fabric, heating up the outer surface and increasing heat
flow by conduction. The best way of dealing with either is to prevent it from reaching building
surfaces in the first place. A range of techniques can be used:
Shading Devices:
The design of effective shading devices will depend on the solar orientation of a particular building
facade. Devices such as wide roof overhangs, shading fins, thick vegetation or external shutters
can be used to protect windows and wall surfaces. It is also often possible to shape the building
such that some parts of it are self-shading. Solar control and shading can be provided by a wide range of building components including:
Landscape features such as mature trees or hedge rows;
Exterior elements such as overhangs or vertical fins;
Horizontal reflecting surfaces called light shelves;
Low shading coefficient (SC) glass; and,
Interior glare control devices such as Venetian blinds or adjustable louvers.
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To properly design shading devices it is necessary to understand the position of the sun in the sky.
Plate 3.9 Shading used in buildings. Source: Leigh Square Photo. Double Roof Systems: A double roof system uses a ventilated air gap between an upper exposed roof and a lower protected roof. Much of the solar gain from the upper leaf is carried away by the air before it can pass to the lower leaf.
Fig. 3.10 Double Roofing Systems source: www.ibec.or.jp
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Surface Colouring:
If opaque building elements exposed to solar radiation are painted white or very light colours, much of the incident radiation can be reflected away from the surface.
3.5.1.2 DEALING WITH HIGH OUTSIDE TEMPERATURES
The main pathway for ambient heat energy from the outside air to enter a building is through
infiltration: air moving through cracks, apertures and even porous elements of the building fabric.
Even well-built, relatively airtight buildings can expect one or two air changes per hour.
If the outside air temperature is 36 °C, this can be a significant heat gain. This can be minimised
by:
Airtight Construction
This requires using windows and doors with good quality airtight seals as well as caulking and
sealing cracks/gaps around them.
Non-Porous Materials
Using less porous materials in the building fabric can prevent some infiltration, however careful
consideration must be given to the potential for interstitial condensation when using materials with
high vapour resistances.
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3.5.1.3 DEALING WITH INTERNAL GAINS
The simplest way to deal with internal loads is to remove them from the space. However, most of the time it is not possible to reduce them this way without impacting on the amenity of the space.
A dealer's room will generally be full of computers, a pottery workshop will have a kiln, and so on. Even in relatively cold climates, most offices will not need auxiliary heating as high internal gains are usually a problem year round. There are however ways to minimise these loads:
Maximise Day-lighting
In terms of the number of lighting lumens per watt of heat energy, daylight is the most efficient way of lighting a space. Careful design of fenestration that maximises daylight (whilst excluding direct sunlight) can not only save electrical energy but also reduce internal gains. Combined with an intelligent daylight-linked dimming system, lighting amenity can be ensured whilst still achieving savings.
Energy Efficient Lights
Lighting installations can be a significant load in many buildings, especially open-plan offices where a uniform light level has been designed for over the entire floor area. The use of more efficient lamps and luminaires, occupancy sensors, daylight dimming and task lighting can significantly reduce the overall lighting load.
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Zoning
Careful planning and spatial compartmentalisation can be used to separate high-gain spaces from low gain, so that ventilation and other strategies can be applied to a different degree to remove heat generated by internal gains.
3.6 COMPLEMENTING PASSIVE COOLING IN TROPICAL HUMID CLIMATES
Once all the unwanted gains have been dealt with, it is often necessary to provide additional cooling using energy efficient cooling appliances in the hotter months of tropical climates. There are only really three sources of passive energy that can be used for cooling: solar radiation, air movement and geothermal mass. Even then, the climatic conditions must be right for any of them to be effective. For example, in hot humid equatorial climates( in which our study area is located) the skies are often overcast during the day (reducing direct solar radiation), the air is often very humid (nullifying the effect of air movement) and the high year-round average air temperature mean that ground temperatures can be above comfort levels. This situation can make generating cooling potential somewhat of a problem for the passive designer, and therefore other means
(active) of cooling must be sought after to compliment passive means. If, however, your particular climate is not so extreme, then the following systems can be very effective.
In summary, the following are steps to take in implementing passive design features in educational buildings;
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i. The first step is to achieve the right amount of solar access – enough to provide the
lighting needed but prevent glare and excess heat during the day. This is done through
a combination of location, orientation and room layout.
ii. The second step is to maintain even temperatures- this is achieved through good
window design, proper shading techniques and building form.
iii. The final step is to provide passive cooling and improve indoor air - this is achieved
through an in-depth understanding of site features and introducing natural elements to
prevent direct radiation.
Alongside passive design features, architects should also consider other factors such as views, local authority restrictions, and building owners’ preferences.
All of these elements work alongside each other and therefore should be considered holistically.
C 4
CASE STUDIES
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CHAPTER FOUR:
4.0 CASE STUDIES AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EXISTING AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES This goal of the following studies is focused on how we can use passive design strategies (natural lighting, ventilation, orientation), to create learning spaces that are energy efficient, comfortable and sustainable.
Therefore the following comparative analysis were directed on both educational buildings and other similar building types that have been designed to harness passive energy in achieving the above named goal. The key areas to be studied include; i. Building Design-(Site, Floor plans and sections) with regards to passive design. ii. Passive Ventilation and Cooling techniques used. iii. Effects of passive design on Thermal and Energy Performance (where available).
4.1 CASE STUDY 1: THE ERSKINE INSTITUTE BUILDING, CANTERBURY UNIVERSITY, CHRISTCHURCH –NEW ZEALAND. (A case study of the effectiveness passive design) The aim of this study was to investigate the design of the Erskine Building (see plate 4.1) at
Canterbury University in New Zealand to assess its performance as a passively designed
educational building. 95
Plate 4.0: The aerial view of The Erskine Institute Building, Canterbury University, and Christchurch –New Zealand.
Source: Google earth, 2014.
It is noteworthy as an example of sustainable design excellence and for its high user performance rating. Interviews with the client and design principals showed it to be an example of high-level, early concept stage integration. A detailed energy audit revealed an energy use index already less than the latest target benchmark for existing buildings in New Zealand of 150 kWh/m² per year.
Temperature measurements in the staff offices indicated that the occupants were able to maintain conditions related to their individual preferences. Most gratifying of all, a questionnaire survey conducted in 2001 revealed that the building was rated very highly in terms of its acoustic, lighting, air quality, summer and winter temperatures, and overall comfort performance, by both the staff 96 and students who used it. The study concludes with the main lessons learnt from the investigation that could usefully be applied to the project at hand.
Platee 4.1: View from the north of the academic towers of ERSKINE building, Christchurch, NZ. (Source: Baird 2010). 4.1.1 PROJECT OUTLINE: Project details
Client: University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand Architects: Architectus, Auckland and CHS Royal Associates, Christchurch NZ Environmental and Building Services Ove Arup and Partners, Bristol, UK and Consultant: Auckland, NZ Structural Engineer: Holmes Consulting Group Main Contractor: Naylor Love, Canterbury Cost at completion: NZ$17M Year of completion: 1998 Building type: Tertiary education facility Building area: 11,551 m² 97
Awards include: 1998 New Zealand Institute of Architects (NZIA); Regional and National Architectural Awards 1999; Association of Consulting Engineers New Zealand (ACENZ) Gold Award for Engineering Excellence. Table 4.1: Showing project Details Source: www.archdaily.com.
4.1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE BUILDING
Completed in time for the commencement of the 1998 academic year, the Erskine Building is located in the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand. More than a decade later it remains noteworthy for its performance, even by comparison with more recent examples of environmentally sustainable design.
The Erskine building was designed to house two academic departments, the Mathematics and
Statistics department, and the Computer Science department. The Erskine building resembles an animation institute in many ways especially in the number of computers used, it contains about
600 computer. The 11,551 m² building has a 32 m by 55 m footprint and is split approximately equally between a seven-storey academic block, containing staff and postgraduate students, and a four-storey undergraduate teaching block. The two blocks are linked by a five storey high, glass roofed atrium space which is used for circulation and to harness natural light, and a basement area which mainly contains teaching spaces and ventilation equipment.
While the design brief for the building was fairly generic, the university was clear that energy efficiency was to be addressed as they did not want a high energy consuming building.
Christchurch, located at around 44°S latitude, enjoys like most of New Zealand over 2000 hours of bright sunshine well spread throughout the year, and has winter and summer design 98 temperatures of –1°C and +26 °C respectively (ASHRAE 2001). Though few designers and clients were achieving the efficiency potential for buildings at the time, the university pursued what it
perceived to be a low energy option. Several features of the design process contributed to its
ultimate success. Arguably prime among these was the fact that the design team was given
adequate time before going to tender (around six months each for both the design phase and the
documentation phase). The client was also very much involved in the process.
4.1.3 BUILDING DESIGN
Figure 4.1: Typical mid-floor plan (Source: Architectus, 1998) 99
Planning With its long axis lying north-west to south-east, the Erskine building (see Figure 4.1) is
comprised of two accommodation blocks. Three, seven-storey academic towers on the north-east
side house staff and postgraduate research (see Plate 4.1), and a four- storey teaching block on the
south-west side houses undergraduate studies (see Plate 4.2). These are linked by a glass-roofed
atrium with circulation towers at either end, and a basement area containing mainly teaching and
service spaces. Above ground level, each of the three academic towers contains three two-storey
clusters, each cluster consisting typically of ten staff offices around a common double-height area
(see Plate 4 .3), with research students and meeting/seminar rooms accommodated in the adjacent
triangular space. The offices themselves are cellular (see Plate 4.4) and orientated directly towards
the north (which is the sunny side in the Southern Hemisphere). The ground floor of the academic
towers contains larger teaching spaces and some administration offices. The four-storey, 15.7m
deep by 55m long, south-west facing teaching block is designed to accommodate large open
computing laboratories and tutorial spaces (see Figure 4.2). These spaces are sufficiently flexible
to allow them to be organized into completely open, deep- plan configurations or as smaller spaces
on either side of an offset corridor. The 6.8 m wide atrium (Plate 4.5) together with its flanking
circulation towers runs the entire length of the building and links the two wings visually. Its sloping
glazed roof is oriented to the south-west, while its glazed internal walls have open able windows
to the adjoining academic towers which are automated, and manually operated in the Teaching
Block. Within the atrium, three centrally placed bridges, which are connected by an open stairway
from the ground floor, link the two main wings at each level.
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Plate 4.2: The south-west elevation of the teaching block. (Photo: George Baird, 2001)
Plate 4.3: Typical double-height space with staff offices clustered around a common area (Photo: George Baird, 2001) 101
Plate 4.4: The academic towers orientate staff offices to the northern sun (Photo: George Baird, 2001).
Figure 4.2: Cross-section of the building (atrium bridges and stairs omitted for clarity) (Source: Architectus 1998). 102
Plate 4.5: The atrium showing the interconnectivity of the two wings of the building (Source: Baird 2010).
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4.1.3.1 BUILDING STRUCTURE AND FABRIC
Structurally speaking, the rectangular form of the teaching block provides inherent strength and
stiffness, and according to the architects (Architectus 1998) ‘the majority of the lateral load
resistance is given by the teaching block which acts as an anchor for the entire building’. The
architects go on to say that ‘the lateral load-resisting system in the teaching block consists of
reinforced concrete shear walls at either end of the building, along the wall of the atrium and
around the plant rooms’. For the academic towers the lateral load resistance ‘is provided by the
reinforced-concrete frames around the double-height spaces’. This resistance is transferred to the
teaching block shear walls via the diaphragm slabs of the atrium’s bridges and cores, aided by steel
braces linking the roof of the teaching block to levels six and seven of the academic towers. They
also note that ‘the precast concrete diagonal walls offer minimal load resistance due to their narrow
base configuration, and are mainly used as gravity support elements. Their load is taken by the
sculptured pilotis at the base of the towers, and transferred back to the moment-resisting frame in
earthquake conditions. These piloti are positioned to ensure that the structure is balanced and there
is no net overturning under normal gravity loading.’ External walls of the academic towers are
made up of 260mm thick precast concrete panels with 40mm of polystyrene insulation sandwiched
between a 70mm outer layer and a 150mm inner layer of concrete.
The whole panel assembly is tied together with a fibre-composite connector to avoid thermal
bridging. Also used for the construction of refrigerated storage areas, this construction provides
good insulation, well positioned thermal mass, and an acceptable internal finish. Also providing
useful internal thermal mass are the hollow ‘sine-wave’ ceilings used in the teaching block which
are constructed of precast concrete and allow clear spans across the teaching block (see Plate 4.6). 104
As well as an appropriate span, these also offer space for ventilation ducting, and distribution routes for wired services.
Plate 4.6: Sine-wave ceiling to computer labs (Source: Baird 2010)
Internal walls within both towers are constructed mainly of block work, and the end walls of the
atrium are constructed of exposed-aggregate precast concrete panels.
4.1.4 PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES USED IN THE BUILDING
4.1.4.1 COOLING ELEMENTS EMPLOYED Cooling for the building is obtained from a naturally occurring aquifer under the site from which
water is extracted at 12.5°C and returned at an acceptable 18°C. The building makes use of this
systems, together with local mechanical ventilation plant. However the design of the building is
such that the offices and the majority of the adjacent seminar rooms in the academic towers are 105 cooled via natural ventilation. The 90 or so office modules in the academic towers are equipped with a full range of passive thermal environmental control systems which include:
a deliberately northerly orientation and fixed overhangs
exposed thermally massive interior walls and ceilings
Fixed and adjustable exterior and adjustable interior solar shading devices
a large number of window/natural ventilation opening options
Plate 4.7: Air handling units located on the top of each academic tower. (Photo: George Baird, 2001) 106
Figure 4.3: Cross section of floor and ceiling slab (Source: Architectus 1998)
4.1.4.2 PASSIVE VENTILATION SYSTEMS EMPLOYED IN THE ERSKINE BUILDING An air handling unit (AHU) is located on the top of each tower (see plate 4.7). These supply fresh
air to the double-height spaces within the academic towers and the ground floor seminar rooms
and offices. For its ventilation, the atrium is totally dependent on the infiltration of outside air via
the entranceways and on ‘spill air’ from the adjacent spaces. The air is exhausted via automatically
opening windows at high level on the sloping glazed roof – these are also used for smoke exhaust
in the event of a fire. The teaching block is served by two AHUs, each one serving around half the
plan area of each floor. These are housed in separate roof-top plant rooms, positioned centrally
over the areas served and the corresponding vertical distribution shaft. Supply air is distributed via
the vertical shaft to then pass through horizontal ‘ducting’ formed in the concrete structural floor
slab before being supplied to the space above through circular floor diffusers (as shown in Figure
4.3). By using the structure of the floor slab to contain conditioned air, maximum use of the thermal
mass of the slab is utilized in maintaining an even temperature within the teaching block. The 107 exterior rooms on these levels also have hydronic radiators around their perimeter as appropriate.
Separate AHUs in the basement provide air-conditioning to the nine load intensive computing laboratories, enabling flexible timetabling of their use (Plate 4.8).
Plate 4.8: Some of the nine AHUs located in the basement, each one serving a different computing laboratory. (Photo: George Baird, 2001)
108
All the thermal environmental control plant and motorized window openers are under the control of the university’s computer-based building management system, which monitors inside temperatures throughout the building. The building has its own weather station on the roof measuring temperature, humidity, airspeed and rainfall. Design temperatures being 25°C for most of the air-conditioned spaces in summer and 20°C for all spaces other than the atrium (target 16°C) in winter.
Appropriate algorithms in the building management system ensure the systems operate to maintain these conditions in the teaching spaces. Conditions in the staff study area are under the personal control of the individual occupants via the thermostatic radiator valves and the several window opening and shading options available to them. The central boiler system operates from 6.00 am
(from 5.00 am on Mondays) to 10.00 pm on weekdays all year round.
As well as exerting overall control of these systems, the Facilities Management group at the
university monitors electricity consumption and provides details of usage and savings for all of
their buildings on campus.
4.1.4.3 LIGHTING All of the above-ground spaces in both blocks and the atrium have been designed to allow
maximum use of day-lighting. In the teaching block the single-sided staff studies are on the
perimeter, while the double-height spaces and adjacent seminar rooms get daylight from the
exterior and the glass-roofed atrium. In the case of the teaching block, day-lighting is available
through both the exterior and the atrium facades (Plate 4.9). The basement computing laboratories
are totally artificially lit, though there is a limited amount of daylight as the atrium penetrates right
down to that level. Local control of the artificial lighting is by means of occupancy sensors. 109
Plate 4.9: Natural light from the atrium penetrates the building’s internal circulation. (Photo: George Baird, 2001).
4.1.5 ENERGY AND THERMAL PERFORMANCE
The performance of the building was assessed in three ways: by monitoring annual energy use, by
measuring summer and winter inside temperatures, and by conducting a questionnaire survey of
staff and students. 110
4.1.5.1 ANNUAL ENERGY USE Heating from the central boiler system was separately metered (BTU, British thermal unit) for the
Erskine Building and amounted to some 780,700 kWh for the year 2001. Annual electricity use amounted to some 875,011 kWh. Thus the overall annual energy use index (AEUI) worked out to be 143 kWh/m² per year.
This was estimated to consist of approximately:
47 per cent heating
28 per cent equipment (there were around 660 computers operating in the building)
15 per cent lighting (the lighting power density was just under 10 W/m²)
3 per cent fans and pumps
7 per cent miscellaneous
All things considered, such as low outside temperatures, long hours of operation and large numbers
of computers and the ‘free’ cooling offset provided by utilizing the aquifer this is a creditable
AEUI for a tertiary education building of this type. The reported figure for 2009 was 148 kWh/m²
per year (Sellin 2010).
While any kind of benchmarking can be fraught with caveats, the figures for this building may be
compared with recent CIBSE overall building benchmarks for education building types. These
range from 167–223kWh/m² per year for good practice and from 196–261kWh/m² per year for
typical practice (CIBSE 2006).
4.1.5.2 SUMMER AND WINTER INSIDE TEMPERATURES Inside temperatures (in the occupied zone of staff offices mainly) and outside temperatures were measured from December 2000 to February 2001, and during June and July 2001 using calibrated 111 portable thermo-hygrographs. During the summer period, the highest inside temperature recorded was 26°C (midafternoon, in one of the top floor offices), the lowest being an overnight low at
13.3°C. During winter, the lowest temperature measured was 14°C (again overnight) and the highest 24.3°C. Overall, it was found that the level of control given to the occupants allowed a
range of temperatures to be achieved, depending on the preferences of the occupants.
Fig 4.4: Room temperature monitoring DURING SUMMER (6/2/2001–12/2/2001) (Source: Baird and Kendall 2003).
4.1.6 OCCUPANT PERCEPTIONS OF THE ERSKINE BUILDING
4.1.6.1 THE SURVEY For the 2001 occupant survey, two questionnaires developed by Building Use Studies
(www.usablebuildings.co.uk) for use in the Probe investigations (Post Occupancy Evaluation
2001) were used under license to measure user perceptions.
112
I. Long form Questionnaire;
The sixty or so questions of the two-page standard questionnaire, designed for ‘permanent staff’, cover a range of issues. Fifteen of these elicit background information on matters such as the age and sex of the respondent, how long they normally spend in the building, and whether or not they see personal control of their environmental conditions as important. The remainder ask the
respondent to score some aspect of the building on a seven-point scale; typically from
‘unsatisfactory’ to ‘satisfactory’ or ‘uncomfortable’ to ‘comfortable’, where a seven would be the
best score. The following aspects are covered: operational (space needs, furniture, cleaning, meeting room availability, storage arrangements, facilities and image), environmental
(temperature and air quality in both winter and summer, lighting and noise), personal control (of heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting and noise), and satisfaction (design, needs, comfort overall, productivity and health). The two-page version was administered to academics, administrative staff, and postgraduate students, and 71 per cent were returned (57 out of 80 distributed).
II. Short form Questionnaire
A shorter one-page questionnaire, designed to elicit information from more ‘transient’ building
users who were only in the building for short periods (undergraduate students in this case) was
also used. This has 14 questions covering the same general aspects, but in much less depth, so that
it can be administered and filled in quickly on the spot. Responses were received from 205
students.
III. Method Used in Conducting Survey;
Analysis of the responses yields the mean value (on a seven-point scale) and the distribution for each variable. In addition to calculating these mean values, the analysis also enables the 113 computation of a number of ratings and indices in an attempt to provide indicators of particular aspects of the performance of the building or of its ‘overall’ performance.
For all of the 57 staff respondents (11 female and 46 male) the building was their normal place of
work and the majority (68 per cent) had worked in the building for more than a year and had thus
experienced it in operation over all seasons.
4.1.6.2 ANALYSIS OF COLLATED RESULTS FROM THE SURVEY: The average scores of the staff and students for each of the relevant survey questions are listed in
Table 4.2 under four Factors: Operational, Environmental, Control and Satisfaction. The table also
indicates those aspects of the building that the staff perceived as being significantly better, similar
to, or worse than the ‘benchmark’ (which is simply the average of the previous 50 buildings
surveyed – which includes a mixture of commercial office and academic buildings) and/or scale
mid-point. Overall, 37 aspects were significantly better, four significantly worse, while the
remaining four aspects had much the same score as the benchmark. This is an exceptionally good
result by comparison with a recent worldwide survey (Baird 2010) of 30 sustainable buildings. 114
Table 4.2: Table of Average Staff Scores for the Survey on Occupants Assessment of the Erskine Building. (Source: Braid 2010)
115
All of the Operational Factors were significantly better than their respective benchmarks, with the score for building image the highest of this group, with an average value of 6.26 (where the ‘ideal’ score would be a seven).
Similarly, most of the Environmental Factors rated better than their corresponding benchmarks.
Exceptions to this occurred in winter when, despite high overall comfort scores, staff perceived
the air as slightly too still and dry; and their responses suggested there was too much glare from
sun and sky (a score of 4.46 compared with an ‘ideal’ of four in this instance).
Scores for the Control Factors averaged 4.21 as compared to a relatively low benchmark of around
2.60. All scores were better than their individual benchmarks, with control of ventilation (5.23)
and lighting (5.09) scoring particularly well. The proportion of respondents deeming personal
control as important averaged a relatively high 46 per cent. Average perception scores for the
Satisfaction Factors were all well above their respective benchmarks and scale mid-points. The perceptions of students, who responded to only eight overall variables sought in the shorter questionnaire, were mostly lower than those of the staff, but none dropped below 5.00.
4.1.6.3 USERS’ COMMENTS Overall, the results show that the Erskine building was rated highly by both staff and students,
achieving a level of occupant satisfaction in the top five percentile of the 2001 Building Use
Studies Benchmark dataset relevant to comfort (specifically noise, lighting, summer temperature,
winter temperature and overall comfort). Some 144 responses were received from staff under the
nine headings where they were able to add written comments – 28 per cent of the 513 respondents
(57 respondents by nine headings). Table 4.3 indicates the numbers of positive, balanced, and negative comments – in this case around 34 percent were positive, 13 per cent neutral and 53 percent negative. In the context of this type of survey a ratio of negative to positive comments of 116
1.55 would be considered a relatively ‘good’ result. In a recent survey of 30 sustainable buildings
(Baird 2010) the average ratio was found to be 2.25.
Table 4.3: Number of Respondents (Source: Braid 2010)
Below is a summary of the users’ assessment of the building are as follows;
Lighting – While lighting overall rated highly, glare from the sun made up the majority of
the negative comments (11 out of 15 received). Low-angle winter sun on computer screens
in the middle of the day seemed to be the main issue.
Noise – Negative comments on noise were mainly focused on internal noise from nearby
offices, meetings in the adjacent common space, and from colleagues on the phone but 117
with their office doors open. However the scores for these factors were all better than their
respective benchmarks.
While the design of the building attracted a good number of positive comments from staff
and students, comments on noise were almost entirely negative, with the sounds from
computers, other people and the HVAC system being recurring themes.
Thermal comfort – summer and winter temperatures were perceived as being comfortable
by both groups, the only issue being the effect of the cooling down of the building over the
weekend in winter on Monday morning temperatures in the academic block.
Air quality – With few exceptions, the overall air quality in the building was rated highly.
However a combination of hard surfaces and internal openings for the natural ventilation
system allowed occasionally disruptive sound transmissions.
Other – Asked to add any further comments on the environmental conditions, those
received were predominantly negative, with a few mentioning the floor vents in that
context.
4.1.7 LESSONS LEARNT FROM THE SURVEY CONDUCTED i. Occupant operation – Enabling staff to control conditions in their individual offices directly,
by the provision of a range of natural ventilation openings, shading devices, and
thermostatically controlled radiators was clearly appreciated and well utilized, though it was
noted that some of the automated controls for the atrium openings had yet to be fully
commissioned even after several years of occupancy.
118 ii. Health – Most notably, the staff reported feeling healthier in the building,
iii. User manual – Of the 30 or so premises investigated in a recent worldwide survey of
sustainable buildings by the author (Baird 2010), this was the only one which had a user manual
(University of Canterbury 2007). Made accessible on the University’s website it was
specifically designed to help the users to understand and operate the building to achieve
comfortable environmental conditions. Provision of such a manual really is essential for
occupants to understand the building and the consequences of their behaviour. The design team
is to be congratulated in ensuring one was produced and disseminated in this way.
iv. Noise – Noise too has been found to be a common issue in such buildings, and this case was
no exception. The building received a score of 4.07 for noise. Some 66 per cent of staff
comments and 100 per cent of undergraduate students identified outside noise as a
predominantly negative feature of the building. Particular care needs to be taken as the ‘routes’
provided to enable natural ventilation also act as noise transition pathways.
In conclusion, The Erskine building has proved to be a good example of the kind of hybrid design
that uses both active and passive thermal environmental control systems. The success of the project
resulted from a well-integrated design process involving collaboration between architects and
service engineers from the commencement of the project. 119
The building’s energy use index, despite its large number of computers in virtually continuous operation, is a realistic 143 kWh/m² per year, comfortably under the all-inclusive aspirational target value of 150 kWh/m² that had been set under the New Zealand national energy strategy.
The use of the aquifer for cooling, rather than a conventional refrigerated cooling system, will account for some of this efficiency. From the results of the temperature monitoring that was carried out in both summer and winter, it was evident that the building provides conditions that are relatively stable in all seasons but able to respond to individual requirements, and which would be considered comfortable by the occupants. Most significant of all, the results of the Probe questionnaire survey provide overwhelming evidence of the satisfaction of the users with the environment provided by the building.
120
4.2 CASE STUDY 2: KANTANA FILM AND ANIMATION INSTITUTE, THAILAND. (A case study of the effectiveness of designing with the landscape) The Kantana Film and Animation institute is located in Kantana Movie Town in Kakhonprathom province. It is a one story building which combines perfectly with the beautiful natural environment that surrounds it. Kantana Institute is a specialized academic institution established for building up professionals in the area of film and animation production in a deserted area in
Thailand. It aims to develop the land by adopting the ‘education as a key’ strategy in order to create and strengthen the capacity of the students as well as reserving the environment, local lifestyle and culture. The building itself is designed with the reflection of tranquility, natural landscape and the linkage with human beings in the practical usage of forms, materials, construction method, lifestyle and culture under the motto ‘Architecture is more than being just architecture’(Boonserm
Premthada, 2011).
Plate 4.10 Katana Film and Animation Institute. Source: Spaceshift Studio, 2012. 121
4.2.1 PROJECT OUTLINE:
Client: Kantana Edutainment (International) Co.,
Ltd.
Architects: Bangkok Project Company Limited
Location: Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand
Project Team: Boonserm Premthada, Ittidej Lirapirom,
Piyasak Mookmaenmuan
Budget: 1,000,000 USD
Area: 2,000 sqm
Year of Completion: 2011
Table 4.4 Project details of the Katana Animation film Institute. Source: www.archdaily.com
4.2.2 BUILDING DESIGN:
The idea for the Katana institute’s layout is based on the deviation from the daily life behaviour of
the building users; by using the walkway to separate different zones for different activities which can also be used as a linkage of various purposes, a term described by the architect as ‘Broken
Plan’ (Boonserm Premthada, 2011). The Institute comprises of 4 main components namely:
Management and Administration, Library, Lecture, Studio and Canteen zone joined by the
pavements between these buildings (see figure 4.5 and 4.6).
The administrative section is a multi-functional space containing the chairperson’s office, a
program office and a general office. They are all easily accessible from the central courtyard and
the sunlight makes this a very pleasant area. 122
The lecture rooms in the institute is a quiet area surrounded with a brick wall punctured with apertures. This is the ideal space to relax and unwind in between or after lectures, the walls acts as both shading element and inlet for cool air. It is a free standing wall without borderline.
The workshop/studio section creates the feeling of a dream at night time. It helps the students to feel peaceful and to focus while producing their animation projects.
The library section is a place where the natural sunlight from above and the sound of nature come together in unison creating a soothing environment for exploration.
The canteen is an open air building (see Plate 4.11). It is at the end of the pathway. To make this
a multifunction area for different activities, this space is a flows seamlessly to the garden adjacent
it. In regards to materials used; this building is designed based on natural craftsmanship, the most
dominant element is the hand-laid bricks.
Fig. 4. 5 Floor plan Katana Film and Animation Institute. Source: Spaceshift Studio, 2012. 123
Fig. 4.6 Detailed floor plan Katana Film and Animation Institute. Source: Spaceshift Studio, 2012.
In order to stimulate the concentration of the students during the cautious walk to the class through
rugged ways, various trees as eyesight barriers surrounded by high walls. Additionally, the walk
through this path gives the feeling of walking inside and outside simultaneously. The classroom is
designed with opaque walls and a small amount of skylight. This creates the feeling of tranquility
at night. Therefore, there is not much interior decoration in the class room building which may
distract the students in comparison to others. This building as a result is an integration of the
building plan and its users. 124
With major considerations given to passive design and tranquility within the spaces, the buildings are indeed not designed as an eye-catching object but made in square shapes possessing the character of calmness and reveals the space containing trees, air, natural light, shadow which are generated by deteriorating the cubic completely (see figure 4.7). This approach is named Creative
Destruction.
Fig. 4.7 Conceptual Block Plan, Katana Film and Animation Institute. Source: Spaceshift Studio, 2012. 125
Plate 4.11 Canteen- Katana Film and Animation Institute.
Source: Spaceshift Studio, 2012.
Fig. 4.8 Sections- Katana Film and Animation Institute. Source: Spaceshift Studio, 2012. 126
4.2.3 BUILDING STRUCTURE AND FABRIC
The dominant feature of the institute is the thick brick wall enclosing it (see plate 4.12). In
explaining his motivation, the architect states that the total sensory experience is universal, and
therefore the built form, particularly when the program calls for creative reflection, should
engender such a phenomena; as such over half a million handmade bricks were made locally and
imbue the space with a distinctly human scale and touch. The staggeringly thick masonry is
punctuated by orthogonal apertures at irregular intervals that serve both to help ventilate the spaces
and provide quiet enclaves for sitting and relaxing.
Plate. 4.12 Exterior Brick Walls showing Apertures for ventilation and relaxation.
Source: Spaceshift Studio, 2012. 127
Plate 4.13 Exterior Brick Walls with Inset of wall Details. Source: Spaceshift Studio, 2012.
While the building is supported by an inner steel structure, the gap between the inner and outer
skin of the edifice guards against heat transfer and naturally cools the spaces (see fig. 4.8). The
school is connected by a network of axial hallways, delineated by the undulating vertical planes of
brick.
While the rural site was challenging, the interior concrete paths extend the learning spaces and
blurs the borders between built and natural space (see plate 4.14). The compositions of mass and
void is intended to inform the student’s thinking and help stimulate the kind of visual story-making
required in the creation of an animation film. This is an architecture literally formed by the human
body and made all the more rich by the deeply human stories that will grow within its walls.
128
Plate 4.14: Due to its calm and cool serene, Circulation between the four buildings becomes an opportunity for reflection.
Source: Bangkok project studio, 2011.
4.2.4 LESSONS LEARNT
The Building provides a comprehensive provides a guide for spaces that should be provided
in an animation institute.
The handmade brick walls helps to guard against direct heat transfer into the building
space.
The apertures within the walls and the walk-paths that link up the buildings help induce
natural ventilation.
The judicious use of trees and soft landscape on the linkage spaces and courtyards also help
to shade and cool interior spaces passively.
The use steel to high head rooms give ample space for air-flow and generates a cooler
interior space. 129
4.3 CASE STUDY 3: FACULTY OF LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF TURIN, ITALY.
Plate 4.15: The aerial view of the site layout the faculty of law and political sciences, university of Turin, Italy. Source: Google earth, 2014.
4.3.1 BUILDING DESIGN
The building is located along Corso Regina, Margherita in Turin, Italy (see Plate 4.15). Work was
recently completed on the University of Turin's new law and political science complex, which was
designed by Foster + Partners as a vibrant new facility to anchor the campus. One of the most
unique architectural features of the sprawling law and political science building is its large
overhanging roof, whose depth is determined by the path of the sun. German firm formTL designed 130 the large cantilevered membrane roof that appears to float above the structure, allowing natural light to filter into the buildings.
-LAYOUT:
Following the triangular lot, the new buildings are functionally divided into two sections: one
dedicated to teaching, with classrooms and departments that face the residences and gasometers,
and one for the library (with bar and language labs on the ground floor and spaces for studying
room on the first floor) along the river. All five blocks are distributed into five-storey buildings
(with parking and technical rooms in the basement and a covered flat roof) distributed around a
circular plaza, with a total of 36,232 new square feet. (See illustrations below).
Plate 4.16: Approach View into the Complex; brushed metal and ribbons of glazing characterize the façade. Source: Foster + Partners, 2013. 131
Figure 4.9: Site plan, faculty of law and political sciences building, university of Turin, Italy. Source: Foster + Partners, 2013.
Figure 4.10: Floor plan, faculty of law and political sciences building, university of Turin, Italy. Source: Foster + Partners, 2013. 132
-ROOF AND FAÇADE DESIGN: For the past two decades, the University of Turin has been gradually modernizing its architecture as new facilities are constructed on formerly industrial land. Foster + Partners describes its design as “a modern interpretation of the traditional cloistered quadrangle”.
Plate 4.17: Roof Design, faculty of law and political sciences building, university of Turin, Italy. Source: Foster + Partners, 2013.
133
Plate 4.18: Interiors are awash with light. Source: Foster + Partners, 2013.
The roof canopy lets a great deal of diffused light into the buildings’ large atriums, reducing the need for artificial light (see plate 4.17 and 4.18 above). Overall, passive design strategies help to reduce the buildings’ energy needs by about 20 percent.
The facades feature curved forms and rounded edges, and because of those unusual shapes, the construction of the membrane roof required sophisticated engineering. A complex, three- dimensional steel substructure arches above the roof, and a flexible membrane stretches over it
(See Plate 4.19). 134
Plate 4.19: A large overhanging roof links the two main architectural spaces Source: Foster + Partners, 2013. Inside, Foster + Partners designed flexible classrooms and lecture halls that can be adapted and changed to fit the school’s needs as shown in Plate 4.20 and 4.21 below. The building also features a roof garden that provides a quiet space for study.
Plate 4.20: Flexible Classroom Layout designed to take advantage of natural Lighting Source: Foster + Partners, 2013. 135
Plate 4.21: Typical Lecture Hall designed to take advantage of natural Lighting Source: Foster + Partners, 2013.
With capacity for 5,000 students, the facilities regenerates an old industrial district close to the historic center of the Italian city, reusing some existing buildings. The project aimed to optimize energy efficiency and neutralize the effects of pollution through the installation of 7,200 square
meters of photocatalytic floor tiles.
4.3.2 LESSONS LEARNT:
The iconic design of the roofs meets the needs for passive control of solar gain from the
glass facades, based on the criteria of “solar design”, which in turn reduces the need for 136
air conditioning in summer. Natural light flows inside, ensuring an energy saving of about
20%, and it is controlled by a latest generation Building Automation system.
Materials with low environmental impact were favoured for construction – including
wood products that meet the rigorous FSC standards. Over 270 forest trees were planted as
part of the landscape design of the central plaza in the Campus
The complex has a strong personality presence in a changing part of the city, largely due
to the characteristics of its envelope, made of sinuous glass and metal façades and a
continuous canvas roof.
The new campus, set on North American models, is a porous body whose open spaces are
usable not only by students but also by population of a neighborhood that just the new
development, an element of urban regeneration, is helping to revitalize (see Plate 4.22).
Plate 4.22: The campus is flexible enough for myriad programming. Source: Foster + Partners, 2013.
137
Special attention was paid to the environment and to the needs of the users, with the campus
offering short walkways, in addition to state-of-the-art classrooms and student
accommodation situated in the former Media village constructed for the 2006 Turin Winter
Olympics.
The Teflon coated glass fiber membrane (Dupont), chosen for its high mechanical
characteristics and chemical stability, has been produced by Canobbio with elements that
cover a span each, and are provided with a heat-sealed edging, which contains the metal
elements of anchor and tension.
The roof based on a complex three-dimensional structure of metal lattice, is the
characteristic element. Realized by Stalbau Pichler, it is composed of a series of arches
bolted and connected together by an impressive edge beam (necessary to counteract the
strong “shot” from the tension generated along the perimeter of the sheets).
138
4.4 CASE STUDY: NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY [NIIT] TRAINING CENTRE, PORT HARCOURT, RIVERS
STATE
Plate 4.23: The aerial view of NIIT ICT training centre, Port Harcourt. Source: Google Earth map (2014)
Plate 4.24: The approach view of NIIT ICT training centre, Port Harcourt.
Source: Okere C.E (2013) 139
4.4.1 BACKGROUND STUDY:
Plate 4.25: The approach view of NIIT ICT training centre, Port Harcourt Source: Okere C.E (2013)
This training centre is the one of two ICT training facilities operated by NIIT in Port Harcourt
metropolis. It is housed in a warehouse building acquired by NIIT and refurbished to suit their
needs. Located in d/line area of Port-Harcourt, it is accessed from the Kaduna Street and contains
sufficient parking spaces to accommodate the teeming users of the facility. 140
4.4.2 BUILDING DESIGN:
Fig 4.11: The floor layout of the NIIT training centre Port Harcourt Rivers state.
Source: Okere C.E (2013)
The layout of the spaces in the NIIT training centre is indeed very commendable. It ensures a free
flowing and unhindered movement within and between spaces.
The computer studios/classes have ample circulation aisles separating groups of personal computer
workstations. In addition, the reception lobby and waiting areas are fairly large enough to
accommodate crowds on busy days.
There is no organized Parking within the centre premises but the space in front of the centre serves
this purpose. 141
This facility houses 3 computer training studios fully equipped with computer workstations that accommodate 35 students and 6 smaller training rooms for special classes.
The space organization of the facility is very simple and free flowing. The entrance leads to the reception and waiting area. This reception is spacious with ample seats provided in waiting areas
Plate 4.26: The reception/ counselling office Plate 4.27: The waiting area
Source: Okere C.E (2013)
The reception/help desk (plate 4.4) is conspicuous and centralized in the reception/waiting room,
and also doubles as a counselling office. Immediately behind the reception/help desk is the central
lobby which links all spaces in the facility. This long narrow central lobby from which the
administrative offices, paying room, instructors’ office, server room, store and conveniences are
also accessible, leads to an auxiliary entrance which is usually shut for security purposes. 142
Plate 4.28: View showing circulation lobby Source: Okere C.E (2013) This lobby (plate 4.6) is easily accessible from the reception lobby and the layouts of the building
is partly open, the individual spaces are partitioned using the same types of NIIT trademark
coloured aluminum and reflective glass partitions.
Interior photos of the NIIT ICT training centre Port Harcourt, Rivers state.
Plate 4.29: View of the training studio during a lecture
Source: Okere C.E (2013) 143
Plate 4.30: View of the training studio during a lecture Source: Okere C.E (2013)
4.4.3 LESSONS LEARNT:
Natural lighting and ventilation of the facility is poor in some areas of the facility as a result of
poor planning of those spaces in the building. The facility relies on artificial lighting fixtures,
ventilation and cooling. This in turn, increases the energy demands of the facility and also increases
the overall lifetime cost of running the facility. The high dependence on air-conditioning units
within the Institute goes to show the need to give proper considerations to passive design
guidelines. 144
4.5 CASE STUDY 5: NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY [NIIT] TRAINING CENTRE, IKEJA, LAGOS STATE
Plate 4.31: The aerial view of NIIT ICT training centre, Ikeja Source: Google Earth map (2014)
Plate 4.32: The approach view of NIIT ICT training centre, Ikeja Source: Author’s personal research (2014) 145
4.5.1 BACKGROUND STUDY:
This ICT training centre is one of two ICT training facilities run by NIIT within the Lagos state
metropolis. Located on Oba Afran Avenue, a commercial hub in the Ikeja area of Lagos, the
building was designed to accommodate ICT training rooms and lettable spaces. A help centre also
operated by NIIT is located on the ground floor, but in a temporary structure.
4.5.2 BUILDING DESIGN:
Access to the site is by one main gate leading to a small parking area for the staff, while the visitor’s
parking is located outside (in front of) the premises. Public access to the training centre floor and
the top floor is by a flight of stairs on the exterior of the approach façade which terminates on the
middle floor, with another flight of stairs on the entrance lobby which links the three floor levels. 146
Fig 4.12 The floor layout of NIIT training centre ikeja, Lagos state.
Source: Author (2014)
The NIIT training centre on Oba Afran Avenue, Ikeja is fully equipped with computer
classes/studios, fitted with personal computers, lecture boards and overhead projectors. At full
capacity, it is capable of accommodating 86 students, each occupying a personal computer
workstation. 147
On the entrance lobby of the training centre floor, two access doors distribute the incoming traffic.
The one to the left leads to the administrative offices while the one to the right leads to the general public reception lobby.
Plate 4.33: View of the help desk of the reception lobby from the waiting area
Source: Author’s personal research (2014)
Upon entrance into the reception lobby, a customer care cubicle is immediately sighted on the far
left side of the room while the seated waiting area is to the right [plate 4.31]. The reception lobby
leads to a strategic security cubicle which also doubles as an information distribution and software
sales/display area. To the right of this space is the counselling room which is demarcated into two
cubicles by aluminum and glass partitions. Onwards from this area takes one into a long corridor.
On the right side of this corridor are lined various offices for supervisors, heads of department,
ICT instructors. A private crèche for nursing staff, a store and a server room are also located along 148 this line of offices. The toilets are at the far end of the line of offices. To the right of the same corridor are 4 computer classes/studios.
Plate 4.34: View from outside a computer studio during a lecture
Source: Author’s personal research (2014)
The first two accommodate 30 students each. The third accommodates 16 students while the last
accommodates 20 students.
The general construction of the NIIT training centre building consists of an open layout. The
partitioning of the interior spaces and individual rooms was however done with the extensive use
of (NIIT trademark coloured) aluminium and reflective glass partitions. 149
4.5.3 LESSONS LEARNT:
1. The general composition of the NIIT training centre, Ikeja spaces was well organized with
the rooms following the organized and orderly sequence of circulation patterns functionally
utilized by both visitors and students.
Plate 4.35: View showing the coloured aluminium and glass partitions taken from within a counselling cubicle.
Source: Author’s personal research (2014)
2. The extensive use of aluminium and glass partitions provided a measure of visual
accessibility between the spaces and functions, giving the centre a general feeling of
openness. This also promoted security within the facility.
3. Natural Lighting and ventilation is also adequate within the facility. 150
Plate 4.36: View from circulation lobby
Source: Author’s personal research (2014)
4. One major drawback however was the narrow width of the long corridor between the
offices and the computer studios. As a result of this, the corridor is usually very crowded
during peak periods and shifts between training sessions.
5. The effect of this is nonetheless reduced as a result of absence of extra features which may
attract and keep students within the facility after training sessions, thus the crowds disperse
quickly. The long corridor depends greatly on artificial source of lighting and ventilation.
6. Another drawback of this facility is the insufficiency of parking spaces and inadequate
security features for visitors cars parked outside the premises.
151
4.6 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS:
The purpose of the research was to study the effectiveness of passively designed educational buildings and to understand the functional spaces required in the design of the proposed Animation and Gaming Institute. The research findings are summarized thus;
i. Proper orientation and Siting of buildings on site, with considerations to Sun and
Wind path is of utmost importance in the design of passive buildings.
ii. Designing to retain the natural features of the site must be given key considerations.
iii. Shading of Large windows and doors on the sides of the building facing the equator
is also important especially in tropical regions to avoid direct sunlight heating up the
interior spaces.
iv. Due to the need to cool buildings in the tropics, passive buildings should be designed
with lightweight materials and avoid the use of thermal mass in areas with very
narrow temperature ranges.
v. Controlling Noise has been a major problem in the design of passive educational
institutes.
vi. Careful studies must be conducted by Architects to determine in what ways they
could harness natural features in the site to induce passive cooling or natural
ventilation.
vii. Natural lighting must be given priority in the design of learning spaces as this has
been proven to increase health of the occupants and their alertness to activities.
viii. Major Spaces to be sought after in the design of an animation institute are as
follows:
-Administration zone 152
-Informal and Virtual learning spaces such as the Multi-Media Library
-formal learning spaces such as Lecture Buildings
-Creative spaces
-Public and ancillary facilities
-Exhibition areas and Gaming Halls ix. Thermal comfort and energy efficiency must be equally taken care of, so there must
always be introduction of energy efficient active systems to aid in cooling and
lighting passive buildings. x. Creating high head-room heights and high level windows do aid in creating induced
natural ventilation. xi. Insulating roofing elements exposed to direct sunlight in areas close to the equator
is crucial.
C 5
PRESENTATION OF ANALYSES
155
CHAPTER 5 5.0 PRESENTATION OF ANALYSES
This chapter presents a detailed analysis of the proposed site for the animation and gaming institute to be located in Enugu State, southeast Nigeria in West Africa. The aim of the analysis is to achieve a high environmental quality in the site planning through energy and water conservation, good building orientation, surface covering and landscape that cleans and restores air and water quality.
A section of this chapter also outlines the various functional spaces to be provided in the proposed
animation and gaming institute.
5.1 SITE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
The objective of a sustainable site analysis and design is to create and sustain a high quality of
environmental responsibility in design and construction of buildings, and landscape. Additionally
sustainable site planning applies the principles and practices of resource conservation and renewable energy design.
To effectively analyze the site, an overall study of its surrounding environment is important.
5.1.1 NIGERIA- A GENERAL OVERVIEW
Nigeria lies between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer as shown in figure 5.1. Nigeria's climate
varies from tropical (at the coastal areas) to subtropical (in the northern areas). This is the region
that lies between latitude 23° 27' north to 23° 27' south of the earth’s surface. Within this area the
sun is perpendicular at noon on at least one day of each year. For all the points in this region, the
sun is almost vertically overhead during the entire year. The peculiar characteristics of the tropics 156 include high amounts of sunshine, high amount of rainfall, high humidity levels, almost uniform weather throughout the year and high temperatures. Architectural design in the tropics must take into consideration the peculiar climatic features of this region.
Figure 5.1: Map of Africa showing the countries with Nigeria (coloured pink) Source: Abuja geographic information systems The south is covered mostly with tropical rain forests, and mangrove swamps towards the Niger
Delta area. The vegetation thins towards the north, as it transits from rain forest to Sahel savannah
to the fringes of the Sahara desert. 157
In Nigeria, there are two main seasons—the Dry season, lasting from November to March; and the
Rainy season, from April to October. Temperatures at the coast rarely rise above 32ºC (89.6ºF),
although humidity can be as high as 95%. During the rainy season, tropical thunderstorms are a
periodic occurrence, especially in the coastal areas, but it is generally a period of cooler
temperatures and climate. The proposed institute will be located in Enugu, which is situated within
the southern part of Nigeria as shown in fig. 5.2 below.
Figure 5.2: Map of Nigeria showing the 36 states and Enugu state (Source: http://www.igooglemaps.com/africa/nigeria).
158
5.2 ENUGU – A GENERAL OVERVIEW
Figure 5.3: map of Enugu state showing Enugu East L.G.A. Source: http://www.igooglemaps.com/africa/nigeria
The following lines describes the environmental conditions of Enugu before going forward to
analyze the micro-climatic conditions of the site and the effect of the proposed institute on the
environment.
Enugu State is a mainland state in southeastern Nigeria. Its capital is Enugu, from which the state
derives its name. The principal cities in the state are Enugu, Agbani, Awgu, Udi, Oji, and Nsukka. 159
The city has a population of about 722,664 according to the 2006 Nigerian census. The name
Enugu is derived from the two Igbo words Enu Ugwu meaning "hill top" denoting the city's hilly geography.
Industries currently in the city include the urban market and bottling industries. Enugu's main airport is the Akanu-Ibiam International Airport.
5.2.1 HISTORY
The first European settlers arrived in the area in 1909, led by a British mining engineer, Albert
Kitson. In his quest for silver, he discovered coal in the Udi Ridge. The then Colonial Governor of Nigeria, Frederick Lugard took keen interest in the discovery, and by 1914 the first shipment of coal was made to Britain. As mining activities increased in the area, a permanent cosmopolitan
settlement emerged, supported by a railway system. Enugu acquired township status in 1917 and
became strategic to British interests. Foreign businesses began to move into Enugu, the most
notable of which were John Holt, Kingsway Stores, British Bank of West Africa and United Africa
Company.
From Enugu, the British administration was able to spread its influence over the Southern Province
of Nigeria. The colonial past of Enugu is today evidenced by the Georgian building types and
meandering narrow roads within the residential area originally reserved for the whites, an area
which is today called the Government Reserved Area (GRA).
From being the capital of the Southern Provinces, Enugu became the capital of the Eastern Region
(now divided into nine States), the capital of now defunct Federal Republic of Biafra, thereafter,
the capital of East Central State and Anambra State (old), and now the capital of the present Enugu
State through a process of state creation and diffusion of administrative authority. 160
5.2.2 CITYSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURE
The tallest building in Enugu's Central Business District (CBD) is the African Continental Bank
(ACB) tower with six stories. Other tall buildings include the Hotel Presidential opened on August
1963. The seven story building contains 100 rooms and is located in the Independence Layout. In the middle of Enugu is the Michael Okpara Square, dedicated to the premier of the former Eastern
Region Michael Okpara. Beside the square is located the Enugu State Government House, Enugu
State House of Assembly and Enugu State Judiciary Complex. The popular polo park in heart of
Enugu was recently turn into a world class shopping mall comprising of Shoprite and Game, with smaller ancillary shopping units.
Plate 5.1: Enugu’s Architecture
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Enugu)
Enugu's coal mines are dotted around on the outskirts of the city, a majority of which are closed.
The Colliery Camp mines are located in the Iva Valley which is near the neighbouring town of
Ngwo and Hilltop of Enugu. The Iva Valley coal mine is accessed through the Iva Valley road
linking Enugu with Ngwo. Other coal mines are located in the Ogbete and Coal Camp layouts;
these mines are located on the periphery of the city near the Iva Valley as well. 161
Architectural design in Enugu's early years was in the hands of the British colonial administration;
Enugu's architecture was consequently very European. English cottage housing and Victorian houses were used for housing Europeans and Nigerian colonial civil servants in the early 20th century until Europeans started trying to adapt their architecture to the tropical climate. Some other examples of these European styles are visible in churches of the colonial era, such as the Holy
Ghost Cathedral with its Greco-Roman stained glass windows depicting Europeans. Enugu's roads were reflective of its British rule; much of the city's narrow roads in the GRA have been preserved dating back to the incorporation of the city itself.
5.2.3 ECONOMY
Economically, the state is predominantly rural and agrarian, with a substantial proportion of its
working population engaged in farming, although trading (18.8%) and services (12.9%) are also
important. In the urban areas trading is the dominant occupation, followed by services. A small
proportion of the population is also engaged in manufacturing activities, with the most pronounced
among them located in Enugu, Oji, Ohebedim and Nsukka.
5.2.4 ENERGY
Electricity supply is relatively stable in Enugu and its Environs. The Oji River Power Station
(which used to supply electricity to all of Eastern Nigeria) is located in Enugu State. With the
deregulation of electricity generation in Nigeria, and the privatization of the Power Holding
Company of Nigeria (PHCN), the State Government would assist private investors to negotiate the
take over and reactivation of the Oji Power Station. There is an urgent need to diversify energy
generation to include renewable green energy sources. 162
5.2.5 DEMOGRAPHICS
According to the 2006 Nigerian census, the Enugu metropolitan area has an estimated population
of 722,664. This estimate along with population estimates of other Nigerian cities have been
disputed with accusations of population inflation and deflation in favour of the northern part of the
country. The population of Enugu is predominately Christian, as is the rest of southeastern Nigeria.
Like the rest of Nigeria most people in Enugu speak Nigerian English alongside the dominant
language in the region. In this case the dominant language is Igbo. Nigerian English, or pidgin (a
mix of English and indigenous words) is often used because of ethnic diversity and sometimes
because of the diversity of dialects in the Igbo language. In cultural and linguistic terms Enugu is
within the Northern cluster of the Igbo region which includes other towns and cities like Awka
and Nsukka.
The indigenous people of Enugu include the Ogui Nike who live in the areas surrounding Hotel
Presidential, Obiagu, Ama-Igbo, Ihewuzi and Onu-Asata. Other groups include the Awkunanaw
people, who live mainly in the Achara Layout and Uwani areas. The Enugwu Ngwo people live in
Hilltop on the west of the city with their farm lands sprawling all over the valley. Other Nike
people live around the Abakpa, Iji-Nike, and Emene areas of the city. After the majority Igbo, the
Yoruba people are another significant ethnic group found in Enugu; other groups include the Hausa
and Fulani people.
Year 1921 1931 1953 1963 1982 1983 1984 1987 1991 2002 2006
population 3170 12959 62764 138457 349873 367567 385735 446535 407756 595000 722664
Table 5.1: Population growth in Enugu. Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Enugu) 163
5.2.6 TRANSPORT
The main forms of transportation in the city are taxi cabs and buses. Okada (motorcycles), once served as public transportation in the city until the state government banned them from this use in
April 2009.
The A3, or the Enugu-Port Harcourt highway, was opened in the 1970s and links the two cities
together by passing through Aba, a major urban settlement. The A3 goes further on past Enugu's
north to link to the city of Jos via Makurdi. Two more highways, the A232 from Benin City, Asaba and Onitsha to Enugu's east and the A343 from Abakaliki to Enugu's west (as shown in plate 5.2 below), makes Enugu the site of a major junction.
A343
A3
Plate 5.2: Roads A3 and A343
Source: Google earth, 2014.
The main airport in the state is the Akanu-Ibiam International Airport which can be accessed by
buses and taxis. The airport was recently upgraded to accommodate wide-bodied aircraft. 164
5.2.7 EDUCATION
Much importance is attached to education in Enugu State. Government is generally in control of the educational institutions (except most of the commercial schools) and invests about 45 per cent of its annual budget on them. The Commercial Schools are owned by private interests. The state
has more than 240 Secondary Schools, two Technical Colleges and 118 Commercial/Vocational
Schools. Every community has at least one primary school, and primary school education is tuition
free.
There are also a number of higher educational institutions for the training of intermediate and
higher level manpower. They include; Institute of Management and Technology (IMT), Enugu;
and the College of Education, Eha Amufu. Two government Universities exist in the state; the
Enugu State University of Technology (ESUT) with its campus at Enugu, and a federal university,
the University of Nigeria (UNN) with campuses again at Nsukka and Enugu.
The Institute of Ecumenical Education, Godfrey Okoye University, Caritas University and
OSISATECH, all located at Enugu, are owned by voluntary agencies. There are also in Enugu, a government approved school for delinquent children, a rehabilitation Centre run by the combined efforts of the Federal and State Governments, and an Old People's Home, run by the Catholic
Church.
5.2.8 CLIMATE
Enugu State is one of the states in the eastern part of Nigeria. The state shares borders with Abia and Imo State to the south, Ebonyi State to the east, Benue State to the northeast, Kogi State to the northwest and Anambra State to the west. 165
Enugu, the capital city of Enugu State, is approximately 2½ driving hours away from Port
Harcourt, where coal shipments exited Nigeria. Enugu is also located within an hour's drive from
Onitsha, one of the biggest commercial cities in Africa and two hours drive from Aba, another very large commercial city, both of which are trading centers in Nigeria.
Enugu has good soil-land and climatic conditions all year round, sitting at about 223 metres (732 ft)
above sea level, the soil is well drained during its rainy seasons.
The mean temperature in Enugu State in the hottest month of February is about 32 °C, while the
lowest temperatures occur in the month of November, reaching about 21 °C. The lowest rainfall
of about 10mm cubic millimetres is normal in February, while the highest is about 360 cubic millimetres in July. (Source: NIMET, 2014).
Plate 5.3: Enugu viewed from the west. Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
166
Climate data for Enugu
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high 34 35 35 34 32 31 30 30 30 31 33 33 32 °C (°F) (93) (95) (95) (93) (90) (88) (86) (86) (86) (88) (91) (91) (90)
Daily mean °C 27 29 29.5 29 27.5 27 26 26 26 26.5 27.5 26.5 27 (°F) (81) (84) (85.1) (84) (81.5) (81) (79) (79) (79) (79.7) (81.5) (79.7) (81)
Average low °C 20 23 24 24 23 23 22 22 22 22 22 20 22 (°F) (68) (73) (75) (75) (73) (73) (72) (72) (72) (72) (72) (68) (72)
Precipitation 19 15 70 130 217 252 242 237 292 201 12 8 1,695 mm (inches) (0.75) (0.59) (2.76) (5.12) (8.54) (9.92) (9.53) (9.33) (11.5) (7.91) (0.47) (0.31) (66.73)
Avg. precipitation 1 1 4 7 12 14 16 15 18 12 1 1 102 days
Mean monthly 186 174 183 183 186 153 118 118 123 174 219 217 2,034 sunshine hours
Source: The Weather Network
Table 5.2: Climate data for Enugu Source: The Weather Network (2011)
Enugu town is located in the warm humid region of Nigeria. Table 5.3 shows that Enugu town being in Southern Nigeria is warm humid all year round while there are climatic changes in
Northern Nigeria. Table 5.4 shows a summary of climatic characteristics of warm humid region, warm-humid island region, hot dry climate region, hot dry maritime desert region, composite region and tropical upland region.
The major problem in the warm humid climate is overheating; conditions are uncomfortably hot during most of the year. Therefore, thermal storage should be avoided and building materials should have a short time lag, low thermal capacity, high insulation and reflective roofs are used.
Table 5.5 shows four climates and the performance of walls and roofs required for them. 167
Table 5.3: Climatic variation between the two climatic zones identified by the National
University Commission.
Source: Ogunsote et al (2002): Defining Climatic Zones for Architectural Design in Nigeria: A
Systematic Delineation.
Table 5.4: Summary of the characteristics of the Atkinson system of climate classification.
Source: Ogunsote et al (2002): Defining Climatic Zones for Architectural Design in Nigeria: A
Systematic Delineation. 168
Thermal comfort is important in any building design and there are six major factors that determine comfort, they are ambient air temperature, humidity, radiation, air movement, intrinsic clothing and level of activity. Other factors that may have some effect on thermal comfort are age, sex, body shape, state of health, diet, sleep, colour of clothing, acclimation, availability of fresh air, transients and colour of space Ogunsote et al (2002)
Table 5.5: Recommended thermal properties for walls and roofs.
Source: Ogunsote et al (2002): Comfort Limits for the Effective Temperature Index in the
Tropics: A Nigerian Case Study. (Almond Tree Effect) 169
The air temperature, largely influenced by solar radiation is between 21 and 37 degrees; as seen in
Table 5.4. The sun’s apparent position is important to know in order to understand the sun’s effect
on the design and erection of a building. At different times of the day and in varying seasons, the
sun’s position changes, Figure 5.4 shows a typical sun path in Enugu town. The angle of incidence
of the sun is around 90° all year round.
Figure 5.4: Typical sun path in Enugu town.
Source: Author’s Sketch, 2014.
In warm humid areas it is often desirable to exclude the sun throughout the year. The sun’s position is used to orient a building for adequate ventilation, to know the amount of day lighting required in a room and calculate adequate shading devices for the building for provision of privacy and security, prevention of glare, exclusion of rainfall, allowing a view out, exclusion of dust, noises, pollution and insects and exclusion of direct solar radiation.
Sun control is easier to accomplish where the window faces True North, although successful Solar
Houses can be built with the window orientation slightly east or west of True North. Solar Heat
Gain will be greater in the morning if the window faces east and if the window is oriented west of
True north, more heat gain will occur in the afternoon. The width of the overhang increases with 170 each degree of orientation away from True North. Shading devices should be adjustable to accommodate the seasonal Position of the Sun.
Humidity is very high in the warm humid climate with low velocity calm winds. These winds are the South-West Monsoon wind and the North-East Monsoon wind. When there is low humidity, the air is very dry and sweating is more effective in cooling down the body; an example of this is in areas like Jos. However, when the humidity is high the air is damp and clammy, sweating is no longer very effective in cooling down the body. Thermal comfort can be achieved when the relative humidity is between 20 and 90%.
Figure 5.5: Map of Nigeria showing rainfall distributions.
Source: Iloeje (1977)
5.2.8.1 AIR MASSES
The two major air masses that dominate the Enugu region, namely; the tropical maritime air mass,
and the tropical continental air mass. The tropical maritime air mass is formed over the Atlantic 171
Ocean and moves from the Southwest to the Northeast of the nation. This air movement known as the South–West Monsoon Wind, is cold and moderately humid.
The tropical continental air mass is formed over the Sahara Desert and subsequently blows from
the Northeast towards the southwest. It is very dry and dusty. It is known as the North-East Trade
Wind.
These two winds are largely responsible force the seasonal characteristics observed in the various
climatic regions around the country. The Southwest Monsoon Wind is responsible for the rainy
season while the Northeast Trade Wind is responsible for the Harmattan and Dry Season.
5.2.8.2 VEGETATION
The vegetation on the highlands of Awgu in the south and stretching through its rocky
promontories’ to link with the undulating hills of Udi, is of the semi-tropical rainforest type. It is
characteristically green and is complemented in the Nsukka area in the North by typical grassy
vegetation. Fresh water swamp forests occur in the Niger Anambra Basin.
5.2.9 ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS WITH REGARDS TO ENUGU
CLIMATE
Site Planning:
The layout of buildings should be north-south with the longer axis facing east-west. There
should be large spaces between buildings to allow breeze penetration. Buildings should be
single banked to enable cross ventilation. The house form should reduce exposure to solar
radiation.
172
Openings:
Openings should be large and situated preferably in north and south walls. Permanent
ventilation should be provided. Their position should encourage body cooling. Sun-shading
devices must exclude the sun throughout the year. Rain penetration through windows is a
problem that needs to be solved.
Structure and materials:
Walls and floors should ideally be light and of low thermal capacity. This requirement is
difficult to satisfy for floors but walls can be made of louvered shutters and lightweight
materials of minimal thermal storage capacities. Roofs should be light, with a reflective
surface and cavity for ventilation. The reflective surface of roofs reduces solar heat gain
by the roof. The finishing of walls and roofs should be light to reflect solar heat. These
finishes should protect against driving rain.
Outdoor spaces:
Overhangs and verandas should be used for sun- protection. Balconies should be provided
in high rise buildings, so that occupants can enjoy the evening breeze. Courtyards help in
achieving cross ventilation in bigger buildings.
5.3 SITE LOCATION STUDIES
5.3.1 SITE LOCATION
The proposed site which sits on latitude 6.43343401°N and longitude 7.512350559°E; is located along Hill-view Avenue, in Enugu-North Local government area, Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria.
The area surrounded with institutional and residential land uses as shown in Plate 5.4 below. The 173 proposed site designated for the Institute of Gaming and Animation Enugu, is located in a natural and serene environment that is suitable for learning.
Plate 5.4: Aerial View Showing the Proposed Site and Its Surrounding Environment Source: Google Earth, 2014.
5.3.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE CHOICE OF SITE
The location of the proposed Animation and Gaming Institute in Enugu was chosen based on the following considerations:
From the Enugu master plan, the plot has been mapped out for institutional buildings. 174
The development regulations permit for medium rise institutional buildings of about 4-7
floors.
The site is close to other major institutions like the institute of management of technology
Enugu, the University of Nigeria Enugu Campus and the Nigeria Television Authority
Enugu. These institutions all stand to benefit from the proposed Institute.
The site is easily accessible.
The site has a moderate slope, therefore there will be no extensive remodeling of the topo
surface.
Availability of services like water, telecommunications, drainage, security, and mechanical
systems makes the plot very suitable.
5.4 SITE ANALYSIS
5.4.1 LAND USE ANALYSIS
Enugu North local government area is the central administrative and commercial centre in Enugu town housing institutions such as; The State House of Assembly, Nigerian Television Authority
Enugu and The Institute of Management of Technology, Federal Secretariat Enugu. The facilities
around the site are shown in plate 5.5 below. 175
Plate 5.5: Land use Map Source: Author’s site visit and sketch (2014)
5.5 PHYSICAL FEATURES ANALYSIS
5.5.1 SUN AND WIND ANALYSIS
To recieve adequate ventilation and daylighting, the building should be oriented with the longest axis facing the North and South direction with minimum opening on the east-west direction, the wind patterns and sun path are shown in Plate 5.6 respectively. Sun shading devices should be used to prevent solar rays from entering the building; as such reflective colours should be used to reduce heat absorption in the interior spaces. The building structures should also be robust to withstand extreme weather conditions. Trees which are good sources of shading should be planted and preserved to serve as windbreakers, sun shading, and to induce the outdoor experience. 176
Figure 5.6: Wind & Sun patterns across the Proposed Site
Source: Author’s sketch (2014)
5.5.1.1 SUN PATH ANALYSIS AND SHADING
It is important to study the solar path around the site so as to effectively shade the building from direct solar radiation. Enugu has an average of 5 hours of sunshine daily, ranging from about
10:00am to about 4:00pm. The angle of incidence of the sun during this period is from between
45°- 90°. Figure 5.6 shows the sun path over the site. It is important to note from the diagram that
the sun does not rise exactly from the east, but rises 6° to the south (from october to march) and
6° to the north (from april to september), depending on the time of the year. This knowledge will
help in calculating the extent of shading elements as shown in figure 5.7. 177
(a) (b)
Figure 5.6: sun path over the proposed site on january 6th(a) and on june 30th(b). Source: Author’s site research (2014)
Figure 5.7 : Shading considerations Source: Author’s site research (2014)
178
5.5.2 TOPOGRAPHY
The site slopes gently from north to south with a four meter difference in height. Drainages and bio-water retention techniques will be used to control rain water run-off and prevent erosion either within or outside the site. The presence of heavy rainfall also presents the need for high pitched roofs and adequate roof overhangs for easy drainage.
PLAN
SECTION
Figure 5.8: slope patterns on the Proposed Site
Source: Author’s sketch (2014) 179
5.5.3 ACCESS TO THE SITE
The access roads to the site runs along the northern and western boundaries of the site as shown in figure 5.7 below. Figure 5.8 shows how the traffic problems at the junction facing the site was resolved.
Figure 5.9: Existing Traffic around the Proposed Site Source: Author’s sketch (2014)
180
Figure 5.10: Proposed Traffic around the Proposed Site Source: Author’s sketch (2014)
5.6 SITE ZONING:
The location of public facilities should be close to the access roads – for facilities such as the parking lots, spaces for interactions, exhibition and gaming arcade, arts and graphics section; the 181 semi-public facilities which is a link between the public and private facilities should form an envelope for the private facilities, such as outdoor reading, conceptualizing and relaxation areas which would be preferably close to the southern end for breezes and calm scenarios, as shown in
Figure 5.9 below.
Figure 5.11: Zoning around the Proposed Site Source: Author’s sketch (2014)
The various requirements, considerations and analysis listed above will aid in the design of the
proposed Institute of Gaming and Animation, ensuring that passive design strategies are well
employed within the design to produce a facility built and operated, in an ecological and resource
efficient manner.
C 6 DESIGN SYNTHESIS
183
CHAPTER 6: DESIGN SYNTHESIS
6.1 DESIGN BRIEF
The design proposal is based on a concept of sustainability in buildings through passive design.
The spaces and the site it occupies will be structured to effectively utilize the passive energy within, to prove that sustainability does not always require technology.
The Institute of Gaming and Animation will serve as a centre for youth development and also as a landmark for revitalizing communal life within the town, as spaces for entertainment and relaxation will be provided. The design facade will also portray a futuristic view of the Information
Technology industry.
6.2 DESIGN CONCEPT
6.2.1 FUNCTION RELATED CONCEPT
The design would be used to depict the use of passive design strategies in creating sustainable built
environment in the hot humid climate of Enugu its environs. Such strategies to be adopted include:
maximizing cross ventilation
Separating and staggering buildings to capture breezes
Minimizing walls and maximizing overhead shade
Stretching buildings out east to west in order to minimize surface area facing east and
west
Blocking out solar gain, particularly the east and west sun. 184
6.2.2 INSTITUTIONAL DESIGN PLAN OPTION The type of plan suitable for the institute would be the combination of the block and cluster type
of plan. The cluster plan will work well with the institute to ensure adequate natural lighting and
ventilation due to its linear arrangement pattern as seen below:
Plate 6.1: Block plan
Plate 6.2: Cluster plan
Plate 6.3: Cluster plan types
185
6.3 Recommendation and Conclusion
Animation and Gaming is fastest growing unit in the television, movie and entertainment industry.
The institute will set Enugu and the whole of Nigeria on a high pedestal to harness this industry.
Passive design can greatly reduce resource demands. Passive design is also, by necessity, coupled
with and supportive of sustainable practices. Employing passive design strategies in urban
environments has the benefits of reducing resource consumption, making urban living more
affordable, and connecting human experience more deeply into a direct relationship with
resources.
People’s attitudes are to a great extent a reaction of their experience. When people can experience
their relationship with resources, and experience the convenience of sustainable practices, it makes
it easier for them to make sustainable choices as consumers, as voters, and as stewards.
In conclusion, the process of bringing passive design into the public consciousness may be a slow
one, but Designers and planners; however, can support this cultural change by bringing it into their
professional vocabulary, and by providing built environments that make climate-responsive living
all the easier; as demonstrated by this study.
186
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