CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Auto mobile dealership centre (Auto mall) which could be similar to a shopping mall does not exist in Enugu and in Nigeria generally. The need for such in a city whose passion to boost its image is obvious would achieve a lot in the area of fund generation, place of tourists attraction, place for relaxation and a structure to compliment the Governments effort of making Nigeria a hub in the African economy. In addition to that structure adding positive beauty, its value to the environment will go a long way of joining in the human race for green architecture.

The incidence of fire disasters in buildings has become a social concern both to the building professionals and the users; but it has helped the building professionals to relentlessly seek solutions to fire disasters. Fire disasters provoke new ideas that promote the safety of the users. The need for fire safety design and construction of buildings cannot be over-emphasized.

Therefore, in this project research, attention is basically and succinctly given to the aspect of the fire hazards in buildings through two basic measures – precautionary and construction measures. Precautionary measures are considered to be passive measures or in-built characteristics which are inherently safe and are effective by their presence. For example, clarity of design, good access, simple circulation, ventilation, compartmentation, the resistance of materials against spread of flame, good means of escape. Control measures are considered to be active measures: those which come into use when the fire breaks out. For example, detection of alarm systems, sprinkler systems, emergency lighting, smoke, fusible link doors and shutters.

1.0.1 Fire Hazards

The hazards caused by fires are numerous. According to the National Fire protection Association (NFPA), (1994) report, the most significant cause of death in building fires is smoke, which accounted for 73% of fire-related deaths in 1990,. However, fires also can cause structural collapse of buildings, and burns cause the remainder of deaths from fire.

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Fire is spread by many items that can be found in a building. For example, furniture, window and wall coverings, and other interior finishes all support flame and smoke, along with wood structural members in buildings. However, building codes require that many items in a residential or commercial building resist the spread of flame and development of smoke. Those same codes require that structures within buildings (e.g. walls and floor- ceiling assemblies) resist the passage of flame and smoke for extended periods of time.

Fire hazards in work place like an Auto Mall are generally categorized into four groups:

(i) Ignition Sources, (ii) Materials, (iii) Building Hazards and, most importantly, (iv) Personnel Hazards.

1.0.2 FIRE FIGHTING IN GENERAL

Fire fighting comprises the techniques and equipment used to extinguish fires and limit the damage caused by them. Fire fighting consists of removing one or more of the three elements essential to combustion—fuel, heat, and oxygen or of interrupting the combustion chain reaction.

Safety is taken to mean the protection of the occupants of a building (and to a lesser extent their possessions) from accident. Security is taken to mean protection from willful attack these occupants, their possessions may suffer as a result of fire outbreak (Marsh, 1985, p24). Safety has to do with sheer accident, while security deals with someone‘s willful intent

Fire is therefore, a borderline case for it is usually accidental in origin and is considered to be a safety subject. Fires in buildings are nearly always man-made, that is resulting from error or negligence. Despite the apparent sophistication of modern living, the risk inherent in the misuse or accident of using fuel for fire in cooking, warming and lighting has not been eliminated.

In medieval times, dwellings were mostly of timber-framed construction with thatched roofs, over-hanging eave and narrow lane-ways. These all aided conflagrations. For example, the great fire of London in1666 destroyed four-fifth of the city before it was brought under control. (Sheild, T, Silcock, G. 1987).

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Fire could threaten the total destruction of a whole or large part of a city. Once fire had reached very large magnitude, the radiations issuing from it could ignite materials and structures about 100 meters away. At this stage, containment of the fire might no longer be possible.

The most important reason why such catastrophes are now less frequent is probably the general adoption of the rule that any fire should be contained within the building of origin by the use of fire-resistant building components, by spatial separation, and by fire fighting. Design recommendations concerning spatial separation generally involve the assumption that fire fighting will reduce the risk of ignition of adjacent buildings, both by wetting them down and spraying water on the primary fire, thereby reducing the fire's level of thermal radiation. Fire-resistant construction is sometimes adequate, but often fire fighting is essential if a fire is to be contained during outbreak.

1.0.3 Brief description of Enugu (project site)

Enugu popularly called the coal city state is located in the eastern heartland, capital of Enugu State, 93 km (58 mi) northeast of Onitsha. Lying at the southeastern foot of the Udi Hills, Enugu is a major coal-mining, administrative, educational, and trading center. The state shares borders with Abia State and Imo State to the south, Ebonyi State to the east, Benue State to the northeast, Kogi State to the northwest and Anambra State to the west. Enugu, the capital city of Enugu State, is approximately 2½ driving hours away from Port Harcourt, where coal shipments exited Nigeria. Enugu is also located within an hour's drive from Onitsha, one of the biggest commercial cities in Africa and 2 hours drive from Aba, another very large commercial city, both of which are trading centers in Nigeria. Manufactures include steel, tile, pottery, asbestos, cement, petroleum products, pharmaceuticals, and machinery. Enugu is the site of Enugu State University of Science and Technology (1980), the Enugu campus of the University of Nigeria (1960), and the Institute of Management and Technology (1973). The Nigerian Army‘s Airborne Division is headquartered in Enugu. The present city was founded in 1909 after coal deposits were discovered at the nearby village of Enugu Ngwo. Enugu became an administrative center after the railroad to Port Harcourt was completed in 1912. Population (1995 estimate) 308,200.

The Enugu State Government in its bid to realize its aspiration of developing a world-class state capital in the city, intends to partner with the private sector for the provision of public

3 | P a g e infrastructure in all sectors of the Enugu development on the basis of Public Private Partnership (PPP) framework as applicable in the FCT. This objective is in tandem with the focus of the current administration for massive infrastructure development of Enugu as well as the recent launch of the Vision 20-2020 document whose main policy thrust is sustainable infrastructure development through the PPP initiative by the federal Government of Nigeria.

A dream which they believe will make the south East the business hub in Nigeria. As a result of such dream many projects have started to erupt which are evident on ground that Enugu definitely is trying to set the standard in the south east of the country and a place Nigerians would be proud to identify with. In so doing, the city is becoming modern due to the provision of basic, modern infrastructure and buildings that are contemporary.

In realizing aforementioned dream, such projects to actualize that include:

 The proposed new state of the art secretariat for Enugu state  Polo park mall  light Rail Transport  massive road construction and upgrading of existing ones

According to one of Nigerian daily newspapers, (THE PUNCH article Saturday, 18 Apr 2009)

“A survey carried out by our correspondent in Lagos last week: shows that many Nigerians who have the financial resources to change their cars are now moving up. They are graduating from Tokunbo to brand new ones.

Auto dealers have come up with different finance schemes, which enable people to pay certain percentage of the cost of new vehicles and spread the balance over a period of time, ranging from three to five years.

Some even encourage buyers with a zero per cent deposit.

The Executive Director, Briscoe Motors, Mr. Seyi Onajide, whose firm deals in Toyota and Ford cars, said tokunbo cars were becoming unfashionable, due to the collaborative efforts of dealers of new cars and banks.

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He also attributed the renewed interests of the financial institutions in auto finance to the bank recapitalisation.

Many banks have created transport desks to cater for vehicle purchase loans for individuals and organisations.

Banks such as Skye Bank, Access Bank, Intercontinental, UBA, Diamond Bank and First Bank use the car financing scheme as an attractive advertisement strategy.

Mr. Agbolade Deinde is a beneficiary of the vehicle finance system. He had spoken to a friend about his intention to buy a tokunbo car when he was told of the scheme.

”The whole deal was sealed and delivered in two weeks,” he recalled.

He, however, said that because he had to keep the promise of paying N30,000 every month, he had to scale down drastically on his monthly expenditure.

Recent statistics from the nation„s auto dealers shows that over 50,000 vehicles were sold in the country last year, up from about 20,000 units of five years ago. The Toyota brand was said to have accounted for over 15,000 units.

The Managing Director of the firm, Mr. Seyi Oyinlola, said Hyra had sold over 2,000 units of the Geely brand in less than two years of business in Nigeria. Similarly, the auto firm sold over 500 units of the Brilliance cars in less than six months.

Dealers of new Korean brands such as Kia and Haundai have also acknowledged high sales of the vehicles in the country in the last two years.

The Marketing Manager, Dana Motors, Mr. Chetan Mehan, said that the auto financing in Nigeria was still growing. According to him, it is about 30 per cent, adding that in the developed world, auto finance and other forms of credit facilities, accounted for about 90 per cent of sales in the auto market. (culled from THE PUNCH article Saturday, 18 Apr 2009 titled :How finance schemes empower Nigerians to own new cars).

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1.1 STATEMENT OF ARCHITECTURAL PROBLEM

The destructive extent of fire in buildings is great due to lack of adequate and appropriate consideration for safety (precautionary and control measures) measures which should be pre-emptive in nature. The common problem is that of planning, designing, and construction of buildings without making adequate and appropriate fire safety provisions all through these processes. Coupled with this, is the ineffective usage of fire fighting equipment which rather than controlling the fire, supports/enhances it due to lack of proper maintenance. It is also worthy of mention the moral decadence in our society which encourages these salient lapses during the approval stage in planning and execution of the building project.

1.2 THE AIM OF STUDY

The aim of this project work is to discuss the nature of fire and the safety measures which must be observed to prevent and control its outbreak in an auto Mall centre.

1.3 THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

In order to achieve this aim, the objectives are

1) Examination of the nature and growth of fire,

2) Discussion on fire and the advancement of civilization,

3) Research into some case studies and appraisal their fire-safety measures,

4) Suggestion of possible ways of preventing fire incidence and controlling its damage during outbreak,

5) Suggestion of fire fighting techniques and evacuation procedures during outbreak.

Also the design of the auto mobile dealership center (Auto mall) will be based on the following objectives;

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 To create conducive environment for shoppers who wish to own their own cars.  To create an environment good and safe enough to accommodate the specified function.  To create a place where individual would have the opportunity to shop for original car spare parts and service already owned ones.  To assist the government in its effort of boosting the image of Enugu and Nigeria as a whole in the area of building contemporary structures which would attract tourists and at the same time generate revenue to government.  To help in assisting prospective car owner in getting quality value for their money.

1.4 MOTIVATION

The essence and impact of reliable fire safety precautions in our buildings cannot be overemphasized. Most building in this part of the world are not subjected to fire safety test to determine its safety limits. Hence, the need for proper awareness for designers, developer and regulator to ensure that every building meets the minimum fire safety requirement.

Fire is one of the greatest threats to a business. It can start almost anywhere and can destroy everything in its path. We can never be too careful when it comes to preventing a fire in the workplace.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

In the design of any facility (buildings) expected to house many users within a specific period, there is a clear need for the safety of such users from fire hazards. It should be remembered that many firemen died due to inefficient fire-fighting equipment in the Cocoa House fire in Ibadan (Ogunsote, 2002). Also, the three separate infernos which engulfed the Ministry of Education building, the NNPC building, and the Nigerian External Telecommunications Building indicate the inadequacy of our existing Building Codes and fire-fighting equipment (ibid). There is therefore, the need to minimise the incidence of fire disasters which bring untold loss of human lives and property.

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1.6 THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This research work is only limited to the fire-safety and precautionary measures employed in an automobile centre and its environment.

1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The data for this study will be from primary and secondary sources such as geographical, historical and sociological. The data collected will be collated, analyzed and synthesized to form the basis of the design approach. According to Okoko (2001), research methodology is referred to as a tool that serves as scaffolding for the validation, proper analysis and interpretation of data towards guiding a researcher for the realization of the set goals and objectives. It could also be simply referred to as the various processes, procedures, methods and instrumentalities by which data are secured, specified, collated, processed and analyzed. The following methods are to be used:

1. Observation: this involves making direct observations. Existing situations in different buildings will be studied and notes taken of their architectural merits and demerits. 2. Literature Review: relevant text books, newspapers, journals and other books on building design, planning, and fire safety will be studied or perused. 3. Ocular presentation: pictures of the case studies will be taken to give first-hand information about the existing situations of the problems. It is a reliable source of information because it shows the exact situation of the problems. 4. Field trip: relevant examples of case studies will be evaluated. Thorough analyses will also be carried out in order to discover the thought process behind the design.

1.8 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Compartmentation: this is the division of a building into separate layers/partitions by using fire-resisting elements during building construction in order to contain fire within the compartment of origin.

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Combustible material: this is the material which is susceptible to catching fire or burning very easily.

Conflagration: this is fire that occurs when several buildings are involved.

Direct distance: this is the shortest distance from any point in a room regardless of furniture layout.

Escape route: the term ‗escape route‘ means a route from any point in a building to a final exit. Escape routes must not terminate in enclosed courtyards as this would lead to trapping of occupant during fire outbreak.

Fire stop: it is a barrier which prevents the passage of smoke within a cavity.

Fire protection: measures taken to lessen the danger to the occupants of a building.

Fire precautions: these are measures, both preventive and protective, taken to reduce the fire risk. They include the provision of adequate facilities for the escape of the occupants in the event of an outbreak and minimizing the spread of fire.

Flammable materials: these are materials which are easily set on fire.

Flaming: this is the oxidation of liberated gases generating heat and light. Once a material ignites, a flame forms. The flame consists of volatile gases moving upward, and it is the region in which the combustion reaction occurs. The gases in flame move upward because they are hotter and therefore lighter – than the surrounding air. Different parts of the flame have different temperatures.

Flash over: this is a term used to denote the sudden burst into flame of a large area that has been heated by an adjacent fire.

Gases: fires can produce a number of different gases, including some that are harmless and some that are toxic. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are two relatively harmless gases produced by fires. Toxic gases from fire include carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, sulphur dioxide, and hydrogen chloride. The specific gases and the amount of gas fire produces depend on the type of fuel involved and the environment surrounding the fire.

Ignition temperature: it is the temperature at which ignition or self-burning commences or starts.

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Incandescence: this is a glowing heat with high temperature. Different fuels produce varying amounts of heat. The rate at which fire generates heat is equal to the burning rate of the fuel (measured in g/s) multiplied by the amount of heat produced by the combustion reaction.

Smoldering: this is a non-flaming combustion, that is combustion without flame; sometimes with incandescence and usually with the emission of smoke.

Smokes: these are clouds of fine particles usually very hot, which are the product of incomplete combustion.

Travel distance: this is the distance within a room taking account of fixed furniture.

Auto mall: It is like a shopping mall but for cars, each dealer is connected, creating a structure that is all under one roof. Typically they are smaller than parks and may only have one actual owner with several franchises.

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REFERENCE

Bisiriyu, R. (2009, April 18). How finance schemes empower Nigerians to own new cars. Retrieved October 20, 2010, from The Punch On web: http://www.punchng.com/Maincat.aspx?thecat=NEWS

THE PUNCH article Saturday, 18 Apr 2009: How finance schemes empower Nigerians to own new cars.

Mullin, J. M. (1996). Auto Parks Map Out the Future of Car Buying in America. Commercial Investment Real Estate , 1-2.

Okoko, E.E. (2001); Quantitative Techniques in urban analysis: Kraft books ltd Ibadan.

Marsh, P. (1985); Security in Buildings: Longman Inc., New York. pp.45.

National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 1994: Standard on Protective Ensembles for Chemical/Biological Terrorism Incidents, 2001 Edition

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 General overview of fire

Fire, reaction involving fuel and oxygen that produces heat and light. Early humans used fire to warm themselves, cook food, and frighten away predators. Sitting around a fire may have helped unite and strengthen family groups and speed the evolution of early society. Fire enabled our human ancestors to travel out of warm, equatorial regions and, eventually, spread throughout the world. But fire also posed great risks and challenges to early people, including the threat of burns, the challenge of controlling fire, the greater challenge of starting a fire, and the threat of wildfires.

As early civilizations developed, people discovered more uses for fire. They used fire to provide light, to make better tools, and as a weapon in times of war. Early religions often included fire as a part of their rituals, reflecting its importance to society. Early myths focused on fire‘s power. One such myth related the story of Vesta, the Roman goddess of the earth. To honor Vesta, the high priest of the Roman religion periodically chose six priestesses, called Vestal Virgins, to keep a fire going in a community hearth. Keeping a controlled fire burning played a central part in communal life. Before the invention of modern implements, starting a fire, especially in adverse weather, usually required much time and labor to generate sufficient friction to ignite kindling. If people let their fire go out, they had to spend considerable time to start it again before they could eat and get warm.

Today people naturally focus not on starting fires but on using fire productively and on preventing or extinguishing unwanted fires. We use fire to cook food and to heat our homes. Industries use fire to fuel power plants that produce electricity. At the same time, fire remains a potentially destructive force in people‘s lives. Natural fires started by lightning and volcanoes destroy wildlife and landscapes. Careless disposal of cigarettes and matches or carelessness with campfires leads to many wildfires. Fires in the home and workplace damage property and cause injury and death. Fires usually cost the United States and Canada more each year than floods, tornadoes, and other natural disasters combined.

Scientists and fire protection engineer‘s work together to help people use fire safely and productively. Smoke detectors and automatic sprinklers in homes and the workplace have

12 | P a g e reduced property loss, deaths, and injuries due to fire. Engineers continue to develop more fire-resistant materials for use in furniture, buildings, automobiles, subway cars, and ships. The development of new engineering approaches and new building codes and standards has led to safer buildings without dramatically increasing costs of construction.

2.0.1 Early use of fire

The earliest use of fire by humans may have occurred as early as 1.4 million years ago. Evidence for this was found in Kenya—a mound of burned clay near animal bones and crude stone tools, suggesting a possible human campsite. However, this fire could have resulted from natural causes. Homo erectus, a species of human who lived from about 1.8 million to about 30,000 years ago, was the first to use fire on a regular basis. Evidence of a fire tended continuously by many generations of Homo erectus, dating to about 460,000 years ago, has been found in China. Scientists have also found evidence of tended hearths dating back as many as 400,000 years in several parts of France.

Homo erectus was the first human species to leave equatorial Africa in large numbers and spread to other continents. Many scientists believe that the use of fire enabled Homo erectus to adapt to new environments by providing light, heat, and protection from dangerous animals. Tending fires probably helped foster social behavior by bringing early humans together into a small area. Fires may have tightened family groups as the families congregated around a fire to protect their young. Homo erectus may have used fire to cook food.

The use of fire became widespread throughout Africa and Asia about 100,000 years ago. By this time anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens, had evolved and existed alongside their near relatives, the Neandertals (Homo neanderthalensis). Clear indications of hearths have been found in Israel in Neandertal settlements that date from 60,000 years ago. The Neandertals died out about 28,000 years ago.

2.0.2 Early fire making techniques

Sometime after people began to use stone for tools, they found that by rubbing together pieces of flint they could produce sparks that would set fire to wood shavings. Scientists have found evidence that people used pieces of flint and iron to produce sparks for fires 25,000 to 35,000 years ago.

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Early people also learned to make fires by rubbing together pieces of wood until the wood produced a hot powder that could light kindling. Later, people made fires by using wood devices that had been developed for other purposes. The fire drill was an adaptation of the bow and the drill. It consisted of a block of wood and a stick that was fixed in the looped string of a small, curved bow. The fire builder moved the bow in a sawing motion, with one end of the stick against the block of wood. This motion rotated the stick rapidly against the wood block, creating friction between the end of the stick and the block of wood. The friction produced a glowing wood powder that could be fanned into a flame and used to light a fire.

Early people of southeastern Asia produced fire another way. They used a wood piston to compress air inside a bamboo tube that contained wood shavings. The compressed air became increasingly hotter, eventually igniting the shavings.

The people of ancient civilizations improved on methods of fire-making. Glassmaking among the Greeks led to the development of lenses, which the Greeks used to focus sunlight on, and thereby ignite, bundles of dry sticks. As the use of metals in toolmaking increased, people developed the tinderbox. This moisture-proof, metal carrying case held tinder, usually charred cotton or linen cloth, and pieces of steel and flint. Striking the steel and flint together produced a spark that lighted the tinder. Later the Japanese devised a tinderbox that operated like a present-day cigarette lighter, in which the rotary motion of a metal wheel against flint set off sparks in tinder. Finally, in the mid-19th century, a reliable form of the phosphorus match was developed.

2.0.3 Fire and the advance of civilization

As early people began to live in larger communities and to develop more advanced technologies, fire became a central part of their lives. Fire continues to be essential to humans today, although its presence may be hidden in gas-fired ovens and furnaces and thus less noticeable than before.

Pre-historic use of fire: Thousands of years ago hunter-gatherers (people who lived by hunting and gathering wild food) developed a number of valuable uses for fire. With fire they could remain active after the sun set, protect themselves from predators, warm themselves, cook, and make better tools.

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People began using fire as a source of light by taking advantage of the glow of wood- burning fires to continue their activities after dark and inside their dwellings, which were usually natural caves. Eventually people learned to dip branches in pitch to form torches. They created crude lamps by filling a hollowed out piece of stone with moss soaked in oil or tallow (a substance derived from animal fat).

By cooking with fire, prehistoric people made the meat of the animals they killed more palatable and digestible. They learned to preserve meat by smoking it over a fire, vastly decreasing the danger of periodic starvation. Cooking also enabled them to add some formerly inedible plants to their food supplies.

Fire enabled people to make better weapons and tools. In prehistoric times, hunters formed spears from tree branches by burning the tips of the branches and then scraping the charred ends into a point. They used fire to straighten and harden tools made of green wood. People eventually learned to control the spread of a fire by blowing at it through reed pipes. They then used this technique to burn hollows in logs to create cradles, bowls, and canoes.

Fire in early civilization: When prehistoric people developed the ability to cultivate crops and raise animals, they began to form permanent communities. These communities amassed food surpluses, enabling some people to devote their time to becoming skilled artisans. The artisans first used fire to make pottery and bricks. The first potters worked around 6500 BC in Mesopotamia, one of the earliest centers of civilization, located in modern-day Iraq and eastern Syria. They placed wet clay vessels in open fires to harden and waterproof them. By 3000 bc, Egyptian potters used fire in earthen kilns, or ovens, to bake bricks out of a mixture of mud and straw. Later, potters in Babylonia and Assyria, in the area now known as Iraq, used fire in stone kilns to create high temperatures that produced extremely durable pottery.

Fire became the center of daily life in the ancient civilizations. Most of the mud, thatch, or wood houses in which ancient people lived contained a hearth, or fireplace, in the center. Smoke escaped through a hole directly overhead in the roof. Some of the houses, as well as tenements in crowded cities such as Rome and Athens, were heated by braziers (metal pans that held charcoal fires). The large houses of the rich in the Roman Empire were heated by movable stoves, or even furnaces, from which hot air flowed to a heat chamber under some of the rooms. Modern household stoves and furnaces stem from these developments.

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Ancient peoples developed improved devices for using fire to provide light. By 2000 BC they began using candles made of yarn or dry rushes dipped in animal fat. The Egyptians and Greeks introduced more advanced forms of the oil lamp, filling a shell or carved stone with animal or vegetable oil and introducing a floating wick. Later people began to use pottery or metal dishes with a spout for the wick. Lamps remained the basic source of light, with gas and kerosene later being used as fuel, until the development of the electric bulb in the 19th century.

Fire was essential in metalworking, which developed after 4000 BC. At this time Sumerian artisans, who preceded the Babylonians, melted copper ore for casting tools and weapons in a fire over an earthen hearth. The hearth contained a hole to collect the hot, liquid metal. Later, artisans lined the hearth hole with stone, creating the first furnace. Eventually, to increase the heat, they used bellows to force air into the fire and developed the first blast furnace. People also found they could create a hotter fire by burning carbonized (partially burned) sticks and twigs. They eventually produced charcoal, a compact, efficient fuel, by slowly smoldering wood in an oven with little air.

The history of people‘s use of fire includes many difficulties involved in controlling fire. Early cities were often ravaged by fires. The ancient city of Troy, located in present-day Turkey, was destroyed several times by fire, perhaps due to war, perhaps to accident. One of the world‘s greatest losses was caused by a fire in the great library in Alexandria, Egypt, in 48 BC. This fire destroyed the world‘s most complete collection of ancient Greek and Roman writings.

Modern use of fire: Fire continues to be a basic, everyday element of most people‘s lives. Any home appliance that uses methane, propane, or oil relies on fire to operate. These appliances include gas- or oil-fired (but not electrically operated) water heaters, boilers, hot air furnaces, clothes dryers, stoves, and ovens. Many people use wood or, sometimes, coal in fireplaces or stoves to supplement the main heating system in their homes. In the countryside, people destroy leaves and brush by burning them. People also make outdoor fires to cook food in barbecues and over campfires. Today, many people enjoy sitting around a campfire, keeping warm and telling stories, just as people have for tens of thousands of years.

Industries use fire to manufacture products and dispose of waste. Companies use heating and drying appliances similar to, but often much larger than, the ones in homes. Large

16 | P a g e industrial incinerators destroy garbage, including household, medical, and industrial waste. Fire can render toxic waste harmless when it burns such waste in special incinerators. This waste often cannot be destroyed in any other way. Fires also heat large boilers to generate steam, which then powers large turbines. These turbines generate electricity that provides power and heat to industries and homes. Large power plants may generate electricity using fuels such as coal, gas, and even wood or garbage to create fires.

In some parts of the world, people use fire to prepare land for growing crops. Farmers in developed countries may burn plant material after a harvest to clear fields and return nutrients to the soil. Small-scale farmers in tropical regions sometimes practice slash-and- burn agriculture, in which wild plants and trees are burned to clear patches of land for cultivation and to quickly enrich nutrient-poor tropical soils. In recent decades widespread use of slash-and-burn agriculture has caused significant damage to the world's rainforests.

People use fire as a weapon in times of war. Armies use napalm, a highly flammable substance, to spread fire. The fire can either directly kill enemy soldiers or destroy foliage, making enemy soldiers easier to find.

2.0.4 Chemistry of fire

Fires start when a flammable and/or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen oxidizers exist that can replace oxygen), is exposed to a source of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right proportions. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not directly involved in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily.

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Figure 2.1: The fire tetrahedron Source: Shields, T.J., Silcock, G.W.H., 1987

2.0.4.1 Fuel and oxygen

Most combustible fuels begin as solids, such as wood, wax, and plastic. Many fuels that people burn for energy, including gasoline and methane (natural gas), begin as either a liquid or a gas. Any fuel must be in a gaseous state (so that it can react with oxygen) before a fire can occur. Heat from the fire‘s ignition source, and later from the fire itself, decomposes solid and liquid fuels, releasing flammable gases called volatiles. Some solids, such as the wax in a candle, melt into a liquid first. The liquid then evaporates, giving off volatiles that may then burn. Other solids, such as wood and cotton, decompose and evaporate directly. In a wood fire, gases given off by the decomposing wood enter the flame, combine with oxygen from the surrounding air, and ignite. The heat from the flame decomposes more wood, thus adding more flammable gases to the flame and creating a self-supporting process.

Most common fuels consist of compounds containing the elements carbon and hydrogen. Fuels often also contain oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, and sulfur. Cellulose is the principle combustible compound in wood, paper, and cotton. It contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Plastics that burn, such as polyvinylchloride (PVC), polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), nylon, and polyurethane, are composed mostly of carbon and hydrogen. Liquid fuels include oil and gasoline, while gaseous fuels include methane, propane, and hydrogen. All of these fuels (except pure hydrogen) contain both carbon and hydrogen.

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2.0.4.2 Ignition source

A fire can start when a fuel becomes so hot that it releases sufficient flammable gases for combustion to occur. At this temperature, called the fuel‘s piloted ignition temperature, a spark or flame will start the combustion reaction. One source of piloted ignition is an open flame, such as that from a match or lighter. Sparks, such as those generated by electricity, may also ignite a fire. Engineers and scientists usually use the term piloted ignition to refer to solid fuels. Liquid fuels have, instead, a flash point temperature. At a liquid‘s flash point, an ignition source will cause a flame to flash across the surface of the liquid.

The unpiloted ignition temperature of a fuel, also called its spontaneous ignition temperature, is the temperature the fuel must reach to ignite on its own. It is higher than the piloted ignition temperature, because a flame or spark is not present to provide the extra heat needed to kick-start the chemical reaction. Heat within the fuel provides this energy. Some fuels do not have a spontaneous ignition temperature because they break down into other substances before they can ignite on their own. Flammable gases have just one ignition temperature. They will ignite at this temperature if they are present in the right concentrations.

Ignition depends not only on a fuel‘s ignition temperature but also on the way the fuel absorbs heat. This absorption determines how heat will affect the fuel‘s temperature. A fuel‘s capacity to absorb heat depends on the type of fuel involved and its arrangement. Thick logs, for example, can absorb a large amount of heat before they reach their ignition temperature. Small twigs, however, need just a small amount of heat to reach the same ignition temperature. Fuels also need to absorb heat at or above a certain rate for ignition to occur. (The absorption rate can be expressed as units of heat absorbed per unit of time.) At the minimum absorption rate, the fuel will eventually reach its ignition temperature. A piece of wood will never ignite if the ignition source produces heat at a rate slower than the minimum rate required for ignition.

2.0.4.3 Chain reaction

The final requirement for a fire is a chemical chain reaction. The heat of the ignition source starts the reaction, and heat from the fire‘s flame continues the reaction. The flame needs to

19 | P a g e heat the fuel and make it release enough flammable gases to continuously support the chemical reaction. A common example of combustion is the burning of wood. When an ignition source heats wood to a sufficient temperature, about 260°C (500°F), the cellulose in the wood decomposes, producing volatile gases and char. The average composition of the gases can be represented by the compound CH2O, where C stands for carbon, H stands for hydrogen, and O stands for oxygen. Under ideal conditions, CH2O reacts with oxygen in the air and produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O). In the real world conditions are not ideal, so fires often produce other products as well, such as carbon monoxide (CO) and soot. The following equations show the two main stages involved in burning wood. The italicized letters represent numbers that depend on the conditions of the fire, such as how quickly the fire burns and the specific composition of the wood.

2.0.5 Burning rate of fire

Different kinds of fires burn at different rates—one fire may slowly smolder, while another may quickly use up its fuel. The rate at which a fire burns depends on the composition of the fuel, the surface area of the fuel, and the amount of oxygen that is available.

Most plastics burn at twice the rate of cellulose fuels, such as wood and leaves, because of the different chemical reactions involved. The burning rate of the same fuel, however, can also vary depending on how much of the fuel‘s surface is exposed to the air. As the exposed surface of a fuel increases in comparison to its volume, the burning rate of the fuel increases as well. When the fuel‘s gases have more surface area from which to escape, they can come into contact with more air. The increased exposure to air increases the amount of oxygen available for combustion. For example, people often use small twigs and pieces of wood called kindling to start a campfire. Kindling has a large amount of surface area compared to its volume. Its relatively large surface area to volume ratio also means that kindling heats and ignites more easily than thicker pieces of wood. Once ignited, kindling burns very quickly.

2.0.6 Product of combustion

The products that a fire releases, and the rate at which it releases them, depend on the fuel and on the fire‘s burning rate. Some fuels will produce more heat than others as they burn, and some will produce different kinds of gases. A fire that burns slowly may produce

20 | P a g e different products than one that burns quickly. The burning rate also affects the rate at which a fire releases products.

2.0.6.1 Light and heat: Once a material ignites, a flame forms. The flame consists of volatile gases moving upward, and it is the region in which the combustion reaction occurs. The gases in the flame move upward because they are hotter—and therefore lighter—than the surrounding air. The colors in the flame come from unburned carbon particles that glow and travel upward as the flame heats them. The flame continues to burn as the volatile gases streaming from the fuel combine with oxygen from the surrounding air. Different parts of the flame have different temperatures. Most common fuels are compounds called hydrocarbons, and they produce about the same flame temperature, roughly 1200°C (2200°F). The maximum theoretical flame temperature for most hydrocarbons is about 1300°C (2400°F).

Different fuels produce varying amounts of heat. The rate at which a fire generates heat is equal to the burning rate of the fuel (measured in grams per second, or g/s) multiplied by the amount of heat produced by the combustion reaction. This second factor is called the effective heat of combustion, and scientists measure it in units of kilojoules per gram (kJ/g). When a gram of wood burns, for example, it produces 8 kJ of heat energy. Wood‘s effective heat of combustion is therefore 8 kJ/g. Polyurethane‘s effective heat of combustion is about 18 kJ/g. Polyurethane‘s burning rate is also about twice that of wood under similar conditions. Multiplying the burning rates for these two substances by their effective heats of combustion, one finds that polyurethane fires produce heat at about 4.5 times the rate of wood fires under similar conditions.

2.0.6.2 Gases: Fires can produce a number of different gases, including some that are harmless and some that are toxic. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O) are two relatively harmless gases produced by fires. Toxic gases from fires include carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and hydrogen chloride (HCl).

The specific gases and the amount of gas a fire produces depend on the type of fuel involved and the environment surrounding the fire. Different fuels will react differently in the combustion reaction, producing gases and amounts of gas specific to that type of fuel. For example, in well-ventilated conditions, polyurethane foam produces ten times more carbon monoxide for each gram burned than does wood. Fires that burn in an oxygen-rich

21 | P a g e environment will also produce less carbon monoxide than fires that burn where little oxygen is present. A well-ventilated fire has plenty of oxygen, so nearly all of the fuel‘s volatile gases can take part in the combustion reaction, combining with oxygen in the air to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor. These fires produce less carbon monoxide because there is less carbon and oxygen left over from the initial combustion reaction to form carbon monoxide.

Fires that occur in an environment lacking sufficient oxygen will burn incompletely and smolder. These fires produce increasing amounts of carbon monoxide. For example, in an enclosed room, a fire will use up oxygen from the air as it progresses, decreasing the amount of oxygen in the room over time. Without sufficient oxygen, the volatile gases from the fire cannot fully take part in the combustion reaction. Some of the gases instead react to form carbon monoxide, which requires less oxygen than combustion. Eventually, the amount of oxygen decreases below the level necessary for continued combustion, causing the fire to self-extinguish. Depending on the type of fuel, most fires self-extinguish at an oxygen concentration between 12 and 14 percent (by volume). By contrast, normal atmospheric air has an oxygen concentration of 21 percent.

2.0.6.3 Soot: As fires produce light, heat, and gases, they also produce soot, consisting of mostly carbon particles. Smoke may be defined either as just the soot particles given off by a fire, or as both the soot and the gaseous products of combustion.

The amount of soot produced by a fire depends on the type of fuel, the fuel‘s burning rate, and environmental conditions. Most plastic fuels produce more soot than wood and other cellulose fuels. Plastics also usually burn more quickly than wood. Under similar conditions, for example, a slab of polyurethane will burn almost twice as fast as a slab of wood. The composition of plastic and plastic‘s more rapid burning rate cause it to produce about 2.7 times as much soot as does wood. Fires also tend to produce more soot when they smolder and less soot when they burn freely in a well-ventilated area, with plenty of oxygen available.

Approximate soot production fuel (mass of soot produced per mass of fuel burned) Acetone 0.014

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Acrylic 0.022 Ethanol 0.008 Gasoline 0.038 Polystyrene 0.02 Polyurethane foam 0.20 Wood 0.015 Table 2.1.: Soot production table Source: Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009.

2.0.7 Flame

A flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible, infrared, and sometimes ultraviolet light, the frequency spectrum of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning material and intermediate reaction products. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas, incandescent solid particles called soot produce the familiar red-orange glow of 'fire'. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine also produces a flame, producing hydrogen chloride (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many, are fluorine and hydrogen, and hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide.

The glow of a flame is complex. Black-body radiation is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon emission by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for the emission spectra. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, the fire is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.

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The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States has recently found that gravity also plays a role in flame formation. Modifying the gravity causes different flame types. ( Spiral flames in microgravity, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2000). The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection, as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In micro gravity or zero gravity, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it may go out if not moved steadily, as the CO2 from combustion does not disperse as readily in micro gravity, and tends to smother the flame). There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is sufficiently evenly distributed that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs. (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2005). Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in micro gravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in micro gravity when compared to normal gravity conditions (ibid. 2005) These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.

In combustion engines, various steps are taken to eliminate a flame. The method depends mainly on whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a high-energy fuel such as jet fuel.

2.0.7.1 Typical temperatures of fires and flames

Oxyhydrogen flame: 2000 °C or above (3600 °F)[7]

Bunsen burner flame: 1,300 to 1,600 °C (2,400 to 2,900 °F)[8]

Blowtorch flame: 1,300 °C (2,400 °F)[9]

Candle flame: 1,000 °C (1,800 °F)

Smoldering cigarette:

. Temperature without drawing: side of the lit portion; 400 °C (750 °F); middle of the lit portion: 585 °C (1,100 °F)

. Temperature during drawing: middle of the lit portion: 700 °C (1,300 °F)

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. Always hotter in the middle.

2.0.7.2 Temperatures of flames by appearance

The temperature of flames with carbon particles emitting light can be assessed by their color:[10]

Red

. Just visible: 525 °C (980 °F)

. Dull: 700 °C (1,300 °F)

. Cherry, dull: 800 °C (1,500 °F)

. Cherry, full: 900 °C (1,700 °F)

. Cherry, clear: 1,000 °C (1,800 °F)

Orange

. Deep: 1,100 °C (2,000 °F)

. Clear: 1,200 °C (2,200 °F)

White

. Whitish: 1,300 °C (2,400 °F)

. Bright: 1,400 °C (2,600 °F)

. Dazzling: 1,500 °C (2,700 °F)

2.0.8 Removal of fire

Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. The fire can be extinguished by any of the following:

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 turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source;  covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the area

around the flame with CO2;  application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produce it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame will displace the heat of the currently burning gas from its fuel source, to the same end), or  Application of a retardant chemical such as Halon to the flame, which retards the chemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chain reaction.

In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion. Methods to do this include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer to stoichiometric proportions, increasing fuel and oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so the fire's own heat is better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst; a non- reactant medium in which the fuel and oxidizer can more readily react.

2.0.9 Fire Ecology

Every natural ecosystem has its own fire regime, and the organisms in those ecosystems are adapted to or dependent upon that fire regime. Fire creates a mosaic of different habitat patches, each at a different stage of succession (Begon, M., Harper, J and Townsend, C. 1996). Different species of plants, animals, and microbes specialize in exploiting a particular stage, and by creating these different types of patches, fire allows a greater number of species to exist within a landscape.

2.1 CAUSE OF FIRE IN BUILDING AND STRUCTURES

All fire incidents can be divided in many ways depending on the cause of fire outbreak, but broadly there are two types of fires, one is natural and other is manmade. All residential

26 | P a g e and non-residential structural fires are largely manmade. Similarly, all industrial and chemical fires are due to explosions or fires made by humans or due to machine failures.

2.1.1 Natural

Fires which are considered as natural are basically earthquake, volcanic eruption and lightning - generated fires. The fire and explosion risk associated with an earthquake is a very complex issue. Compared with ordinary (normal) fires the fire and explosion hazard related to earthquakes can constitute a substantial and heavy risk. Damage to natural gas systems during an earthquake is a major cause of large fires. Again probably the most significant direct impact of power systems on fire following an earthquake is that electric power is a major fire ignition source. In addition to dropped distribution lines, power circuits in damaged houses are another major ignition source. There have been cases where as many as two-thirds of all ignitions after an earthquake has been attributable to power system.

2.1.2 Man-made

Fire caused by human/machine errors are considered as manmade fires, e.g. industrial or chemical fire disasters, fires at social gatherings due to Electrical short circuit fires, accidental fire and kitchen-fires. Rural and urban residential and non-residential structural fires are also largely manmade fires. Any confined fire could be due to many reasons like, cooking fire confined to container, chimney or fuel fire confined to chimney, incinerator overload or malfunction, fuel burner/boiler malfunction, and trash fire.

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Table 2.2: Causes of fire in building Source: personal research 2012

The main causes of fire in the workplace include:

 Electricity – neglect or misuse of wiring, leading to short circuits, etc.

 Rubbish and waste material – fire is likely to spread through accumulated waste

 Smoking – carelessly discarded cigarette butts or lit matches are one of the major causes of fire, both at work and at home

 Cooking – kitchens in offices provide both opportunities for the fire to start and materials on which it can feed

 Heating appliances – portable heaters are a threat when placed besides combustible furniture, fittings, etc.

 Combustible materials – flammable liquids, glues and solvents are all liable to combust unless stored and used properly. Hazardous materials such as paints, solvents, adhesive, chemicals are also included in this category

 Arson/willful fire-raising is a major cause of fires in workplaces.

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2.2 DESTRUCTIVE FORCES OF FIRE

Destructive fires can occur wherever fuel and oxygen are available, including in office buildings, homes, vehicles, and forests. According to the National Fire Protection Association, a fire broke out in a building or structure every 61 seconds in the United States in 1998. Three-quarters of all structure fires in the United States and Canada occur in people‘s homes. In 1998 there were about 1,756,000 fires in the United States. These fires led to 4,000 deaths, 23,000 injuries, and $9 billion in property damage. Every 76 seconds a motor vehicle fire occurred, for a total of 413,500 such fires. In 1995, the most recent date for which Canadian statistics are available, Canada had about 64,000 fires. These fires resulted in 400 deaths, 3,600 injuries, and $1 billion (Canadian) in direct property damage.

Extinguishing a fire involves removing one of the requirements for combustion. Firefighters may physically remove the fuel from the fire by taking a burning item outside a structure. They can remove heat by cooling the fire with water or remove oxygen by smothering the fire with chemicals or a fire blanket. Interrupting the chemical chain reaction is more difficult but is typically done by applying special chemicals, such as halogenated compounds, to the fire. These halogenated compounds are being used less often as they cause damage to the atmosphere‘s ozone layer.

Dangerous work conditions and arson can lead to fires in the workplace. Industries that produce chemicals often deal with extremely flammable materials, while metalworking industries deal with materials at very high temperatures. Companies prevent fires by training employees in the handling of dangerous materials and by hiring specialists, called fire protection engineers, to design safe workspaces. Sprinkler systems can limit property damage, and the establishment of clear exit routes for employees can limit injury caused by fire. In the United States, the leading cause of fires in office buildings is arson. Office buildings often include security systems, such as locked doors and camera surveillance of entrances and exits, to prevent potentially dangerous people from entering the building. (Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009.)

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2.3 THE PROGRESS OF FIRE IN BUILDINGS

The growth and development of fire has been shown to be largely dependent on the geometry and ventilation of the enclosure containing the fire (Shields,J. Silcock, G. 1987). When a material burns in the open, except for the heat required to produce volatiles from the fuel bed, all of the remaining heat energy is lost to the atmosphere; but if the same material burns under a roof or in an enclosure, the loss of heat energy is considerably reduced and an energy feedback mechanism is created which significantly increases the pyrolysis and hence, the burning rate (ibid).

A rise of temperature from any cause (of human activity, heat from a chemical action, space heating or electrical overloading) may lead to the earliest stage of fire –smouldering or non-flaming combustion. Both these terms refer to partial combustion at a comparatively low temperature and therefore a low rate, with a limited level of thermal radiation. It is accompanied by thermal decomposition of the fuel material and by the release of combustion products in smoke form, such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and hydrogen chloride.

As the fire spreads, the supply of oxygen becomes a critical factor. Huge quantities of searing and volatile smoke build up in areas where there are continuous flames. The heat and internal pressure developed shatters the windows. The smoke explodes into the open air and erupts in flame off the face of the building. Glass shatters and the swirling circulation of the air caused by the fire sucks the flames into the rooms thus exposed. With ignition, fire growth and steady combustion, the wave of fire runs through the building (see figures 2.3 and 2.3b). It could be some time before decay of fire sets in and the wave recedes.

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Full growth

Flash over Smoke toxicity

Flame spread

Flame ignition Smoke and heat

Ignitability ignition growth Steady decay combustion

Figure 2.2: normal combustion progress-the wave of fire Source: The Aqua Group, 1984

Figure 2.3: time/temperature profile Source: The Aqua Group, 1984

From Figure 2.3 above, period A-B is known as the growth period. It is essentially the pre- flash over period during which the temperatures of the enclosure remain positively low and the chance of escape are relatively high. At C, the burning period ends, the temperature begins to fall and the decay period begins; however, during the decay period, the threat to the other spaces remains, this is due to the risk of propagation of the fire by radiation.

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Plate 2.1. Fire at interstate bank, USA Source: New York Board of Underwriters @lafire.com, 2011.

2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROGRESS OF FIRE IN BUILDINGS

A fire usually starts when a material is ignited by a heat source, hence it develops because:

1. The item first ignited is sufficiently flammable to allow flame spread over its surface. 2. The heat flux from the first fuel package is sufficient to irradiate adjacent fuel packages which in turn will begin to burn. 3. Sufficient fuel exists within the compartment otherwise the fire may simply burn itself out. 4. The fire may burn very slowly because of a restricted oxygen supply e.g. a well- sealed compartment may eventually smother itself. 5. Providing that there is sufficient fuel and oxygen available the fire may totally engulf the building.

The situation or the environment around fire will determine its development. In the open air, there is rapid or fast development due to unlimited supply of oxygen and the ready dispersal of combustion products. In a large space, combustion products may be trapped and suddenly ignite with the build-up of heat (although there may be an ample supply of oxygen. Also, in series of small spaces found in a house, vitiated burning with a great build-up of smoke will be seen; this is due to a limited supply of oxygen.

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Plate 2.2 Windsor building in Madrid, caught fire and burned for two days Source: Dave, P. (2005);

2.5 SMOKE EXPLOSION AND FLASH-OVER

In broad terms, flash-over occurs when an ordinary developing fire, or in certain circumstances a smouldering fire, reaches a level of activity at which previously released volatile combustion gases will suddenly ignite, and produce flaming across the surfaces of adjoining pre-heated combustible materials.

Smoke explosion differs from flash-over in that it occurs when there is little or no oxygen. This (oxygen starvation) results into partial combustion or a formation of deceptively low temperature. This fire causes the formation of highly volatile vapours. The highly volatile vapours when mixed with a mist of low volatility materials are regarded as smoke. The smoke may be of sufficient concentration to be above the upper explodeable limit without actually igniting. If the source of ignition still exists, the introduction of oxygen will bring these products into the flammable range of sudden explosion called flash-over.

2.6 PHASES OF FIRE

The development of a fire in a single space exhibits four (4) recognizable phases. They are: phase 1, phase 2, and phase 3. Each phase has its own unique characteristics and dangers to firefighters and should be understood thoroughly to enhance safety during firefighting operations inside buildings and structures

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2.6.1 Phase 1 (incident)

This phase covers the time of ignition and initial development of the fire. This phase may last for a few minutes or several hours depending on the conditions of the room. Smoke and hot gases are released toward the ceiling as the fire develops. The hot gases then warm all surfaces on its direction in readiness for flush. Flash-over may be delayed for few minutes if the room is lined with retardant materials.

Now, this phase is critical to safety, escape, and evacuation in a building because the released by-products of the combustion such as carbon monoxide can be very lethal. Smokes with choking fumes kill with dreadful speed at temperatures as low as 00C. The architect should shoulder the responsibility of ensuring a safe escape route provision in his design.

2.6.2 Phase 2 (Growth)

The growth stage is where the structures fire load and oxygen are used as fuel for the fire. There are numerous factors affecting the growth stage including where the fire started, what combustibles are near it, ceiling height and the potential for ―thermal layering‖. It is during this shortest of the 4 stages when a deadly ―flashover‖ can occur; potentially trapping, injuring or killing firefighters.

2.6.3 Phase 3 (fully developed)

At this phase, the building structures and other adjacent properties are at the highest risk because the fire is now fully developed. Now, the fire endurance of those elements enclosing the fire source must be long enough to enable the fire to be fought without spreading to other spaces.

2.6.4 Phase 4 (decay)

This is the period of decay. At this stage, the fire must have burnt itself out or must been extinguished. This stage seems to provide lessons which will be relevant to future projects because the remains of the building could be used to weigh the effectiveness or otherwise of the building professionals.

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Figure 2.4: fire behavior Source: Colin Bailey, University of Manchester

Incipient Heating of potential fuel is taking place through a variety of combustion phase processes such as smouldering, flaming or radiant.

Growth Ignition is the beginning of fire development. At the initial growth phase, the phase fire will be normally small and localized in a compartment. (pre- An accumulation of smoke and combustion products (pyrolysis) in a layer flashover) beneath the ceiling will gradually form a hotter upper layer in the compartment, with a relatively cooler and cleaner layer at the bottom. With sufficient supplies of fuel and oxygen and without the interruption of fire fighting, the fire will grow larger and release more hot gases and pyrolysis to the smoke layer. The smoke layer will descend as it becomes thicker.

Flashover In case of fire developing into flashover, the radiation from the burning flame and the hot smoke layer may lead to an instant ignition of unburned combustible materials in the compartment. The whole compartment will be engulfed in fire and smoke.

Fully After the flashover, the fire enters a fully developed stage with the rate of developed heat release reaching the maximum and the burning rate remaining phase substantially steady. (post- The fire may be ventilation or fuel controlled. Normally, this is the most flashover) critical stage that structural damage and fire spread may occur.

Decay phase After a period of sustained burning, the rate of burning decreases as the combustible materials is consumed and the fire now enters the decay phase.

Extinction The fire will eventually cease when all combustible materials have been consumed and there is no more energy being released. Table 2.3: fire behavior Source: Colin Bailey, University of Manchester

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2.7 THE SPREAD OF FIRE IN BUILDINGS

The process of combustion leads to the spread of fire if the fire is not extinguished. Thus, designers and building managers must note three basic media in which smoke, heat and flames are transmitted. These are:

thermal buoyancy

high thermal pressure

seat of fire burning debris from roof

Figure 2.5: the building form and the spread of fire. Source: Author‟s personal Research, 2011.

 Building contents – furniture, fabrics and fittings,

 Building fabric – substrate, finishes and structure,

 Building spaces – circulation spaces, concealed spaces.

2.7.1 The Spread of Fire through the Building Contents

Furniture and fittings are known for their intense burning characteristics. Curtains and carpets unless treated, contribute to the rapid spread of flame (Figure 2.4). The greatest risk, however, is in upholstery and bedding which are made of acrylic, polypropylene, fabrics, polyester or polyurethane foams. Although they are less vulnerable to smouldering, but once ignited, they could cause high fatality. Thus, the hot gases and smoke produced by the combustion of building contents spread and create flash-over or smoke explosion.

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2.7.2 The Spread of Fire through the Building Fabric

The vulnerability of a building material to ignition is dependent upon its chemical composition and its surface exposure to air. For example, wood shavings will ignite and burn readily than the same weight of a similar wood in a single block. Plastics, glass, concrete, roof linings, bitumen, cladding materials are all vulnerable to burning if their chemical compositions are combustible.

It is interesting to note that the application of oil-based or polymer paints may not affect or retard the surface spread of flame. The oil-based or polymer paints generally deteriorate under heat conditions and expose the material below to combustion. However, special flame-retardant treatments (to timber for example) expand under heat and isolate the substrate material from the necessary supply of oxygen. Also, recent developments in these materials have diminished the risk of spread of flame whilst glass fibre reinforcing and the use of good mechanical fixings prolong the resistance to collapse.

2.7.3 The Spread of Fire through Building Spaces

Building spaces act as channels for a developing fire to move while the building contents and fabric act as fuel. Hot smoke and gases are built in spaces. Such spaces in buildings could be small or voluminous, concealed or obvious, vertical or horizontal. Voids above suspended ceilings are very dangerous because:

1. They are hidden or concealed. What goes on is out of sight until ceiling spaces collapses. 2. If insulated, they encourage the rapid build-up of heat. 3. They are natural traps for hot combustion products. 4. They are frequently made of combustible materials and contain combustible insulation. 5. They usually contain electrical and other services which may be a source of fire. 6. They present ideal conditions for flash-over to occur. 7. They may link adjoining spaces via service outlets.

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2.8 CLASSES OF FIRE

Fire is classified into four (4) based on the combustible materials in it.

2.8.1 Class A: this fire involves ordinary combustibles (solid fuels such as coal) and it is readily extinguishable by cooling or water. Sometimes coating with a suitable chemical powder can extinguish it.

2.8.2 Class B: this class of fire involves flammable liquids (such as nitrogen as found in air) where smothering is effective and where a cooling agent must be applied with care.

2.8.3 Class C: the class C fires are those found in electrical equipment. In this case, the extinguishing agent must be non-conductive. They are combustible gas fires.

2.8.4 Class D: this class of fire involves metals such as sodium, magnesium, and powdered aluminum. Such metals burn vigorously in fire: therefore special powders are necessary to extinguish them. Untrained personnel are advised not to attack these fires.

2.9 CLASSIFICATIONS OF OCCUPANCIES

This classification of different occupancies is based on the combustibility of the contents and the functions of such spaces.

2.9.1 Light Hazard Occupancy

In this type of occupancy, the quantity and combustibility of contents are low and fires with relatively low heat rates are expected. Examples of this occupancy are museums, churches, club houses, hospitals, nursing homes, libraries, restaurant, and institutional buildings.

2.9.2 Ordinary Hazard Occupancy

This type of hazard occupancy is classified into three (3):

2.9.2.1 Ordinary hazard (group 1): this case, combustibility is low and the quantity of combustibles is moderate. The stock piles of combustibles do not exceed 2.4m and fires with moderate rates of heat release are expected. Examples of this occupancy are bakeries, beverage manufacturing, and garages.

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2.9.2.2 Ordinary hazard (group 2): in this case, the quantity and combustibility of contents is moderate; while the stock piles of combustibles do not exceed 2.4m. Also, fires with moderate rates of heat release are expected. Examples are; distilleries, textile manufacturing, libraries (large stock room), wood product assembly areas, leather goods manufacturing, confectionery products, metal working, machine shops, cereal mills, printing and publishing workshops.

2.9.2.3 Ordinary hazard (group 3): this type of occupancy has its quantity and of contents high and the expected rate of heat release is high. Examples are exhibition halls, tyre manufacturing, warehouses, and paper and pulp mills.

2.9.3 Extra Hazard Occupancy

Extra hazard occupancy has flammable liquids, dust and other materials of high combustibility. Thus, the probability of rapid developing fires with high rates of heat release is high.

2.10 METHODS OF FIRE EXTINCTION

2.10.1. Starvation

This is the removal of oxygen or limitation of fuel supply to a fire. Example, closing gas or limitation of fuel supply to fire, closing gas/kerosene supply to a burning stove or switching off electricity supply to a faulty appliance.

2.10.2 Smothering

This is the method of cutting off the supply of oxygen to a fire e.g. covering a burning frying pan with a wet towel or metal lid, and the application of fire fighting foam to cover a burning drum of oil.

2.10.3 Cooling

This method involves the reduction of heat ignition temperature. It is mainly achieved by the application of water either in bulk or jet or spray.

All fire fighting methods depend on one or combination of these.

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2.11 GENERAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES

In ideal situations, preventive measures should be adopted and implemented in the conceptual stages of the planning of new development areas for residence. Designers are required to make effective and adequate provisions for fire prevention and, in the event of outbreaks, fire-fighting. This refers to the location, distribution and construction of storage buildings, their outlets and inlets, access to their contents, and facilities for the safe disposal of industrial waste, especially if health- or fire-hazardous. Basic to all facilities is a network of extinguishing water lines and suitably distributed fire hydrants. In the detailed design of industrial and residential buildings, strict adherence to safety codes should be among the prime concerns of the architect and the builders.

2.11.1 Early warning system

These have become highly specialized in function and sophisticated in performance and are direct products of advanced developments in the discipline of sensing, signaling, and instrumentation technologies. Their sensitivity standards have reached heights that make them now truly dependable for advance alerting in cases of fire outbreak. They include sound and visual alarms, smoke, heat and light detectors, and the remote alerting of fire- fighting authorities, all in nearly failure-proof systems.

2.11.2 Fire Containment Measures

These are countless in number and highly varied in their nature. After the outbreak of a fire, their primary purpose is to prevent it from spreading and aggravating the consequences. Legally instituted codes are (or should be) available to this end, and several prescriptions for physical arrangements are (or should be) observed.

These include:

 provision of suitably located and distributed fire exits which should be free of obstacles at all times. At regular intervals, users of the premises should practice fire drills that include the rapid and orderly use of these exits.

 provision of sufficient numbers of fire hydrants at suitable locations within and around the premises

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 equipment of premises with automatic sprinklers for spraying water or other extinguishing media into the environment, as deemed most appropriate

 creation of first-aid stations that are accessible to local residents and rescue personnel

 Provision of automatically operated fire extinguishing gases (and foam) or special media that are specific for fighting chemical fire in premises where dangerous chemicals are stored and handled. Strict observance of rules of practice in these situations should be a cultivated habit of all personnel

 Availability of hand-held and portable fire extinguishers at all times. Personnel should be trained in their use until all fire-fighters can handle serious fire situations

2.11.3 Development of Safety Codes

A wide range of such codes has been developed over time, in many different countries. These codes relate to a number of aspects pertaining to the design and construction of public buildings and of production and storage facilities. Many codes also exist for educational and R&D (research and development) buildings, as well as for hospitals and government offices. There are also highly elaborate codes governing the construction and operation of institutions where chemicals and electric equipment are in routine use. These codes invariably include elements that address the question of the hazards of confinement, by the creation of physical barriers to prevent the spread of fire from one space to another. They also include the provision of fire-proof partitions or explosion-proof equipment and electric installations - all for the prevention and/or containment of the effects of fire damage. Of all the measures, those aimed at the protection of human life feature highest in all codes. Needless to say, any code of design or practice is of little value unless its enforcement is founded on the training of sufficient numbers of qualified personnel possessing the knowledge and courage to face dangerous situations, and fires are among the most fearsome of dangerous situations.

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2.12 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

Modern buildings built under the strict design and buildings codes of today have many fire protection systems installed by default. These systems assist with detection and response to fire related emergencies.

The systems includes;

 Fire Break Glass Alarm (B.G.A.)  Fire Control Systems (sprinkler system)  Fire Indicator Panel (F.I.P.)  Fire Doors  Smoke and Thermal Fire Detectors  Fire Hose Reels & Fire Hydrants  Fire Extinguishers

Guide on use of fire extinguishers

 Portable fire extinguishers should be available for employee use. The fire

extinguishers are selected and distributed in accordance with the size and degree of hazard affecting their use and expected class of workplace fire.

 A system of inspecting, maintaining, recharging, and testing of all portable fire

extinguishers should be in place. Portable extinguishers should be visually inspected each month and recorded on a tag attached to each extinguisher. Annually, all portable fire extinguishers should be given a thorough and documented maintenance check.

 Annual fire extinguisher training and education for employees who are expected

to use fire extinguishers must be provided and documented. Employees who operate fixed extinguishing systems must also be trained annually.

 Portable fire extinguishers are to be located, mounted, and identified to be readily

accessible and not subject employees to possible injury.

 Stand pipes and hose cabinets must also be readily identifiable and used only for

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fire equipment purposes.

 Areas protected by fixed extinguishing systems that use extinguishing agents in concentrations known to be hazardous to worker safety and health, must be posted with appropriate hazard warning or caution signage at the hazard entrance exterior and interior of location.

 In addition to being readily accessible and unobstructed, fire extinguishers must

be located high enough above floor level to avoid obstruction.

 Halon fire extinguishers will displace and dilute oxygen.

 Fire extinguishers must be readily available for use.

Fire Extinguisher Types

Portable fire extinguishers are classified according to their ability to handle specific classes and sizes of fires. Labels on extinguishers indicate the class and relative size of fire that they can be expected to handle.

 Class A extinguishers are suitable for use on fires in ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, rubber, and many plastics, where a quenching-cooling effect is required. The numeral indicates the relative fire extinguishing effectiveness of each unit. Extinguishers rated for Class A hazards are: water, foam, and multipurpose dry chemical types.

 Class B extinguishers are suitable for use on fires in flammable liquids, gases, and greases, where an oxygen-exclusion or flame-interruption effect is essential. Extinguishers rated for Class B hazards are: foam, Halon and CO2 and multipurpose dry chemical.

 Class C extinguishers are suitable for use on fires involving energized electrical equipment and wiring where the dielectric conductivity of the extinguishing agent is of importance. For example, water-solution extinguishers cannot be used on electrical fires because water conducts electricity and the operator could receive a shock from energized electrical equipment via the water.

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 Class D extinguishers are suitable for use on fires in combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, and potassium. No numeral is used for Class D extinguishers; the relative effectiveness of these extinguishers for use on specific combustible metal fires is detailed on the extinguisher nameplate.

Fire Extinguisher Location

 Portable fire extinguishers must be distributed so the travel distance is not more than 75 feet for Class A and Class D hazard areas, and not more than 50 feet for Class B hazard areas.  Extinguishers must be located close to the likely hazards, but not so close that they would be damaged/isolated by the fire. If possible, they should be located along normal paths of egress from the building. Where highly combustible material is stored in small rooms or enclosed space, extinguishers should be located outside the door, never inside where they might become inaccessible.  Extinguishers must not be blocked or hidden by stock, finished material, or machines. They should be located or hung where they will not be damaged by trucks, cranes, and harmful operations, or corroded by chemical processes, and where they will not obstruct aisles or injure passers-by.  All extinguisher locations should be made conspicuous. For example, if an extinguisher is hung on a large column or post, a distinguishing red band can be painted around the post. Also, large signs can be posted directing attention to extinguishers. Extinguishers should be kept clean and should not be painted in any way that could camouflage them or obscure labels and markings

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REFERENCES

Barry, R. (1977); The Construction of Buildings, Vol. II: Granada Publish Ltd, London. pp. 20-29

Barry, R. (1977); the Construction of Buildings, Vol. III: Crosby Lockwood and Son Ltd. Great Britain.pp 20-29

Black, A. (1975); The Comprehensive Plan in The Comprehensive Planning Process: Several Views, Massachusetts: American Institute of Planners. pp. 35

Dave, P. (2005); Madrid Tower Designer Blames Missing Fire Protection For Collapse: New Civil Engineer, U.K.

Edmond, R. (1984); Understanding Buildings: Longman Scientific and Technical, England. pp. 23-40

Fadamiro, J.A. and Ogunsemi, D.R. (1996); Fundamentals of Building Design Construction and materials: Fancy Publication Ltd. pp. 127

Fasakin, J.O. (1998); Feasibility Studies and Other considerations in Master Plan-making in Nigeria, In Ilesanmi, F.A (ed), Master Planning Approach to Physical Development; The Nigeria Experience: Yola, Paraclete Publishers, pp. 87

Friedman, J. and Alonso, W. (1975); Regional Policy: Reading in Theory and application. MIT Cambridge, Mass Press pp. 176

Hadjisophocleous, G.V. and Yung, D., (1992); A Model for Calculating the Probabilities of Smoke Hazard from Fires in Multi-Storey Buildings: J. of Fire Protection Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 67-80.

Jack F. F. (1994); Structure and Fabric: Adison Wesly Longman London. pp. 45

Jinadu, A.M (2003); Urban Development and Housing Problem in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT): Implications for Poor Commitment and Implementation Policy (NUDP) paper presented at the 34th Annual Conference of Nigeria Institute of Town Planners, Abeokuta.

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Marsh, P. (1985); Security in Buildings: Longman Inc., New York. pp.45.

Microsoft Encarta (2009). © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. Fire

National Building Code of Canada (1995); National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, 1995.

Neufert Architects‘ Data (2000); Third edition Blackwell Publishing. pp 125-137.

Ogunsote, B. P (1993); A Study of Modern Trends in some Aspects of Architecture in, Nigeria: Ph.D. Dissertation Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Okoko, E.E. (2001); Quantitative Techniques in urban analysis: Kraft books ltd Ibadan.

Olujimi, J.A.B (2002); Population and Physical Planning: An Inseparable Duo, paper presented at the National Conference on Population, Environment and sustainable Development in Nigeria University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

Colin Bailey One Stop Shop in Structural Fire Engineering, University of Manchester

Punmia, P.C. (1984); Fire Safety: Laxmi Pulblication, Delhi. pp. 25-30.

Shields, T.J, and Silcock, G.W.N. (1987); Buildings and Fire: Longman Group Ltd U.K. pp. 20-88.

Takeda, H. and Yung, D., (1992); Simplified Fire Growth Models for Risk-Cost Assessment in Apartment Buildings: J. of Fire Protection Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 53-66.

The Aqua Group, (1984); Fire and Building: Canada Publishing limited, London pp. 1- 13, 31-83.

Williams, G. (1978); Program for pocket calculator to derive spatial separations to deter Fire spread: Nat. Res. Council of Canada, Div. Bldg. pp 30-40.

Retrieved from: http://www.arupfire.com

Retrieved from: http:// wwwkaderfactoryfire.com

Retrieved from:http//www.lafire.com, 2011.

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CHAPTER THREE

GENERAL GUIDELINES AND ISSUES RELATING TO DESIGN

3.0 DEFENSIVE MEASURES

In response to the nature of fire, defensive measures serve the purpose of the safety of life and protection against loss. The measures are strategies in design that recognise the nature of fire, the performance of the structure and materials, and the behavior of people. More importantly, the people who use the building must understand these design strategies. The main defensive measures fall into two broad categories: the ―precautionary‖ and ―control‖ measures.

3.1 PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

The precautionary measures are passive measures. They are the in-built characteristics of the building and are inherently safe and effective.

3.1.1 Site Planning

The site boundary is generally the perimeter of the land under single ownership. Separate buildings within a boundary must be distanced from each other to spread across intervening space from one building to another, or from part to part of the same building. The possible fire hazard that a building presents depends upon its use and size. These two will determine its fire load. Fire load is the total amount of combustible material expressed in heat units. A building could be of high or low fire risk. Doors and windows facing each other across spaces can create fire passages; narrow spaces might behave like flues, rapidly exhausting smoke from within the building and drawing fresh air to fuel the seat of fire.

3.1.2 Good Access

It is very essential to provide ready access to the area of fire, room to manoeuvre the appliances, sufficient depth of space from the face of the building so that ladders of adequate reach can be used. Reference to the building standards that give information about fire paths, widths and turning circles, maximum gradients and the requirements for ladders reaching various heights of buildings.

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In urban areas, over-crowding of closely built structures with little air spaces is readily seen. This aids the quick spread of fire and inhibits the activities of fire fighters and as such the need for a protected fire path and cannot be over-emphasized. Issues of plot coverage, air spaces and set-backs should be taken seriously, and, routine checks will ensure that occupants abide by the rules governing the usage of premises.

3.1.3 Compartment and Separating Walls and Floors

Compartment walls and floors are those which sub-divide a building for the purpose of restricting the spread of fire. The confinement of fire in a smaller area creates less difficulty in containing it. Larger buildings should be subdivided into parts to reduce the volume of the buildings.

The use of compartments ensures fire-safety for building occupants by restricting fire- spread for a reasonable length of time. The utilisation of fire-resistant walls and floors to prevent vertical and horizontal fire spread is achieved through this. If compartmented spaces must be linked or perforated, communicating doors or windows must have a fire- resistance equal to that of the compartment wall or floor concerned (Aqua group, 1984).

Factors determining the requirements for mandatory use of compartments are:

 Building type

 Height of building

 Floor area of the storey apartment

 Cubic capacity of building or compartment.

3.1.4 Smoke Control

The behavior of smoke is central to the design and location of escape routes. The following highlights the movement of smoke in a variety of large spaces. Steps can be taken to ensure that:

1. The size of smoke reservoirs should be limited in order to minimize the spread of smoke, its cooling and downward mixing with air. 2. Air is permitted to enter at low level to enable smoke to be exhausted at high level.

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3. Central spaces which place at risk communicating high level circulation areas are suitably protected. 4 Stair cases linking levels within large spaces be free-standing or have wells so that smoke may pass and leave them in comparative safety.

Since smoke gives loss of visibility as a deterrent to escape corridors, lobbies and staircases on escape routes must be defended against smoke penetration. Ventilation can also control smoke by:

(i) Permanent high level natural cross-ventilation,

(ii) Natural ventilation through destructible (by heat) roof light,

(iii) Fusible link-operated roof vents.

3.1.5 Means of Escape

According to Shields, T.J. and Silcock, G.W.N (1987), the objective demand in the provision of a means of escape is that the occupants should be able to reach a place of safety, unharmed in the event of a fire occurring. A place of safety is normally associated with an area outside the building away from the threatened place. A place of safety may also be:

 a protected corridor,

 a protected stair case,

 a place of refuge within the building.

Steps can be taken by the designer to visualise the possible sources of fire and predict sources of smoke, heat and hot gases. The number of people using a route at a particular time should be considered in design as well as their movement, speed, and their tendency to panic.

According to Neufert Architects‘ Data (third edition, 2000), Factors to be taken into account when designing means of escape from buildings are:

 the activities of the users

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 the form of the building  the degree to which it is likely that a fire will occur  the potential fire sources  the potential for fire spread throughout the building. There are some assumptions made in order to achieve a safe and economic design:

 occupants should be able to escape safely without outside help  fire normally breaks out in one part of the building  Fires are mostly likely to break out in the furnishings and fittings rather than in the parts of the building covered by building regulations.  Fires are least likely to break out in the structure of the building and in the circulation areas due to the restriction on the use of combustible material  Fires are initially a local occurrence, with a restricted area exposed to the hazard. The fire hazard can then spread with time, usually along circulation spaces  Smoke and noxious gases are the greatest danger during early stages of the fire, obscuring escape routes. Smoke and fume control is therefore and important design consideration. 3.1.5.1 Rules for measurement

The rules for measurement relate to three factors:

 Occupant capacity: this is calculated according to the design capacities of spaces, storeys and hence that of the total building. It can also be calculated based on the standard floor space factors.  Travel distance: this calculated according to the shortest route, taking a central line between obstructions  Width of escape: calculated according to the narrowest section of the escape route, usually the doorways but could be other fixed obstruction 3.1.5.2 Horizontal escape routes

The number of escape routes and exits required depends on the maximum travel distance that is permitted to the nearest exit and number of occupants in the facility.

Below are examples of typical maximum permitted travel distances in various types of premises;

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 Institutional buildings: 9m in one direction, 18m in more than one  Office and commercial buildings, shops, storage and other none residential spaces: 18m in one direction, 45m in more than one  Industrial buildings: 25m in one direction, 45m in more than one. The number of exits and escape required depends also on the maximum number of people in the area under consideration (table 3.1).

Number of persons Number of exits 500 2 1000 3 2000 4 4000 5 7000 6 1100 7 1600 8 1600+ 8 plus 1 per extra 500 persons Table 3.1: Number of exits requirement: Source: Neufert Architects‟ Data, Third Edition, 2000

The minimum width of horizontal escape routes is also determined by the number of people using them (table 3.1b).

Numbers of persons Width of escape (mm) 50 800 110 900 220 1100 220+ Extra 5mm per persons Table 3.1b: Width of exits requirement: Source: Neufert Architects‟ Data, Third Edition, 2000

3.1.5.3 Vertical escape routes

Vertical escapes are provided by protected escape stairs of sufficient number and adequate size. Generally, the rules requiring alternative means of escape mean that more than one stairway is required. The width of stairs should allow the total number in the floor or facility subjected to fire escape safely. Width stairways must be divided by central handrail. The width should at least be that of the exits serving it, and should not reduce in width as it approaches the final exits.

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Each internal escape should be contained in its own fire-resisting enclosure and should discharge either directly, or by means of a protected passageway, to final exit. Protected stairways should not contain potential hazardous equipment or materials.

Figure 3.1:Typical arrangement of escape corridors in buildings other than dwellings Source: Neufert Architects‟ Data, Third Edition, 2000

3.1.6 Evacuation sequence

To better understand the procedures for determining the movement of occupants as the evacuation process develops, Table 3.2 taken from BSI (1994) presents the sequence of events during an evacuation.

Event Comments

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1. Ignition Fire growth 2. Detection Detection 3. Sounding of alarm Detection and warning systems 4. Recognition of alarm sounding Recognition and response time 5. Start of movement of all occupants 6. Reaching of exits by occupants Minimum travel period 7. Passage of all occupants through Waiting period exits

Table 3.2: Evacuation sequence

Source: (BSI, 1994) 3.1.7 Staircase Enclosures

These should be designed according to building regulations in terms of location, fire- resistance, non-combustibility and surface spread of flame. Staircases should not become reservoirs of smoke. The common dogleg form of stair contains smoke movement and could be used. Staircase enclosures should serve as places of refuge.

3.1.8 Protected Corridors and Ventilated Lobbies

A serious situation may arise should fire start in a corridor, since it may not be detected before smoke cuts off the escape route from nearby rooms as such fire extinguishers should be provided on the corridors of buildings. Ventilated lobbies serve as escape routes that keep a particular area from smoke therefore; they are necessary protection to staircases in all buildings where no alternative means of escape exists. It is also worthy of note that escape of smoke from a ventilated lobby helps to indicate to the fire brigade the location of a fire.

3.1.9 Exits

The number of exits required depends on the function of the building, degree of risk, availability of functional fire fighting equipment and the number and characteristics of occupants (Punmia, 1984). The location of exits should be such that it will be unlikely for fire to block them all at the same time. Travel distance should not exceed 45m. This is based on the premise that a mobile adult can travel at the rate of 15m/min in a smoke-filled space where there is some degree of visibility and the presence of oxygen (Aqua group, 1984).The number of people who could be involved in escape is used to calculate or

53 | P a g e determine exit widths. Escape must be achieved within 25min. for some buildings, this works out a discharge rate of 40 persons/min/530mm of width of exit (Aqua group, 1984).

3.1.10 Attention to Hidden Spaces

Hidden spaces are the spaces that suffer casual design, neglect and maintenance. They are spaces where fire creeps insidiously and races furiously. Examples are:

1. Main vertical ducts, 2. Gas meter rooms, 3. Suspended floor spaces, 4. Electrical intake and distribution spaces, 5. Little used store rooms, 6. Suspended ceiling voids in rooms and corridors. The problem they have in common is that services pass through them from one area to the other, placing at risk the integrity of separation .They require occasional access for maintenance. The following measures can be taken to ensure proper handling of such spaces.

 Suspended ceiling materials must be retardant to spread of flame.

 Air handling trunk must not form a link between protected or separated spaces.

 Services presenting a hazard, one to the other should be in separate spaces e.g. gas and electric services.

 Access by door, hatch or panel must be fire-protected; doors must be self closing and labeled ‗to be kept shut‘ where they occur in any circulation area.

 If such spaces contain services, they must be sheathed in non-combustible materials, or the enclosure itself must be classified as fire-protected.

 No hidden spaces may provide communication between rooms, sections of corridors and lobbies or any other spaces.

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3.1.11 Attention to Spaces of Special Risk

Some spaces by their use present a particular hazard or have special safety requirements. In extreme cases, such as storage of liquid petroleum gas (LPG), fuel oils, petrol, explosive and noxious or gaseous chemicals, they are subject to specific regulations and bye-laws. Prior consultation with specialists about the design of such spaces and their safety requirements should be made. The buildings should be scrupulously inspected and the regulations of building codes should be rigorously enforced. Such spaces include:

 Car parking

 Stand by generator plant

 Incineration plant

 Lifts shafts and motor rooms

 Communication and exchange rooms

 Plant rooms for boilers.

 Escalator machine spaces

 Transformer rooms

3.1.12 Protection of Building Fabric

The selection of materials should be guided by the consideration for structural safety and the resistance against spread of fire. Other factors to be considered are.

 Non-combustibility of materials

 Ignitability: materials that will not ignite easily should be used

 Fire propagation: consideration should be given to the contribution of combustible building materials to the growth of fire

 Surface spread of flame

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 Fire resistance.

3.1.13 Protection of the Structure

The structure of the building should be such that it is resistant to fire. The dimension of columns, walls, and thickness of concrete cover to steel reinforcement should conform to the required standard. Protective sheathings such as plaster board or proprietary casings should be given to timber frames. Consideration should also be given to the use of water- cooled hollow tube structures. Protection of the structures can also be achieved if adequate fire-resistance consideration is given to:

 Structural frames

 Compartment walls and floors

 Timber-based products (on which partial protection can be applied through pressure impregnation in workshop with water-soluble in-organic salts, and surface treatment with paints that form a protective glaze or produce vapours that interfere with combustion.

 Doors (which could be self-closing and could have adequate fire-stopping integrity).

3.1.14 Communications and Safety

Communications and safety deal with the use of signs, symbols, lights and bells in a building to ensure the safety of the occupants. They actually warn of dangers and give comprehensive directions to people. Instant comprehension of these signs is of paramount importance. Signs and symbols must be bold and placed at strategic points in the building. They should be illuminated at all times. The purpose of good communications should be to inform upon five (5) important points:

 The possibility of fire/source or possible cause of fire

 The means of preventing fire/safety precautions and preventive maintenance

 The advent of fire/occurrence and location of fire

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 The routes of escape from fire

 The means of fighting fire/ fire fighting procedures, equipment and control.

The use of internationally accepted symbols instead of typeface notices should be employed. Signs should be fixed such that they are not easily removed or defaced. They are also to be located such that they are illuminated by secondary lighting if not self- illuminated. Signs on doors or on flanking walls should be avoided because such signs are put out of sight when doors are open. In addition, they should be kept low enough to avoid smoke obscuration.

3.1.15 Maintenance of Exit Facilities

No exit can be considered usable if it is necessary to obtain a key or otherwise go through a considerable amount of trouble in order to open the door. Blockage of exits is a major detriment to effective use of exits especially under panic conditions. Individuals react differently under stress of or the sight of even a small amount of heat or smoke. It may seem to be a minor problem to have a chair removed from blocking an exit; however, in time of stress in a panic situation, this may be a task that cannot be handled.

The presence of a small chair or other obstruction may bring about tragic deaths because of pile-ups of persons falling at the location of the chair. Under such conditions people cannot be expected to act rationally. Proper maintenance of exit facilities means that all exits are properly marked and usable at all times. Exit lights should be functional and all exits must be readily accessible without blockage of any kind. Efforts must be made to reduce the possibility of panic by proper maintenance of all means of egress.

3.1.16 Fire Drills

Fire drills involve the process of engaging the occupants of a building in an evacuation exercise. It is done by appointing someone to monitor the drill. This person will sound the alarm and make the drill realistic by requiring participants to use their second way out or to crawl low. This could be done by having someone hold up a sign reading "smoke" or "exit blocked by fire." The monitor also will measure how long complete evacuation takes.

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3.1.16.1 Types of fire drills

There are three types of fire drills:

 Comprehensive

 Silent

 Table Talk

Comprehensive Drills

Comprehensive fire drills are conducted at the frequencies specified by the Fire Code and involve all of the following activities and considerations:

 The fire alarm system is activated as part of the comprehensive drill [i.e., activated in a manner to assess the response of supervisory staff and building occupants (where applicable) to the alarm condition, or alternatively activated by an individual participating in a given fire scenario situation which is an expected response during the drill].

 Supervisory staff operates emergency systems and equipment as they would in the event of an actual fire, (i.e., where applicable the voice communication or paging system, elevator protocol, smoke control equipment protocol, etc.).

 All supervisory staff that have specific duties identified in the fire safety plan participate (i.e., notification of the fire department, provisions for access for firefighting, evacuating endangered occupants, closing doors, notification of supervisory staff who may be off site and an assessment of their timely response, etc.).

Silent Drills

Silent fire drills are conducted in addition to comprehensive drills, and are more commonly conducted in buildings where there are multiple shifts, special risks or hazards and in situations where staff turnover is frequent. These drills are local exercises conducted in designated departments or specified areas of the building for the purpose of ensuring that all supervisory staff participate in fire drills at a desired frequency.

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 These drills do not involve the actual activation of the fire alarm system. Fire alarm system activation is only simulated.

 Tenant managers, department heads, supervisors or other designated persons monitor the emergency response of individuals in a specific area to a simulated or described fire scenario.

 Participants involved in the area respond to the simulation in accordance with their emergency procedures.

 These drills provide opportunities for assessing the adequacy of the emergency preparedness of persons on all shifts, in individual tenancies, departments or area- specific responses

Table Talk Drills

Table talk drills are also conducted in addition to comprehensive fire drills. Similar to silent fire drills, table talk exercises are conducted in designated departments or specified areas of a building. The major difference between a silent drill and table talk drill is that table talk exercises do not involve physical demonstration/simulation of the emergency response activities.

 Table talk drills involve facilitated discussion surrounding example fire scenarios.  Tenant managers, department heads, supervisors or other designated persons facilitate discussion and monitor the recommended emergency responses of individuals to a described fire scenario(s).

 Participants involved in the table talk drills must describe their proposed response to the given scenario. The facilitator assesses the adequacy of the suggested response behavior and where necessary, uses the opportunity to reinforce correct responses expected of supervisory staff.

Table talk drills provide opportunities to assess adequacy of the emergency preparedness of persons on all shifts, in individual tenancies, departments or area-specific responses. They may help identify local risks or hazards and the need to update procedures and practices.

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3.2 CONTROL MEASURES

The control measures are considered to be active measures which come into use when fire breaks out. Now, when a fire occurs, there ought to follow a chain of events of such necessity as to justify the description called the ―law of active or control measures‖ (aqua group, 1984).

Fire + detection = alarm + protection.

From the above illustration, the detection of fire should lead to the protection of the occupants and the building.

3.2.1 The Use of Detection

The role of a fire detector is not solely to detect a fire, but to discriminate reliably between the absence and the presence of a fire. If a detector is too sensitive it may give a false alarm for a non-fire condition; if it is less sensitive, it will not raise the alarm quickly enough to prevent possible human or material loss. Thus, depending on the buildings size, use, value of contents or number of occupants, detection may be represented by simple local response equipment, as in domestic premises, or by total surveillance system designed to meet the needs of that particular large building. Thus, the sensitivity of a detector must be optimized to give an alarm for a reasonably large and potentially dangerous fire.

Type of detectors

Some detection mechanisms involve the completion of an electric circuit as a result of the thermal expansion of metal, liquid or gas; or as the result of a break in a fusible link. Other types use the change in the electrical resistance of conductors, or the change in voltage produced between two thermocouples.

3.2.1.1 Heat detectors

Heat detectors are either line or point type. The line detectors consist of sensitive elements present in a continuous line in the form of a long wire or a long tube containing a fluid; while the point detector comprises small detectors that protect a small area independently. They must operate within specified time limits for rate of temperature. The type of heat detectors are:

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(1) Fixed temperature: It is designed to operate at a pre-selected temperature.

(2) Rate of rise temperature: rate of rise of temperature: this operates or responds when an abnormal rise of temperature occurs or when a pre-selected level is reached. For example, when the rate of rise of temperature of the air and hot gases that flow past it exceeds a minimum rate, it responds.

3.2.1.2 Flame detectors

The flame detectors depend on the recognition of radiation produced in the burning zone. The types of flame detectors are:

1. Ultra-violet detector: this detects any ultraviolet radiation produced by flaming combustion. It does this by using a photocell that is sensitive to this region of electromagnetic spectrum. 2. Infra-red detector: this detects the radiation produced by the fire in the infra-red region of the electro-magnetic spectrum.

Plate 3.1: A flame detector Source: www.google/ detectors.com, 2012.

3.2.1.3 Smoke detectors

A smoke detector must be capable of responding to smoke from smouldering and flaming combustion. Smouldering smoke has much bigger particles compared to smoke from flaming combustion. The types of smoke detectors are:

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Plate 3.2: a smoke and fire detector Source: Source: www.google/ detectors.com, 2012.

(1) Ionization detector: this uses the mechanism of the reaction of ionized air with smoke to produce a current. With smaller current comes a larger number of smoke particles as such, a drop in current sets off an alarm telling the occupants in the building about the presence of smoke.

(2) Optical detector: when a light beam passes close to or falls on a photo-electric cell, smoke entering the detector scatters the beam, changing the amount of light which falls on the cell and setting off the alarm. This type of detector uses two systems: obscuration system and scattering system.

3.2.1.4 Combined heat and smoke detector

This detector integrates the principle of both the heat and smoke detectors. There are two types: the infra-red detector and the laser beam detector.

1. The infra-red detector: this signals a fire incidence once smoke particles disturb the angled beam of infra-red light it emits. 2. Laser beam detector: responds to the slightest turbulence caused by heat or smoke particles on its narrow laser beam which is reflected on a photo-cell receiver. 3.2.1.4 Applications of detectors

Heat detectors are generally used in confined or limited spaces or where the seat of fire risk might be close, where occupants might be smoking, cooking or using any fume-producing equipment.

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Smoke detectors should normally be sited at the highest point in a space, and are suitable for most situations unless smoke or fumes are generated by the activities carried on in the area. They are useful in concealed spaces such as ceiling voids.

Flame detectors have special application in outdoor situations and installations such as chemical plant and stores containing liquid flammables.

The narrow reflected beam of the laser beam detector makes it suitable for industrial installations with difficult access, i.e. tall or long spaces such as cable tunnels. The infra- red detectors, on the order hand, with their wide beams, have special value where their coverage of large internal spaces is required with the greatest economy.

3.2.2 The Use of Alarm

Alarms are installed to give notice and call for assistance in the event of fire. Types of fire alarms are the manually operated and the automatic. The fire alarm system or signal must be readily identified by occupants, especially against a background of other activities or intrusive noise such as machinery. Visual alarm signals should show concurrently with audio alarms, particularly where working conditions call for the use of ear muffs.

3.2.2.1 Fire Break Glass Alarm (B.G.A.)

Buildings fitted with a "Fire - Break Glass Alarm" allow occupants to activate the fire alarm and alert the local fire department easily. The red panel on the wall houses a small button that when depressed will automatically contact the local fire department.

Plate 3.3: Fire - Break Glass Alarm Source: Source: www.google/ detectors.com, 2012

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Buildings fitted with a "Fire - Break Glass Alarm" allow occupants to activate the fire alarm and alert the local fire department easily. The red panel on the wall houses a small button that when depressed will automatically contact the local fire department.

The glass or Perspex material is easy to break with your fist, elbow or a pen. Smashing the glass will sometimes activate the button automatically.

3.2.3 The Use of Electricity Supply

A cut in supply will affect plant and machinery, lifts, air conditioning, exhaust system, electric lighting magnetic doors, e.t.c. this can cause confusion and anxiety. Thus, proper phasing is built into the electrical control with manual over-ride switch gear for protection by an appointed staff. The manual override must be accessible and located in an obvious position.

3.2.4 The Use of Sprinkler Systems

An automatic sprinkler system combines detection, warning and restriction. It spots the fire, sprays water on and around it, cools the surrounding fabric and possibly extinguishes the blaze. It also sounds alarm and indicates the zone in which the fire has occurred. The exact type of system required will depend upon:

1. The nature of the contents being protected 2. The degree of hazard generated by the contents and the rate of water discharge required to make the fire safe. The above condition (2) relates to the available water supply, the building area and height and the density as well as the number layers of sprinklers necessary to do the job. The types of sprinklers are: the wet system, pre-action system, cycling system, on-off sprinkler system, deluge system, and the high velocity (or water fog) system.

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Plate 3.4: Fire – sprinkler system Source: Source: www.google/ sprinklers.com, 2012.

3.2.4.1 Maintenance/use of the sprinkler systems

 Access to all parts for regular inspection and maintenance is a necessity.

 Sprinklers should not be installed in electric intake rooms.

 To avoid unnecessary damage, the water from sprinklers will need to be disposed of either with scuppers or by a system of flood drains.

 More than one system may be required in any one building.

 The adequacy of water supply must be checked.

 Standby generators may be required to maintain the operation of controls and pumps.

3.2.5 Escape and Emergency Lighting

Emergency lighting provides a minimum level of illumination in the event of failure of the normal lighting; while escape lighting is a part of the emergency system which ensures that the means of escape can be identified and effectively used. Two basic types of emergency lighting are:

1. Self-luminous or signs: operated from a central power system of batteries, charging device, generator or inverter and master switches.

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2. Self-contained luminaries or signs: in this system, the fittings only require connection to the normal permanent supply and which themselves contain all the necessary controls. Luminaries are used as guides to follow the escape route in-smoke filled spaces. Each luminary should be visible to a person standing under the one next to it. Exit and emergency exit signs should be illuminated at all times and should be between 2.0 and 2.5m above floor level.

3.2.6 Foam Injection

This is without doubt the most rapid and effective medium of fighting fires involving flammable liquids and toxic chemicals. The success of foam depends upon its low viscosity and stability that enables it to form an insulating blanket which will smother fire, allow time to cool and prevent re-ignition. It also suppresses the release of noxious combustion products. Foaming agents can also be used with fresh or salt water.

They are used in fighting marine and oil rig fires. They are protein-based, non-toxic and biodegradable. Built-in foaming plant can be installed for the permanent protection of stationary hazards such as floating top fuel tanks and fuelling bays. On a smaller scale, hand appliances have application in cooking areas, garages and certain types of plant rooms.

3.2.7 Gas and Powder Systems

These combine alarm and defense. They are used in situations where water spray or deluge systems might not be effective, could be dangerous or cause damage to equipment and materials e.g. electronic equipment (computer rooms). However, the use of this system could be harmful. For example, carbon dioxide can cause freezing up of metallic parts in delicate equipment; powder can clog moving parts, conceal damage and be difficult to clean. Gaseous and powder agents are of two types:

1. Inert agents: these suppress fire by displacing the air in the area of combustion so as to cut off oxygen supply and reduce the temperature level. 2. Inhibiting agents: these combine the inert properties with chemical suppression.

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3.2.7.1 Fire Extinguishers

Fire extinguishers are an important part of fire prevention programs in the protection of personnel and facilities. A portable fire extinguisher can save lives and property when used correctly.

Portable fire extinguishers are classified and labeled according to their ability to handle specific classes and sizes of fires. Fire extinguishing equipment must be conspicuously located, properly maintained, and periodically inspected. If personnel are expected to utilize the fire extinguishing equipment in the event of a fire, those personnel must be adequately trained in fire prevention suppression, know the location and handling of fire extinguishers and be able to demonstrate competency.

Plate 3.5: portable fire extinguishers Source: Source: www.google.com, 2012

Guide on use of fire extinguishers

 Portable fire extinguishers should be available for employee use. The fire extinguishers are selected and distributed in accordance with the size and degree of hazard affecting their use and expected class of workplace fire.

 A system of inspecting, maintaining, recharging, and testing of all portable fire extinguishers should be in place. Portable extinguishers should be visually

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inspected each month and recorded on a tag attached to each extinguisher. Annually, all portable fire extinguishers should be given a thorough and documented maintenance check.

 Annual fire extinguisher training and education for employees who are expected to use fire extinguishers must be provided and documented. Employees who operate fixed extinguishing systems must also be trained annually.

 Portable fire extinguishers are to be located, mounted, and identified to be readily accessible and not subject employees to possible injury.  Stand pipes and hose cabinets must also be readily identifiable and used only for fire equipment purposes.  Areas protected by fixed extinguishing systems that use extinguishing agents in concentrations known to be hazardous to worker safety and health, must be posted with appropriate hazard warning or caution

 In addition to being readily accessible and unobstructed, fire extinguishers must be located high enough above floor level to avoid obstruction.

 Halon fire extinguishers will displace and dilute oxygen.

 Fire extinguishers must be readily available for use.

Fire Extinguisher Types

Portable fire extinguishers are classified according to their ability to handle specific classes and sizes of fires. Labels on extinguishers indicate the class and relative size of fire that they can be expected to handle.

 Class A extinguishers are suitable for use on fires in ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, rubber, and many plastics, where a quenching-cooling effect is required. The numeral indicates the relative fire extinguishing effectiveness of each unit. Extinguishers rated for Class A hazards are: water, foam, and multipurpose dry chemical types.  Class B extinguishers are suitable for use on fires in flammable liquids, gases, and greases, where an oxygen-exclusion or flame-interruption effect is essential.

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Extinguishers rated for Class B hazards are: foam, Halon and CO2 and multipurpose dry chemical.  Class C extinguishers are suitable for use on fires involving energized electrical equipment and wiring where the dielectric conductivity of the extinguishing agent is of importance. For example, water-solution extinguishers cannot be used on electrical fires because water conducts electricity and the operator could receive a shock from energized electrical equipment via the water.  Class D extinguishers are suitable for use on fires in combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, and potassium. No numeral is used for Class D extinguishers; the relative effectiveness of these extinguishers for use on specific combustible metal fires is detailed on the extinguisher nameplate.

Fire Extinguisher Location

 Portable fire extinguishers must be distributed so the travel distance is not more than 75 feet for Class A and Class D hazard areas, and not more than 50 feet for Class B hazard areas.  Extinguishers must be located close to the likely hazards, but not so close that they would be damaged/isolated by the fire. If possible, they should be located along normal paths of egress from the building. Where highly combustible material is stored in small rooms or enclosed space, extinguishers should be located outside the door, never inside where they might become inaccessible.  Extinguishers must not be blocked or hidden by stock, finished material, or machines. They should be located or hung where they will not be damaged by trucks, cranes, and harmful operations, or corroded by chemical processes, and where they will not obstruct aisles or injure passers-by.  All extinguisher locations should be made conspicuous. For example, if an extinguisher is hung on a large column or post, a distinguishing red band can be painted around the post. Also, large signs can be posted directing attention to extinguishers. Extinguishers should be kept clean and should not be painted in any way that could camouflage them or obscure labels and markings. 3.2.8 Mechanically Assisted Ventilation Systems

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These systems can be activated electrically by remote heat or smoke detectors or from a fire control panel. They may also be triggered off when heat breaks a fusible link. Examples of these are:

1. Mechanically open natural vents 2. Smoke extracting fans 3. Duct extracts systems. 3.2.9 Automatic Control of Doors and Shutters

They are used in smoke control and containment of fire. They may either open or close automatically depending on their functions. They either operate through a fusible link that responds to local heat or a solenoid switch that gets activated by a local heat or smoke.

3.2.9.1 Types of automatic control of doors and shutters

 Automatic sliding doors: used in airports, hotels, shops. e.t.c

 Hinged doors: used widely in hospitals, offices, old person‘s homes e.t.c

 Overhead doors: used for domestic garage purposes.

 Horizontal sliding steel doors: used in industrial or commercial situations where there is no head room for vertical sliding doors.

 Vertical sliding steel doors: they are used in industrial and commercial situations, for example supermarkets and shopping malls.

 Slide folding steel doors: used mainly in industrial situations where doors are in constant use and the floor track will be kept clean.

3.3 GENERAL GUIDELINES AND ISSUES RELATING TO DESIGN OF AN AUTOMOBILE DEALEARSHIP CENTER.

3.3.1 SITE

The ideal would be a wide, level, rectangular lot on the corner of a primary thoroughfare. If an interior lot must be used, it should have wide frontage for display purposes and sufficient depth for future expansion. While in some cases the suburbs may provide the

70 | P a g e ideal dealership site, in metropolitan areas with space limitations it may be necessary to plan on expanding upward, by adding levels to present facilities, to relieve growing pains.

3.3.1.1 Space Allocation

The site selected should contain sufficient usable space to provide for an adequate building and the necessary outside lot area. Ordinarily, the space allocation is approximately 60 percent outside area and 40 percent inside or under roof area. The inside space of a dealership is ordinarily apportioned into four major areas approximately as shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.3: Inside space proportions.

Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

These figures are basic averages, and therefore will not be exactly the same in all cases. Slight upward revisions in space allocation should be provided in the service department area for dealerships doing a large service business.

Outside space apportionment generally takes into consideration the requirements for used car display, service parking, new car storage, and employee parking. Space allocation among these four areas varies according to the sales volume set up in the planning potential of the dealership. In general, twice as much space is allotted to service parking as employee parking, and used car display requires roughly twice the space needed for new car storage.

3.3.1.2 Space Analysis

The illustrated building layout was prepared as an example, in accordance with (Table. 3.3) recommendations for a conventional dealership building design.

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Figure 3.2: space allocation: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

3.3.1.3 Planning Potential

A dealership's planning potential is a reasonably expected annual new car sales potential, which a properly located dealership with adequate facilities, and effective manpower and management, should be expected to retail profitably over the business cycle. Planning potential is a measure of the sales potential, based on the actual high price group market within the dealership's area of sales responsibility and, as such, is not necessarily a measure of the dealership's past or expected retail unit sales performance. It is against this planning figure that space guides are recommended.

3.3.2 SHOWROOM

The new car showroom performs a merchandising and advertising function for the entire dealership. The exterior should be designed, decorated, and lighted so it will stand out from

72 | P a g e its immediate surroundings in an appealing way as well as identify the business quickly and be inviting to potential customers. It represents the basic physical image of the dealership as it first appears to the customer, influencing not only his original valuation of the facility as a place of business but also his continual impression of it. It exerts an immeasurable but certain pressure on owner relations.

3.3.2.1 Locating the Showroom

The showroom should be located in a position of unobstructed visibility-one that will readily attract the attention of people passing by. It should present at a glance an impressive and appealing view of the new cars on display. If the building site is on a corner, the showroom should be on the corner facing both streets for maximum visibility of its interior. On an inside lot the showroom should be projected in front of the major portion of the facilities to increase visibility and exposure time. Always provide maximum customer visibility. Additional new unit display, if desired, can be provided outside the showroom under a canopy or roof extension, adjacent to the customer service reception area or through use of a landscaped patio display area. These types of new unit display areas are relatively inexpensive to provide and can be very effective.

The minimum space guide for inside showroom display is 46 square meter per unit. Leave at least 1.5m open around each car. This will allow space so that the customer may walk around and open the hood, doors, and trunk freely. Allow as much extra space as possible around the display, so that customers can stand back and get a good view of the car from all angles (Figure . 3.3).

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Figure 3.3: Show room locations: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

3.3.3 OFFICES

Location Most dealers have their own preference for the location of offices. As a general rule, the office of a department manager should be placed close to the activities of his department (Table 3.3).

Table 3.4: Average offices size: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

Additional consideration should be given to the following areas: waiting room, janitor closet, walk-in vault, file and record rooms, telephone equipment room. Sizes of these

74 | P a g e rooms should be in accordance with individual requirements. If vending machines are considered, install them in the service area near a waiting room.

3.3.3.1 General Offices

The general office should be in a central location, convenient to all operating departments, with adequate lighting, heating, and cooling for maximum productivity.

The size of the general office is determined by the number of employees and the amount of office equipment. Sufficient space should be provided for the storage of stationery, office supplies, and promotional literature.

3.3.3.2 Vault

A built-in vault adjoining the general office is customary for storage of valuable documents. If this is not possible space should always be provided for fire resistant equipment to protect important records (Figure. 3.4).

Figure 3.4: General office plan: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

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3.3.4 SERVICE DEPARTMENT

Just as capacity is the key to profitability, overall organization and appearance determines the operating efficiency and sales appeal of the service department. Dealers have to create a balanced service environment that serves the customer's needs as well as the dealer‘s. The service department is a "salesroom" for service and should be treated as such.

3.3.4.1 Basic Considerations

The following are features that should be considered basic elements in the service environment : the covered, out-of-the-weather reception area, well-positioned signs that spell out traffic flow, the service tower that provides visual control, including a view through the service entrance and into the street and over the reception area and into the work areas, the customer lounge and cashier at one location, convenient access to the lounge without the need to wander through the service department to find it, wide entrance and exit lanes, and uncrowded write up areas with sufficient room for customer convenience .

The space and stall needs of the service department are determined by expected business. However, the size and shape of the lot and building will sometimes dictate the service department general layout and arrangement. For best efficiency, a service building width of 21 to 22 meter is suggested. It is wide enough for two rows of cars and an aisle, and can accommodate a few truck stalls. For two rows of work stalls and an aisle, the 21 meter width is considered an absolute minimum.

3.3.4.2 Customer Reception

The reception area should be immediately inside the service entrance, decorated, well lighted, and equipped to create the best possible impression and selling atmosphere.

It is strongly recommended that the customer reception area be removed from the Productive service area. This concept has the following advantages;

1. Keeping vehicles out of the productive area until they are ready to be worked on. 2. outside (canopy) reception area can be considered, which is less expensive than inside roof area ; and

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3. Customers prefer a clean, quiet atmosphere to the normal noise, dirt and congestion of the shop area. Straight-through reception area is preferable and more conducive to service soiling. Traffic control also is much more efficient, with congestion and car maneuvering kept to a minimum.

Where local climate permits, outdoor covered reception areas may be desirable as a building economy. The outdoor reception area can be designed to attractively complement the building architecture.

3.3.4.3 Customer Waiting Room

A special waiting area should be provided for customers who wait for service repair on their care. Comfortable chairs, table, T.V., and a public telephone are desirable. Some dealers provide a waiting area in the showroom. However; a separate room, near the customer reception area and cashier, is desirable. The room size will be determined by the potential business

3.3.4.4 Doors

The service entrance door for the customer reception area should be 5 meter wide and 3.6 meter high. Two-lane traffic door should have a minimum width of 7 meter. Wide doors make it easier to move cars into the stalls just inside the service entrance. Single service exit doors should be 4.2 meter wide and 3.6 meter high.

3.3.4.5 Traffic Flow

The layout of the service department should be planned so that entrances and exits permit one-way traffic flow. Traffic flow should be a combination of dealership aisle patterns coordinated with traffic movement on public streets and alleys. The arrangement of stalls to obtain an efficient traffic pattern is one of the most critical factors in planning an efficient service department.

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3.3.4.5 Stall Arrangement

Productive stall arrangement depends on size of operation, number of specialized technicians, and the dealer's preference. However, here are a few fundamentals to keep in mind convenient location of entrances and exits, easy access to quick service stalls from customer reception area, parts counter convenient to lubrication and quick service stalls, separation of body shop, and maximum efficiency of aisle space by having one access aisle serving two rows of productive stalls.

3.3.4.5.1 Traffic pattern

I Pattern: As shown in the illustrations, a simple "I" pattern is the most efficient; This will work in most dealerships if the site permits such an arrangement. However, it cannot be considered a "cure-all." If the number of stalls needed results in an excessive overall length, it makes supervision difficult and places many stalls too remote from the parts department.

Figure 3.5: I pattern: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

L Pattern: The ―L‖ Pattern is the second most efficient stall and aisle arrangement. It is normally used in those instances where straight through traffic is not possible. It is sometimes necessary to sacrifice two stalls in order to accommodate one of the entrances.

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Figure 3.6: L pattern: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

U Pattern: The "U" pattern is used in large service operations or where no other arrangement is permissible because of existing neighboring structures or public streets. The "U" tends to centralize service traffic for more efficient control and accessibility to supporting departments.

Figure 3.7: U pattern: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

T Pattern: The "T" pattern permits the same number of stalls as the "L" pattern. However, it is not suggested over the "L" pattern since it makes car movement difficult into the two end stalls near each exit. This stall and aisle pattern is useful in cases where an exit in the rear wall is impossible and the location of an alley makes two side exits more practical.

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Figure 3.8: T pattern: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

3.3.4.6 Stall Dimensions

The width of stalls is made up of "car width" plus working space on each side of the vehicle. The total width varies from 3 to 3.6 meter according to stall function (Table 3.3). Whenever a stall is next to a wall, add 600mm to its width. Local building or fire codes supersede these recommendations if they conflict.

Table 3.5: Stall dimension: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition.

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3.3.4.6 Service Stall

General-purpose service stalls should be 3.6 meter in width. In special situations, a 3.35 meter width may be acceptable, but only when structural requirements or land limitations impose the need. In buildings with direct drive-In stalls, 3.6 meter widths are mandatory, since lack of an aisle away means minimum walk-around and working areas. Figure 3.9 provides general dimensions and locations for equipment.

Figure 3.9: Service stall: Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

The drive-in-and-back-out safety test area could be designed around an existing front-end pit. Wheel alignment and under-vehicle inspections are made in one lane and visual inspection, brake testing and headlight testing in the other. Suggested layout could possibly be realized by the relocation of existing equipment as in figure 3.10 and 3.11.

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Figure 3.10:Two-bay safety inspection station. Source: Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition, 1983.

Figure 3.11: Ramp design.

Source:Chevrolet Motor Division, Building Department, Detroit, Mich.

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Table 3.5: Ramp design.

Source: Chevrolet Motor Division, Building Department, Detroit, Mich, 1980

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REFERENCES

The Aqua Group, (1984); Fire and Building: Canada Publishing limited, London pp. 1-13, 31-83.

Barry, R. (1977) The Construction of Buildings, Vol. II: Granada Publish Ltd, London. pp. 20-29

Chevrolet Motor Division, Building Department, Detroit, Mich.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Marsh, P. (1985); Security in Buildings: Longman Inc., New York. pp.45.

National Building Code of Canada 1995: National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, 1995.

Neufert Architects‘ Data (2000); Third edition Blackwell Publishing. pp 125-137.

Punmia, P.C. (1984); Fire Safety: Laxmi Pulblication, Delhi. pp. 25-30.

Shields, T.J, and Silcock, G.W.N. (1987); Buildings and Fire: Longman Group Ltd U.K. pp. 20-88.

Time-saver standard for building types, 2nd Edition. pp 845-860

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CHAPTER FOUR

CASE STUDIES AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EXISTING SIMILAR STRUCTURES

4.1 CASE STUDY

Several case studies have been chosen for the purpose of this study. The case studies have been properly appraised to serve as tool for the realization of the set goals and objectives. Therefore, the process of arriving at a suitable design solution for a well-planned fire-safety auto mobile center involves a careful research and graphic documentation of selected and related schemes, which have direct bearing in relation to the proposal.

In the course of this study, the case studies will be divided into two categories. Category one is based on the research on fire while the second category will be based on the design proper (Auto mobile dealership canter), comprising Local and International Case studies.

The Category One are as follows:

 The Greater London Authority Building (GLA) (London City Hall, and London Mayor Building)  Kader industrial (Thailand) Co. l.t.d factory The Yukon Energy Corporation building (YEC)

 The Windsor Tower (officially known as Edificio Windsor)  The University Library, Federal University of Technology, Akure.

Category Two to be based on the design includes:

 Local case study to include Nigeria Car show room which happens to be the only type available in the country.

 International case studies on Automobile dealership centers in some countries where it is available (Istanbul Turkey).

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4.2 CATEGORY ONE

4.2.1 Case study 1 (A fire-resistant building)

Project: The Greater London Authority Building (GLA) (London City Hall, and London Mayor Building)

Architect: Foster & Partners

Client: The Greater London Authority

Year of construction: 1998-2003

Location: South East London.

4.2.1.1 Brief Information

In order to offer clients increased robustness plus some cost savings, Arup Fire (a London- based Structural Fire Engineering Construction Company owned by Tony O‘Meagher & Anthony Ferguson) is pursuing a performance based approach to structural fire resistance on several major building projects in London. The first of these was the GLA building, designed by Foster and Partners, which was opened in 2006. Now known as City Hall, the building provides offices and committee rooms for the Greater London Authority, as well as public assembly and exhibition spaces. The use of a fire engineering approach enabled the exposed steel columns to be fire-protected with a thin-film intumescent coating, giving a high quality finish. Natural ventilation was designed to limit the temperature of smoke layers, allowing glazing that did not have a fire rating to be used in compartment elements. Extensive discussion with the building control [London Borough of Southwark] and fire [London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority] authorities enabled appropriate evacuation procedures to be worked out for the mixed population of public and office staff.

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Figure 4.1: A section through the building showing various levels

Source: Internet Search (www.arupfire.com), 2007. 4.2.1.2 Architectural analysis

This is an office building for the Mayor‘s administration; it has a council chamber for the GLA and several meeting rooms. It is also a public building with general access to the council chamber and meeting rooms, and to the top floor which is a multi-purpose area. Access is maintained at ground and lower ground levels. The council chamber which overlooks the Thames is the base of an atrium that rises past all the upper floors. A spiral ramp serves every floor. Above chamber level the ramp is inside the atrium.

The upper section of the ramp is separated from the section serving ground and lower ground, as it passes the chamber level. Ground and lower ground floors are linked by an elaborate elliptical atrium. The plates below show the lighted upper atrium façade with the ramp visible inside it.

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Plate 4.1: the building exterior Plate 4.2: the spiral-like interior of the building

Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com), 2007. Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com), 2007

4.2.1.3 Structural Fire Engineering of the Building Modern office buildings, retail facilities and the like typically incorporate a high proportion of glazed or non fire-rated elements for facades and atria walls. For this type of construction a performance based approach, allowing for ventilation of heat through sections of façade penetrated by fire, generally shows that the guidance on fire resistance in Approved Document B is conservative. The fire resistance periods can typically be reduced to 60 minutes using a Performance Based approach. Reducing the fire protection on structural steel members can result in a significant cost saving and other benefits, including:

 Reduced cost of materials, labour and equipment;  Rapid building construction process, especially if fire protection is applied off-site;  Less bulky structural members that reduce building height or increase floor to floor height;  Free expression of the architectural form of the structure.

4.2.1.4 Background to Structural fire engineering: Traditional Approach

In England and Wales the recommendations for structural fire resistance are given, and other countries have similar prescriptive guidance. This regulatory guidance can trace its origins to fire tests done by S. Ingberg (1928) in the USA which related the fire load to the fire resistance. Post war compartment fire studies refined Ingberg‘s values for fire resistance.

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Traditionally the fire resistance of structural members has been determined in Standard Fire Tests. The time-temperature environment in the Standard Fire Test represents a more severe heating condition compared to that in many typical natural fire compartments. In a well-ventilated compartment the duration and/or the severity of the time-temperature environment is generally less than in a Standard Fire Test. The effect of ventilation and fire load on fire severity is illustrated in Figure 4.2. Fire tests were conducted in compartments where the fire load and the natural ventilation were varied. The well ventilated compartments experienced lower temperatures and fires of shorter duration. In Figure 4.2 the numbers identified with each curve indicate the fire load density in kg/m2 (i.e. 60, 30 or 15) and the ventilation area as a proportion of the façade area (i.e. ½ or ¼). The compartments used in the tests were small by modern standards but the results are indicative of the influence of fire load and ventilation on the time-temperature environment generated within fire compartments.

Figure 4.2: typical time temperature curves of compartment test fires compared to standard [ISO] fire resistance furnace test curve Source: internet survey (www.arupfire.com, 2007)

4.2.1.5 Time-Equivalent Analysis of the GLA building

When a fire reaches a stage where there is full involvement of the combustibles within a compartment (known as flashover), the intensity of the heat in the hot smoke layer will cause glazing and non-fire resisting facades to fail, allowing hot gases to escape (see Figure. 4.3). Similarly, openings to atria will also allow hot gases to escape. The

89 | P a g e temperatures reached in a compartment and the duration of a fire depend on natural ventilation through openings to atria and glazing or non-fire resisting facades that fail in a fire.

Factors that affect the intensity and duration of a fire include: the geometry of the compartment, the thermal insulation provided by the linings, the natural ventilation following glazing failure and the fuel load (quantity and type).

Figure 4.3: Natural Ventilation for a Fully Developed Fire

Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com 2007)

The principle of time equivalence is that the member is exposed to an equivalent heat dose; while the equivalent fire severity can be stated more formally as: ―the time of exposure to the standard fire test that would result in the same maximum temperature in a protected steel member as would occur in a complete burnout of a fire compartment‖. (O‘Meagher, T. and Ferguson, A. 2007)

The thermal inertia of the compartment linings also affects, but to a lesser extent, the intensity and the duration of a fire. Linings that are more insulating, or have a high thermal inertia such as gypsum plaster retards the heat transfer from the compartment to the walls and ceilings, with the result that the temperatures and the fire duration in a well insulated compartment are greater.

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3.2.1.6 Practical Application of structural fire engineering to the building

One of the first applications of the time-equivalent analysis technique to a complete building structure was at the new GLA building. Figure 4.1 and figure 4.2 show that this is a fully glazed building with the potential for a high heat loss rate to the exterior in the event of fire. Recognizing that sprinklers reduce the intensity of a fire, sprinklers were installed in the building, and a reduction factor is applied to the calculated value for fire resistance, A factor of safety for consequence of structural failure is also applied to the calculated value of fire resistance, introducing another degree of conservatism for taller buildings. When the Structural Euro code was published in the UK a National Application Document [NAD] was included. The NAD gives UK values for parameters in the time-equivalent time analysis, to enable the safety objectives of the Building Regulations to be met. This was the approach used at the GLA building. The use of the analysis method generally results in reductions in the structural fire resistance compared to the values recommended in the Approved Document B, where the building is potentially well ventilated in a fire through a high proportion of unprotected facade.

In the case of the GLA project a 60 minute standard was agreed for the structural elements. The building is over 30m in height and under the Approved Document B would have been expected to have 120 minutes. The lower period opened up a wider range of options for fire protection the structural steel framework with architectural benefits as well as economic ones.

Interestingly, when the method is applied to the style of office building common in the first half of the 20th century [when Ingeberg was working], such as plate 4.3, the fire resistance can be as high as 4 hours. This may be justified by the lower percentage of glazed openings and high thermal inertia of the construction. Plates 4.1 and 4.2 show the high proportion of exterior glazing [the spandrel panels are fritted glass] that are used in the Greater London Authority building.

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Plate 4.3: for comparison, office buildings typical of the period when the original work on structural fire resistance was being done had a low proportion of ventilation openings and high thermal inert Source: www.arupfire.com, 2007

4.2.1.7 Temperature Control /Ventilation of the Building

Although the floors are constructed as fire resisting compartment floors, the public and private spaces are not separated by fire-rated construction everywhere. The green line on fig.4.4 represents the boundary between the upper and lower atria. In many places within the building, this separation is formed by glazed screens of ordinary laminated glass. To remove hot smoke, automatic vents open in the top of the atrium while vents near the bottom admit cooler make-up air from the lower atrium; (the lower atrium has a series of automatic opening vents that double either as inlets or as smoke outlets in the event of fire in the lower atrium). The complicated geometry of these spaces makes it impossible to illustrate the air paths precisely on a 2D representation.

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Figure 4.4: line of separation between upper and lower atria, and between offices and public accommodation adjoining the upper atrium. Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com) 2007

4.2.1.8 Means of Escape

The public areas of the building could be evacuated simultaneously, but the offices have a phased evacuation arrangement. Depending on the fire location the office levels may not be evacuated in the first instance. A voice alarm system is programmed to provide the appropriate messages. There are two firefighting pressurized stairs in the core that have been designed according to the basis of use. Allowance was made for the time delay of people reaching the council chamber level from the top floor.

A fire in the council chamber should be limited by the fire load. The furniture and fittings were designed to keep the fire load density low. In the event that a fire on an office level penetrates the atrium enclosure the temperature control ventilation, described above, should preserve the integrity of the atrium enclosure indefinitely, assuming a heat release rate into the atrium of up to 2.5MW. The building is fitted with sprinklers so it is unlikely that an office fire would grow large enough to penetrate the atrium in the first place.

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4.2.1.9 Conclusion The use of fire safety engineering:

 Ensured the architects could meet a complex brief while realising an unusual programme that has created a new landmark for London.

 Demonstrated the benefits in addressing structural response to fire explicitly

 Demonstrated that designers can make use of the building design and systems to enhance the fire safety performance.

4.2.2 Case study 2 (fire incidence) - category one

Project: kader industrial (Thailand) Co. l.t.d factory

Client: Kader Toy Factor

Year of construction: 1989

Location: Sam Phran District of Nakhon Pathom Province of Thailand.

4.2.2.1 Brief Information/History

The Kader facility manufactured stuffed toys and plastic dolls primarily intended for export to the United States and other developed countries. It was first registered on the 27th of January, 1989; but the company‘s license was suspended on 21st November 1989 after a fire on 16th August, 1989 destroyed the new plant. This fire was attributed to the ignition of polyester fabric used in the manufacture of dolls in a spinning machine. The plant was rebuilt and the Ministry of Industry allowed it to reopen on 4th July 1990.

Between the time the factory reopened and the May 1993 fire, the facility experienced several other smaller fires. One of them which occurred I February did considerable damage to building three figure 3.7 and figure 3.8. They were issued a warning by labour inspec an emergency plan.

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4.2.2.1 Location and Site Organization

The factory is located precisely on Phutthamonthon 4 Road, in the Sam Phran District of Nakhon Pathom Province of Thailand. This is not quite halfway between Bangkok and the nearby city of Kanchanaburi, the state of the infamous Second World War railroad bridge over the River Kwai.

Initial reports following the May 1993 fire noted that there were four buildings on the Kader site, three of which were destroyed by the fire; the three buildings were actually a single E-shaped structure. The three primary portions were designated buildings one, two, and three. Nearby were a one-storey workshop and another four- storey structure referred to as building four.

Figure 4.5: The site plan of the Kader factory

Source: internet search (wwwkaderfactoryfire.com), 2007 95 | P a g e

4.2.2.3 Architectural Analysis

The E-shaped building was a four-story structure composed of concrete slabs supported by a structural steel-frame. There were windows around the perimeter of each floor and the roof was a gently sloped picked arrangement. Each portion of the building had a freight elevator and two stairwells that were each 1.5m.

4.2.2.4 The Fire Incidence

As the workers and security guards tried in vain to extinguish the fire, the building began filling with smoke and other products of combustion. Survivors reported that the fire alarm never sounded in Building One, but many workers grew concerned when they saw smoke on the upper floors. Despite the smoke, security guards reportedly told some workers to stay at their stations because it was a small fire that would soon be under control.

Figure 4.6: buildings 1, 2, 3 of the kader toy factory

Source: internet search (wwwKaderFactoryfire.com) 2007,

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The fire spread rapidly throughout Building One, and the upper floors soon became untenable. The blaze blocked the stairwell at the south end of the building, so most of the workers rushed to the north stairwell. This meant that approximately 1,100 people were trying to leave the third and fourth floors through a single stairwell.

The first fire apparatus arrived at 4:40 p.m., their response time having been extended because of the relatively remote location of the facility and the gridlock conditions typical of Bangkok traffic. Arriving fire-fighters found Building One heavily involved in flames and already beginning to collapse, with people jumping from the third and fourth floors.

Despite the fire-fighters' efforts, Building One collapsed completely at approximately 5:14 p.m. Fanned by strong winds blowing toward the north, the blaze spread quickly into Buildings Two and Three before the fire brigade could effectively defend them. Building Two reportedly collapsed at 5:30 p.m., and Building three at 6:05 p.m. The fire brigade successfully kept the fire from entering Building Four and the smaller, one-storey workshop nearby, and the fire-fighters had the blaze under control by 7:45 p.m. Approximately 50 pieces of fire apparatus were involved in the battle.

The fire alarms in Buildings Two and Three reportedly functioned properly, and all the workers in those two buildings escaped. The workers in Building One were not so fortunate. A large number of them jumped from the upper floors. In all, 469 workers were taken to the hospital, where 20 died. The other dead were found during the post-fire search of what had been the north stairwell of the building. Many of them apparently succumbed to lethal products of combustion before or during the building's collapse. According to the latest information available, 188 people, most of them female, have died as a result of this fire.

Even with the help of six large hydraulic cranes that were moved to the site to facilitate the search for victims, it was several days before all the bodies could be removed from the rubble. There were no fatalities among the fire-fighters, although there was one injury. Traffic in the vicinity, which is normally congested, made transporting the victims to hospitals difficult.

Determining the cause of this fire became a challenge because the portion of the facility in which it began was totally destroyed and the survivors have provided conflicting information. Since the fire started near a large electrical control panel, investigators first

97 | P a g e thought that problems with the electrical system might have been the cause. They also considered arson. At this time, however, Thai authorities feelt that a carelessly discarded cigarette may have been the source of ignition. (This fire incidence is reported by wwwkaderfactoryfire.com, 2007)

4.2.2.5 Analysis of the Fire Safety Failures

For 82 years, the world has recognized the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist factory fire in New York City as the worst accidental loss-of-life industrial fire in which the fatalities were limited to the building of fire origin. With 188 fatalities, however, the Kader factory fire now replaces the Triangle fire in the record books. (wwwkaderfactoryfire.com, 2007).

According to wwwKaderFactoryfire.com, 2007, when analysing the Kader fire, a direct comparison with the Triangle fire provides a useful benchmark. The two buildings were similar in a number of ways: they have poor arrangement of exits, they have ineffective and fixed fire protection system, they both have their initial fuel package readily combustible, and the horizontal and vertical fire separations were inadequate. In addition, neither company had provided its workers with adequate fire safety training.

However, there is one distinct difference between these two fires: the Triangle Shirtwaist factory building did not collapse but the Kader buildings did. Inadequate exit arrangements were perhaps the most significant factor in the high loss of life at both the Kader and the Triangle fires. Had the exiting provisions of NFPA 101 of 1994, the Life Safety Code, which was established as a direct result of the Triangle fire, been applied at the Kader facility, fewer lives would have been lost. Several fundamental requirements of the Life Safety Code pertain directly to the Kader fire. For example, the Code requires that every building or structure be constructed, arranged and operated in such a way that its occupants are not placed in any undue danger by fire, smoke, fumes or the panic that may occur during an evacuation or during the time it takes to defend the occupants in place.

The Code also requires that every building have enough exits and other safeguards of the proper size and at the proper locations to provide an escape route for every occupant of a building. These exits should be appropriate to the individual building or structure, taking into account the character of the occupancy, the capabilities of the occupants, the number of occupants, the fire protection available, the height and type of building construction and any other factor necessary to provide all the occupants with a

98 | P a g e reasonable degree of safety. This was obviously not the case in the Kader facility, where the blaze blocked one of Building One's two stairwells, forcing approximately 1,100 people to flee the third and fourth floors through a single stairwell. www.kaderfactoryfire.com, 2007.

Also, the exits should be arranged and maintained so that they provide free and unobstructed egress from all parts of a building whenever it is occupied. Each of these exits should be clearly visible, and the route to every exit should be marked in such a way that every occupant of the building who is physically and mentally able readily knows the direction of escape from any point.

Every vertical exit or opening between the floors of a building should be enclosed or protected as necessary to keep the occupants reasonably safe while they exit and to prevent fire, smoke and fumes from spreading from floor to floor before the occupants have had a chance to use the exits.

The outcomes of both the Triangle and the Kader fires were significantly affected by the lack of adequate horizontal and vertical fire separations. The two facilities were arranged and built in such a way that a fire on a lower floor could spread rapidly to the upper floors, thus trapping a large number of workers.

4.2.2.6 Fire Safety Training and Other Factors

Another factor that contributed to the large loss of life in both the Triangle and Kader fires was the lack of adequate fire safety training, and the rigid security procedures of both companies.

After the fire at the Kader facility, survivors reported that fire drills and fire safety training were minimal, although the security guards had apparently had some fire training. The Triangle Shirtwaist factory had no evacuation plan, and fire drills were not implemented. Furthermore, post-fire reports from Triangle survivors indicate that they were routinely stopped as they left the building at the end of the work day for security purposes. Various post-fire accusations by Kader survivors also imply that security arrangements slowed their exit, although these accusations are still being investigated. In any case, the lack of a well- understood evacuation plan seems to have been an important factor in the high loss of life sustained in the Kader fire.

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The absence of fixed automatic fire protection systems also affected the outcome of both the Triangle and the Kader fires. Neither facility was equipped with automatic sprinklers, although the Kader buildings did have a fire alarm system. According to the Life Safety Code, fire alarms should be provided in buildings whose size, arrangement or occupancy make it unlikely that the occupants themselves will notice a fire immediately. Unfortunately, the alarms reportedly never operated in Building One, which resulted in a significant delay in evacuation. There were no fatalities in Buildings Two and Three, where the fire alarm system functioned as intended.

Fire alarm systems should be designed, installed and maintained in accordance with documents like NFPA 72, the National Fire Alarm Code (NFPA 72, 1993). Sprinkler systems should be designed and installed in accordance with documents like NFPA 13, Installation of Sprinkler Systems, and maintained in accordance with NFPA 25, Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems (NFPA 13, 1994; NFPA 25, 1995).

The initial fuel packages in both the Triangle and Kader fires were similar. The Triangle fire started in rag bins and quickly spread to combustible clothing and garments before involving wood furnishings, some of which were impregnated with machine oil. The initial fuel package at the Kader plant consisted of polyester and cotton fabrics, various plastics, and other materials used to manufacture stuffed toys, plastic dolls, and other related products. These are materials that can typically be ignited easily, can contribute to rapid fire growth and spread, and have a high heat release rate. Industry will probably always handle materials that have challenging fire protection characteristics, but manufacturers should recognize these characteristics and take the necessary precautions to minimize associated hazards. (Adapted from www.kaderfactoryfire.com).

4.2.2.7 The Kader Building's Structural Integrity

Probably the most notable difference between the Triangle and Kader fires is the effect they had on the structural integrity of the buildings involved. Even though the Triangle fire gutted the top three floors of the ten-storey factory building, the building remained structurally intact. The Kader buildings, on the other hand, collapsed relatively early in the fire because their structural steel supports lacked the fireproofing that would have allowed them to maintain their strength when exposed to high temperatures. A post-fire review of

100 | P a g e the debris at the Kader site showed no indication that any of the steel members had been fireproofed.

Obviously, building collapse during a fire presents a great threat to both the building's occupants and to the fire-fighters involved in controlling the blaze. However, it is unclear whether the collapse of the Kader building had any direct effect on the number of fatalities, since the victims may have already succumbed to the effects of heat and products of combustion by the time the building collapsed. If the workers on the upper floors of Building One had been shielded from the products of combustion and heat while they were trying to escape, the building's collapse would have been a more direct factor in the loss of life.

4.2.2.8 Fire Safety Appraisal

Merits

1) Each building at the plant was equipped with a fire alarm system. 2) Portable extinguishers and hose stations were installed on the outside walls and in the stairwells of each building. 3) There is a defined access to the building. 4) The building was furnished with safety workers and an emergency plan. Demerits

1) None of the buildings had automatic sprinklers. 2) None of the structural steel in the building was fire-proofed 3) Employers flouted safety rules and government allowed economic growth to take priority over workers‘ safety. 4) The buildings were closely built with very little buffer zones. 5) Each building at the facility had a fuel load which composed of fabric plastics and materials used for stuffing. 6) There were carefree attitudes and careless behaviours which demonstrated against fire safety. 7) The use of non-fire resisting materials was pronounced 8) Communicating signs that inform and educate about fire safety were not employed. 9) There was lack of self-closing devices such as doors. 10) There was insufficient smoke detector in the plant/workshop.

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11) Protection from the vertical spread of fire through interior stairwells was not taken into consideration in the design. 12) Upon detection of fire, the employees displayed gross improper action. 4.2.2.9 Recommendations on the Kader Buildings Fire Protection Principles

Large, open work spaces are typical of industrial facilities and fire-rated floors and walls must be installed and maintained to slow the spread of fire from one area to another. Fire also must be kept from spreading externally from the windows on one floor to those on another floor, as it did during the Triangle fire. The most effective way to limit vertical fire spread is to enclose stairwells, elevators, and other vertical openings between floors. Reports of features such as caged freight elevators at the Kader factory raise significant questions about the ability of the buildings' passive fire protection features to prevent vertical spread of fire and smoke.

National, state and local public authorities should examine the way they enforce their building and fire codes to determine whether new codes are needed or existing codes need to be updated. This review should also determine whether a building plan review and inspection process is in place to ensure that the appropriate codes are followed. Finally, provisions must be made for periodic follow-up inspections of existing buildings to ensure that the highest levels of fire protection are maintained throughout the life of the building.

Safety Code, if not applied, can not prevent tragic losses. These codes and standards must also be adopted and rigorously enforced if they are to have any effect. Also, building owners and operators must also be aware that they are responsible for ensuring that their employees' working environment is safe. At the very least, the state- of-the-art fire protection design reflected in fire codes and standards must be in place to minimize the possibility of a catastrophic fire.

Had the Kader buildings been equipped with sprinklers and working fire alarms, the loss of life might not have been so high. Had Building One's exits been better designed, hundreds of people might not have been injured jumping from the third and fourth floors. Had vertical and horizontal separations been in place, the fire might not have spread so quickly throughout the building.

4.2.3 Case study 3 (fire incidence) - category one

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Project: The Windsor Tower (officially known as Edificio Windsor)

Year of construction: Mid 70‘s

Location: Madrid, Spain

Fire resistance: Passive fire protection. No sprinklers.

Building Type: 106 m (32 storeys). Commercial.

4.2.3.1 Brief Information/History

The Windsor Tower was a 106m 32 storeys (concrete commercial building constructed in the 1970s according to the then Spanish building codes. According to history, it was among the ten tallest buildings in Madrid Spain before it was gutted by fire on the 12th of

February, 2005. The Windsor Tower was officially known as Edificio Windsor or Torre Windsor according to the Spanish language.

4.2.3.2 Architectural Analysis of the building

The Windsor Tower or Torre Windsor (officially known as Edificio Windsor) was a 32- storey concrete building with a reinforced concrete central core. A typical floor (fig. 3.10) was two-way spanning 280mm deep waffle slab supported by the concrete core, internal RC columns with additional 360mm deep steel I-beams and steel perimeter columns. Originally, the perimeter columns and internal steel beams were left unprotected in accordance with the Spanish building code at the time of construction.

The building featured two heavily reinforced concrete transfer structures (technical floors) between the 2nd and 3rd Floors, and between the 16th and 17th Floors respectively. The original cladding system was fixed to the steel perimeter columns and the floor slabs. The perimeter columns were supported by the transfer structures at the 17th and 3rd Floor levels.

The building was subjected to a three year refurbishment programme of works when the fire broke out. The major works included the installations of:

 Fire protection to the perimeter steel columns using a boarding system

 Fire protection to the internal steel beams using a spray protection

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 A sprinkler system

 A new aluminium cladding system

Figure 4.7: typical floor plan Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com), 2007

The refurbishment was carried out floor-by-floor from the lower floors upwards. By the time the fire broke out, the fire protection for all steelwork below the 17th floor had been completed except a proportion of the 9th and 15th floors. However, not all the gaps between the cladding and the floor slabs had been sealed with fireproof material (Dave 2005). Also fire stopping to voids and fire doors to vertical shafts were not fully installed.

4.2.3.3 The Fire Protection System

The Windsor Tower's original structural design complied with the Spanish building codes in 1970s. At the time of the construction, the Spanish codes did not require fire protection to steelwork and sprinkler fire protection for the building. As a result, the original existing steelwork was left unprotected and no sprinkler system was installed in the building. The gap between the original cladding and floor slabs was not firestopped as well. In fact, these weak links in the fire protection of the building was being rectified in the refurbishment project at the time of the fire.Since the building adopted the "open plan" floor concept, effectively, the fire compartmentation could only be floor-by-floor (about 40 x 25m). However, the vertical compartmentation might not be fully achieved due to the lack of firestop system in floor openings and between the original cladding and the floor slabs.The

104 | P a g e original fire protection system and the upgrading works being carried out at the time of the fire are compared as follows:

Main Main Fire Protection At time of Construction At Time of Fire Fire System (1970s Spainish Codes) (Refurbishment in Process)

Protectio Fire compartmentation × Under construction n System Fire stopping between × Under construction cladding & structure

17th floor & above: Not yet commencement Fire protection to (18th floor partly completed) × steelwork 4th ~ 15th floor: Completed (except 9 & 15th floors)

Fire protection to × × concrete members Sprinkler system × Under construction

Fire alarm system √ √

Dry riser system √ √

Table 4.1: the original fire protection system and the upgrading works being carried out at the time of the fire. Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com), 2007

4.2.3.4 The Fire incidence

The fire was believed to have been caused by a short-circuit on the 21st floor. However, some facts under investigation point that it could be induced by arsonists. The actual cause will be difficult to be found due to the collapse of the break-out floor.

It was reported that the fire started at 23:00 at the 21st Floor. Within one hour, all floors above the 21st Floor were on fire. In the following hours, the fire gradually spread downwards to the lower technical floor at the 3rd Floor. The total fire duration was estimated to be 18 ~ 20 hours.

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Plate 4.5: after the fire incidence Plate 4.4: before the fire incidence Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com), Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com), 2007 4.2.3.5 Analysis of the2007 Fire Safety Failures

The main factors leading to the rapid fire growth and the fire spread to almost all floors included:

 the lack of effective fire fighting measures, such as automotive sprinklers

 the ―open plan‖ floors with a floor area of 1000m2

 the failure of vertical compartmentation measures, in the façade system and the floor openings

It was believed that the multiple floor fire, along with the simultaneous buckling of the unprotected steel perimeter columns at several floors, triggered the collapse of the floor slabs above the 17th floor. The reduced damage below the 17th floor might provide a clue.

The fire protection on the existing steelworks below the 17th floor had been completed at the time of fire except for the 9th and 15th floors. When the fire spread below the 17th floor, those protected perimeter columns survived, except for the unprotected columns at the 9th and 15th floors which all buckled in the multiple floor fire (see plate 4.6). However, they did not cause any structural collapse. Obviously, the applied loads supported by these

106 | P a g e buckled columns had been redistributed to the remaining reinforced concrete shear walls. Nevertheless, structural fire analysis should be carried out before such a conclusion can be drawn.

Plate 4.6 Buckling of unprotected steel perimeter columns at the 9th floor Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com), 2007

Figure 4.8 floor analysis Source: internet search (www.arupfire.com),

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4.2.3.6 Fire Safety Appraisal

Merits

1. Each building at the plant was equipped with a fire alarm system. 2. Portable extinguishers and hose stations were installed on the outside walls and in the stairwells of each building. 3. There is a defined access to the building. 4. The building was furnished with safety workers and an emergency plan. 5. Attention was paid to the compartmentation of the floors Demerits

1. The building was not equipped with automatic sprinklers. 2. The use of non-fire resisting materials was pronounced 3. Communicating signs that inform and educate about fire safety were not employed. 4. There was lack of self-closing devices such as doors. 5. There was no provision of smoke detectors in the building 6. Protection from the vertical spread of fire through interior stairwells was not taken into consideration in the design. 7. The gap between the original cladding and floor slabs was not fire stopped. 8. Compartmentation of the walls could not be achieved

4.2.4 Case study 4 (Non-fire incidence) - category one

Project: The University Library, Federal University of Technology, Akure.

Architect: Design Plus, Lagos

Client: The Federal University of Technology, Akure.

Contractor: Bonafide Construction Company l.t.d. Akure.

Year of construction: 2005

Location: Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.

Size: about 750 capacity Library.

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4.2.4.1 Brief Information

The University Library of the Federal University of Technology, Akure was constructed as a result of the yearly rapid increase in the number of students. It is a building constructed in the year 2005 to replace the small old library located in Oba Kekere area of the campus.

Plate 4.7: The library.

Source: IJATUYI (2007)

4.2.4.2 Location and Site Organization

Standing alone on the rocky site towards the road leading to the Staff Quarters, the library is located in the Obanla area of the campus. It is situated to the west of the School of Engineering and Engineering Technology Building and the south of the Computer Resource Centre of the university. The new university library clearly integrates itself into the serene and cool landscape of the area. The adjoining buildings seem to embrace it from afar into the existing landscape.

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CENTRE FOR CENTRE FOR CONTINUOUS CONTINUOUS EDUCATION EDUCATION FUTA Book CBN Computer BUILDING ( ) Shop Centre

NORTH Conveniences Reference Section

Offices Catalogue and Periodicals Section

Stair Hall

Circulation Desk

Circulation Area Computer Room

Libarian Office Porter Desk

Entrance Porch SEET Building Conveniences Parking Lot Parking Lot Aquisition Section

Access Road

Figure 4.9: The site plan of the library

Source: IJATUYI (2007) (as-built measurement) 4.2.4.3 Functional Analysis

Figure 4.10: Ground floor plan of the library.

Source: IJATUYI (2007) (as-built measurement),

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The interaction of such spaces is well defined with one space leading to the next. The internal layout of the building has communicating signs for direction. The spaces are voluminous and circulation is smooth due to the functional arrangement of the items of furniture.

4.2.4.4 Architectural Analysis

The principle of planning adopted in the design of the internal spaces, its recessive shape, and the use of different scales for the surroundings gives rise to interplay of only large, voluminous sizes in the building. Towards the centre of the building is a big skylight that seems to link the interior of the building with the heavenlies. Strips of windows run parallel to the building and provide enough ventilation. This also accentuates the fact that it is an institutional building.

The external columns are load bearing with small units of fire resistant mosaic tiles while the walls are painted with texcote paints. It is a structure looking confidently rigid and imposing in its architecture of trabeation; and a reader who enters feels safe and relaxed. Its headroom is approximately 5m and the roof is in form of a simple gable shape. The construction materials used for the various components are as follows:

4.2.4.4.1 Walls:

The external approach has vertical element such as wall fins finished with fire-resisting mosaic tiles and the walls are plastered and finished with texcote emulsion paint.

Plate 4.8: showing a fire extinguisher placed on the wall

Source: IJATUYI (2007),

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The above plate3.5 shows a fire extinguisher placed on the wall in a general reading room. The extinguishers are placed on the walls of all the reading rooms. This is useful for the readers in the event of fire.

4.2.4.4.2 Ceilings

The ceiling is finished with 600x600mm suspended acoustic gypsum board which are good for fire resistance within the interior space. Water sprinklers are incorporated on them; see plate 6 below.

Plate 4.9: showing the ceiling with a water sprinkler

Source: IJATUYI (2007) 4.2.4.4.3 Floor

The floor of the main circulation area is finished with both terrazzo and vitrified tiles and the stair with vitrified tiles which are slippery - this may not aid proper movement in the event of escape from fire. The reading room areas are finished with carpet tiles.

4.2.4.4.4 Fenestrations

The doors leading to different spaces are made of combustible paneled timber which fuels the growth of fire; while the main entrance and partition spaces are aluminum casement doors. Window openings are made of sliding aluminum panel windows.

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Plate 4.9; An alarm bell on a lobby on the first floor. Plate 4.10 F ire extinguisher on a lobby on the first floor. Source: IJATUYI (2007) Source: IJATUYI (2007)

Plate 4.10: the interior space of the ground floor and the Plate 4.11: approach view showing the access to the floor finished with terrazzo and vitrified ceramic tiles. building.

Source: IJATUYI (2007) Source: IJATUYI (2007)

Plate 4.13: floor finish and column finish Plate 4.12: the skylight is an effective do not encourage fire spread. smoke control. Source: IJATUYI (2007) Source: IJATUYI (2007) 113 | P a g e

4.2.4.5 Fire Safety Appraisal

4.2.4.5.1 Merits

1. There is the provision of fire alarms in the lobbies of each floor and the reading room. 2. The staircases are about 2.4m wide; this is enough space for about 8 people to escape at a time in the event of fire. 3. Portable carbon dioxide extinguishers are provided almost everywhere (in the reading rooms, offices ad strategic locations) 4. There is the provision of automatic smoke detectors. 5. The provision of skylight is a passive measure employed to provide ventilation in the event of fire. Such fir would melt the skylight and allow smoke to escape. The pyramidal shape of the skylight is such that oxygen cannot readily gain entrance to fuel the fire. 6. The shelves are made of strong fire retarding steel. This reduces the fire load of the building. 7. Lobbies are generously ventilated for smoke control reasons. 8. Access to the building is readily defined for ease of fire fighting by the fire brigade. 9. There is the provision of compartment floors in some areas of the building like offices and reading rooms. 10. There are protected corridors and staircases all around the building. 4.2.4.5.2 Demerits

1. There are not enough exits in case of escape from fire. There are only two exits. The fire safety plan is not comprehensive. 2. The use of non-fire resisting materials like wood is pronounced. 3. Sprinkler systems are not provided. This is highly undesirable. 4. Adequate consideration is not given to the protection of the fabric and the structure in terms of structural materials used. 5. Signs that inform about the possibility of fire, its prevention, advent escape routes are not incorporated in the building. 6. Exit facilities are not maintained.

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7. Adequate attention is not given to passive or precautionary measures such as attention to spaces of special risk, hidden spaces, and fire stopping doors e.t.c against fire outbreak. 8. Provision is made for only one staircase in the entire building. This is not a good fire safety design approach.

4.3 CATEGORY TWO

4.3.1 Case Study 5

Project: Autopia Europia , AutoMall Istanbul, Turkey

Client : Autopia

Architect : GAD (Global Architectural Development) Turkey. Developed in collaboration with Dara Kirmizitoprak.

Location: Istanbul, Turkey.

4.3.1.1 Brief Information/History

The Autopia Europia which is under construction till date is an architecture concept for auto-mall where the customers would be able to buy both new and used cars under one roof.

4.3.1.2 Description

The massive mall spans in 216,000m2 area and features a rooftop track where buyers can have test drive without leaving the building. The Autopia Europia will be world‘s largest auto-mall when completed. Its features include:

. 5 stories – with two underground levels . 56 food & drink shops, cafe‘s & restaurants . 48 private car service stations . 24 banks . 900 car parking lot . 200 vehicle galleries

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. 443 brands . 2526 types of cars . Roof-top test track.

4.3.1.3 Materials used

Most of the intended materials are modern materials: which ranges from frameless glass spider to neon lights for the facades.

4.3.1.4 Appraisal

4.3.1.3.1 Merits

The mall apart from being the biggest in the world took into consideration the influence of fire safety of day lighting and in building. Due to the long span of the building, side lighting of the structure was greatly harnessed as shown below.

Plate 4.14: View showing The fully glazed facade Source : www.autopia.com.tr

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Plate 4.15: View showing the complex test driving roof track. Source : www.autopia.com.tr

The design of the structure made use of simple shapes but became a bit complex on the roof top as a result of the test driving track on the roof. Also its interior was made of modern architectural concept. This they made by introducing greeneries, pocket of skylight within the building mostly beside the food courts, and the eatery areas of the building. ( plate 4.16, 4.17) Finally is the proper use of colours, to indicate safety for shoppers and the car drivers.

Plate 4.16: View showing the effective use of skylight and Greeneries within the eatery section. Source: www.autopia.com.t

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Plate 4.17: View showing the Eatery section. Source: www.autopia.com.tr

Plate 4.18: View showing the use of vertical access Source: www.autopia.com.tr

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Plate 4.19: View showing the roof top details. Source : www.autopia.com.tr

4.3.1.3.2 Demerits

The test driving track on the roof is most likely not to favour majority of its customers, as a result of either the phobia for Height (Acrophobia) or the absence of tangible safety structure beside the tracks which is believed might be about 30ms above the ground. The nature of the form has exposed the problem of buyers walking lengthy distances in order to make their choice, this encourages tiredness etc.

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Figure 4.11: Service Floor Plan: 31.590 m2, Auto Services, Spare Part Stores, Auto Detailing- Washing Parts, Modifying Companies. Source : www.autopia.com.tr

Figure 4.12: Ground Floor Plan : 34.340 m2, 1.Hand Distributors/ Dealer Show Rooms. 1.Hand Importers, 2.Hand Galleries, Offices, Cafes. Source : www.autopia.com.tr

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Figure 4.13: First Floor Plan : 28.645 m2, 1.Hand Distributors/ Dealer Show Rooms, 1.Hand Importers, 2.Hand Galleries, Offices, Cafes, Banks. Source : www.autopia.com.tr

Figure 4.14: Second Floor Plan : 28.645 m2, 1.Hand Distributors/ Dealer Show Rooms, 1.Hand Importers, 2.Hand Galleries, Offices, Cafes, Banks. Source : www.autopia.com.tr

Figure 4.15: Fast Food Floor Plans: 10.543 m2, Cafes, Restaurants, Buffets. Source: www.autopia.com.tr

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Plate 4.20: Picture showing the safety use of signage within the building Source: www.autopia.com.tr

Plate 4.21: View showing the Ground floor Level. Source: www.autopia.com.tr

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4.3.2 Case Study six (6)

COSCHARIS Motors, Abuja

Client : Coscharis Motors Ltd.

Architect : El Mansur Atelier (Abuja)

Location : Aminu Kano Crescent Abuja, Nigeria

4.3.2.1 Brief Information/History

The building was official launched December 14, 2010, though construction stated since 2008. The showroom engages in the sales and after sale of certain brands of vehicles namely: BMW, Ford, Land Rover etc.

4.3.2.2 Description

The five story building has a large store located at the base which has another showroom different from the main one. On the ground floor is the main showroom that has a mezzanine floor for marketing department who oversees the vehicles on display. Behind the showroom is the main Administrative structure and after sales workshops whose storey height happens to be higher than the main showroom.

Plate 4.22: View showing The Entrance Facade fully glazed. Source: Author‘s field study photos, (2011).

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The Coscharis Motors, Abuja is believed to be the biggest in Africa (Mr. Peter Witt, 2010). Its features include:

. 5 stories. . Central ware house . 2 showrooms . Aftersales workshop . Car washing lots . Garages . Offices

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A

C

C

E

S

S Ramp

R O

A

D

Visitors Car Park

Figure 4.15: Ground Floor Plan of the Coscharis Motors Source: Umuokafor, 2011.

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Figure 4.16: View Showing the First Floor Plan. Source: Umuokafor, 2011.

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Figure 4.17: View showing the Mezzanine Floor for marketing department overlooking the showroom Source: Umuokafor, 2011.

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4.3.2.3 Materials used

Modern materials were mainly used ranging from the allucobond, exterior glazing at the showroom, with some vitried wall tiles on the fences.

4.3.2.4 Appraisal

4.3.2.4.1 Merits and

The motor centre is a good attempt on an auto car mall, this can be experienced through the well –planned layout of necessary spaces for various functions, flexibility of it and its easy access.

4.3.2.4.2 Demerits:

The demerits of the motor Centre are that of low headroom at the mini showroom located at the basement.

Plate 4.23: View showing the Mini showroom at the lower part of the building. Source: Author‘s field study photos, (2011).

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Plate 4.24: View showing the main showroom (All cars were sold out waiting for arrival of new ones) Source: Author‘s field study photos, (2011).

Plate 4.25: View showing the mezzanine floor for the Marketers Offices overlooking the showroom. Source: Author‘s field study photos, (2011).

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Plate 4.26: Easy access to the mezzanine floor from the showroom.

Source: Author‘s field study photos, (2011).

Plate 4.27: Easy access of new cars heading to the Main showroom. Source: Author‘s field study photos, (2011).

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Plate 4.28: Views showing the Mini Showroom at the basement. Source: Author‘s field study photos, (2011).

Plate 4.29: View showing the after sales building located at the rear.

Source: Author‘s field study photos, (2011).

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Plate 4.30: Rear Of the Building fully finished with Alucobond

Source: Author‘s field study photos, (2011).

.

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REFERENCES

Autopia. (n.d.). Retrieved January 21, 2011, from www.autopia.com.tr

Construction starts on Nigerian art and nature complex. (2008). The World Architecture News, 1.

The Architects Newspaper. (2010 , 3 25). Retrieved November 20, 2010, from Unveiled Abuja Gateway: http://www.archpaper.com/e- board_rev.asp?News_ID=4366

The Official Website Of The Federal Capital territory Administration. (2010). Retrieved November 31, 2010, from BRIEF ON FCDA DEPARTMENT OF PROCUREMENT: http://fct.gov.ng/v2/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132: brief-on-fcda-department-of- procurement&catid=30:procurement&Itemid=140

Mullin, J. M. (1996). Auto Parks Map Out the Future of Car Buying in America. Commercial Investment Real Estate, 1-2.

Kadar Factory Fire. retrieved November 2011 from wwwkaderfactoryfire.com.

The Greater London Authority Building (GLA) (London City Hall, and London Mayor Building: (2006) retrieved November 2011 from www.arupfire.com

O‘Meagher, T.; Ferguson, A., (2005) Fire Engineering at the GLA Building,

IJATUY, O.O; Fire Fighting In Buildings (2007): An Independent Research Project @ the Department Of Architecture, Federal University Of Technology, Akure.

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CHAPTER FIVE

PRESENTATION OF ANALYSES

5.0 PRESENTATIONS OF DATA

5.1 NIGERIA IN THE TROPICS

Nigeria lies within the part of the world described as the tropics. This is the region that lies between latitude 23° 27' north to 23° 27' south of the earth‘s surface. Within this area the sun is perpendicular at noon on at least one day of each year. For all the points in this region, the sun is almost vertically overhead during the entire year. The peculiar characteristics of the tropics include high amounts of sunshine, high amount of rainfall, high humidity levels, almost uniform weather throughout the year and high temperatures. Architectural design in the tropics must take into consideration the peculiar climatic features of this region.

Figure 5.1: Map of Africa showing the countries with Nigeria (coloured pink) Source: Abuja geographic information systems

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Figure 5.2: Map of Nigeria showing the 36 states and Enugu state. (Source: http://www.igooglemaps.com/africa/nigeria).

5.2 ENUGU – A GENERAL OVERVIEW

Enugu State is a mainland state in southeastern Nigeria. Its capital is Enugu, from which the state - created in 1991 from the old Anambra State - derives its name. The principal cities in the state are Enugu, Agbani, Awgu, Udi, Oji, and Nsukka. . The city has a population of 722,664 according to the 2006 Nigerian census.[6] The name Enugu is derived from the two Igbo words Enu Ugwu meaning "hill top" denoting the city's hilly geography. The city was named after Enugwu Ngwo which coal was found under.

Industries currently in the city include the urban market and bottling industries. Enugu has become a preferred filming location for directors of the Nigerian movie industry, dubbed as "Nollywood". Enugu's main airport is the Akanu Ibiam International Airport which is being upgraded to accommodate large aircraft. The main educational establishment in the city is the Enugu campus of the University of Nigeria based in Nsukka, a town north of Enugu and in the same state.

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Figure 5.3: map of Enugu state showing Enugu East L.G.A. Source: http://www.igooglemaps.com/africa/nigeria

5.2.1 History

The name of State derives from its capital city, Enugu. The word "Enugu" (from Enu Ugwu) means "the top of the hill". The first European settlers arrived in the area in 1909, led by a British mining engineer, Albert Kitson. In his quest for silver, he discovered coal in the Udi Ridge. Colonial Governor of Nigeria Frederick Lugard took keen interest in the discovery, and by 1914 the first shipment of coal was made to Britain. As mining activities increased in the area, a permanent cosmopolitan settlement emerged, supported by a railway system. Enugu acquired township status in 1917 and became strategic to British interests. Foreign businesses began to move into Enugu, the most notable of which were John Holt, Kingsway Stores, British Bank of West Africa and United Africa Company.

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From Enugu the British administration was able to spread its influence over the Southern Province of Nigeria. The colonial past of Enugu is today evidenced by the Georgian building types and meandering narrow roads within the residential area originally reserved for the whites, an area which is today called the Government Reserved Area (GRA).

From being the capital of the Southern Provinces, Enugu became the capital of the Eastern Region (now divided into nine States), the capital of now defunct Federal Republic of Biafra, thereafter, the capital of East Central State, Anambra State, (old) Enugu State, and now the capital of the present Enugu State through a process of state creation and diffusion of administrative authority.

5.2.2 Industrialization

A British campaign to invade Arochukwu and open up the hinterland for British military and political rule was carried out in 1901. A war between the British and Aro officially started on 1 December 1901 lasting till 24 March 1902 when the Aro were defeated. The Aro Confederacy ended and the rest of Aro dominated areas was added to The Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, declared in 1900. Europeans first arrived in the Enugu area in 1903 when the British/Australian geologist Albert Ernest Kitson led an exploration of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate to search for especially valued mineral resources under the supervision of the Imperial Institute, London. By 1909 coal was found under the village of Enugwu Ngwo in the Udi and Okoga areas and by 1913 the coal was confirmed to be in quantities that would be viable commercially. By 1914 the colonial government had already merged the Northern and Southern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.

In 1938 Enugu became the administrative capital of the Eastern Region. The number of employed coal miners in Enugu grew from 6,000 (of mostly Udi men) in 1948 to 8,000 in 1958. Enugu's population rose sharply with its industrialisation; the population of the city reached 62,000 in 1952. Mining in Enugu was sometimes turbulent, as demonstrated by the events of 18 November 1949 when 21 striking miners were shot and killed and 51 wounded by police under British governance. The massacre that came to be known as "The Iva Valley Shooting" fuelled nationalist or "Zikist" sentiments among most Nigerians, and especially amongst Eastern Nigerians. "Zikisim" was a post-World War II movement that was created out of admiration for Nnamdi Azikiwe who was a prominent nationalist of the

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National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). The shooting was right after a period of unrest when miners were angered by the belief that their full pay was being held back by the colliery management, a belief that was pushed by the nationalist press. Many of the Zikists tried to use the Iva Valley shooting to fuel their nationalistic agenda and push the British administration, who they viewed as imperialists, out of Nigeria.

5.2.3 Geography

Enugu State is one of the states in the eastern part of Nigeria. The state shares borders with Abia State and Imo State to the south, Ebonyi State to the east, Benue State to the northeast, Kogi State to the northwest and Anambra State to the west.

Enugu, the capital city of Enugu State, is approximately 2½ driving hours away from Port Harcourt, where coal shipments exited Nigeria. Enugu is also located within an hour's drive from Onitsha, one of the biggest commercial cities in Africa and 2 hours drive from Aba, another very large commercial city, both of which are trading centers in Nigeria. The average temperature in this city is cooler to mild (60 degrees Fahrenheit) in its cooler months and gets warmer to hot in its warmer months (upper 80 degrees Fahrenheit) and very good for outdoor activities with family and friends or just for personal leisure.

Enugu has good soil-land and climatic conditions all year round, sitting at about 223 metres (732 ft) above sea level, and the soil is well drained during its rainy seasons. The mean temperature in Enugu State in the hottest month of February is about 87.16 °F (30.64 °C), while the lowest temperatures occur in the month of November, reaching 60.54 °F (15.86 °C). The lowest rainfall of about 0.16 cubic centimetres (0.0098 cu in) is normal in February, while the highest is about 35.7 cubic centimetres (2.18 cu in) in July.

Plate 5.1: Enugu from the west: Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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5.2.4 Climate

Enugu is located in a tropical rain forest zone with a derived savannah. The city has a tropical savanna climate. Enugu's climate is humid and this humidity is at its highest between March and November. For the whole of Enugu State the mean daily temperature is 26.7 °C (80.1 °F). As in the rest of West Africa, the rainy season and dry season are the only weather periods that recur in Enugu. The average annual rainfall in Enugu is around 2,000 millimetres (79 in), which arrives intermittently and becomes very heavy during the rainy season. Other weather conditions affecting the city include Harmattan, a dusty trade wind lasting a few weeks of December and January. Like the rest of Nigeria, Enugu is hot all year round.

Climate data for Enugu Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average 34 35 35 34 32 31 30 30 30 31 33 33 32 high °C (°F) (93) (95) (95) (93) (90) (88) (86) (86) (86) (88) (91) (91) (90) Daily mean 27 29 29.5 29 27.5 27 26 26 26 26.5 27.5 26.5 27 °C (°F) (81) (84) (85.1) (84) (81.5) (81) (79) (79) (79) (79.7) (81.5) (79.7) (81) Average low 20 23 24 24 23 23 22 22 22 22 22 20 22 °C (°F) (68) (73) (75) (75) (73) (73) (72) (72) (72) (72) (72) (68) (72) Precipitation 19 15 70 130 217 252 242 237 292 201 12 8 1,695 mm (inches) (0.75) (0.59) (2.76) (5.12) (8.54) (9.92) (9.53) (9.33) (11.5) (7.91) (0.47) (0.31) (66.73) Avg. precipitation 1 1 4 7 12 14 16 15 18 12 1 1 102 days Mean monthly 186 174 183 183 186 153 118 118 123 174 219 217 2,034 sunshine hours Source: The Weather Network

5.2.5 Air masses

There are two major air masses that dominate the Enugu region, namely; the tropical maritime air mass, and the tropical continental air mass. The tropical maritime air mass is formed over the Atlantic Ocean and moves from the Southwest to the Northeast of the nation. This air movement known as the South–West Monsoon Wind, is warm and moist and is therefore warm and moist (most dominant). The tropical continental air mass is

139 | P a g e formed over the Sahara Desert and subsequently blows from the Northeast towards the southwest. It is very dry and dusty. It is known as the North-East Trade Wind.

These two winds are largely responsible force the seasonal characteristics observed in the various climatic regions around the country. The Southwest Monsoon Wind is responsible for the rainy season while the Northeast Trade Wind is responsible for the Harmattan and Dry Season.

5.2.6 Cityscape and architecture

The tallest building in Enugu's Central Business District (CBD) is the African Continental Bank (ACB) tower with six stories. The tower was built in the late 50s for the African Continental Bank Limited which was founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe who became the first president of Nigeria after the country's independence from the United Kingdom on October 1960. The opening of the building took place on 30 April 1959. Other tall buildings include the Hotel Presidential opened on August 1963. The seven story building contains 100 rooms and is located in the Independence Layout. Hotel Presidential cost $2.5 million to build and was commissioned by the government of what was then the Eastern Region to serve visiting businessmen, officials and tourists. In the middle of Enugu is the Michael Okpara Square, dedicated to the premier of the former Eastern Region Michael Okpara. Beside the square is located the Enugu State Government House, Enugu State House of Assembly and Enugu State Judiciary Complex.

Plate 5.2: Streets of Enugu: Source: www.Wikipedia/enugu.com

Enugu's coal mines are dotted around on the outskirts of the city, a majority of which are closed. The Colliery Camp mines are located in the Iva Valley which is near the neighbouring town of Ngwo and Hilltop of Enugu. The Iva Valley coal mine is accessed through the Iva Valley road linking Enugu with Ngwo. Other coal mines are located in the

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Ogbete and Coal Camp layouts; these mines are located on the periphery of the city near the Iva Valley as well.

Architectural design in Enugu's early years was in the hands of the British colonial administration; Enugu's architecture was consequently very European. English cottage housing and Victorian houses were used for housing Europeans and Nigerian colonial civil servants in the early 20th century until Europeans started trying to adapt their architecture to the tropical climate. Some other examples of these European styles are visible in churches of the colonial era, such as the Holy Ghost Cathedral with its Greco-Roman stained glass windows depicting Europeans. Enugu's roads were reflective of its British rule; much of the city's narrow roads in the GRA have been preserved dating back to the incorporation of the city itself. Low rent one bedroom flats in Enugu and other Nigerian cities are known as 'Face-me-I-face-you' for the way a group of flats face each other and form a square where a compound entrance is lead into.

5.2.7 Economy

Economically, the state is predominantly rural and agrarian, with a substantial proportion of its working population engaged in farming, although trading (18.8%) and services (12.9%) are also important. In the urban areas trading is the dominant occupation, followed by services. A small proportion of the population is also engaged in manufacturing activities, with the most pronounced among them located in Enugu, Oji, Ohebedim and Nsukka.

5.2.8 Energy

Electricity supply is relatively stable in Enugu and its Environs. The Oji River Power Station (which used to supply electricity to all of Eastern Nigeria) is located in Enugu State. With the deregulation of electricity generation in Nigeria, and the proposed privatization of the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA), the State Government would assist private investors to negotiate the take over and reactivation of the Oji Power Station. This is more so with the proximity of the Enugu coal mines to the power station, a driving distance of about 20 minutes. There are also traces of crude oil in Ugwuoba, in the same Oji-River Local Government area of the state. The state will also negotiate with investors interested in investing in the coal mining in Enugu. The coal industry used to be one of the biggest employers of labour in the state and the state is looking to attract investors in the industry.

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5.2.9 Demographics

According to the 2006 Nigerian census, the Enugu metropolitan area has an estimated population of 722,664. This estimate along with population estimates of other Nigerian cities have been disputed with accusations of population inflation and deflation in favour of the northern part of the country. The population of Enugu is predominately Christian, as is the rest of southeastern Nigeria. Like the rest of Nigeria most people in Enugu speak Nigerian English alongside the dominant language in the region. In this case the dominant language is Igbo. Nigerian English, or pidgin (a mix of English and indigenous words) is often used because of ethnic diversity and sometimes because of the diversity of dialects in the Igbo language. In cultural and linguistic terms Enugu is within the Northern cluster of the Igbo region which includes other towns and cities like Awka and Nsukka.

The indigenous people of Enugu include the Ogui Nike who live in the areas surrounding Hotel Presidential, Obiagu, Ama-Igbo, Ihewuzi and Onu-Asata. Other groups include the Awkunanaw people, who live mainly in the Achara Layout and Uwani areas. The Enugwu Ngwo people live in Hilltop on the west of the city with their farm lands sprawling all over the valley. Other Nike people live around the Abakpa, Iji-Nike, and Emene areas of the city. Most of the non-indigenous people of Enugu are migrants from other parts of the Igbo cultural area. After the majority Igbo, the Yoruba people are another significant ethnic group found present in Enugu; other groups include the Hausa and Fulani people.

Population growth in Enugu year 1921 1931 1953 1963 1982 1983 1984 1987 1991 2002 2006 population 3170 12959 62764 138457 349873 367567 385735 446535 407756 595000 722664 Table 5.2: Population growth in Enugu. Source: www.Wikipedia/Enugu.com

5.2.10 Transport

Enugu is located on the narrow-gauge Eastern Line railway linked to the city of Port Harcourt; the Enugu train station is by the side of the National Stadium; dating back to its coal-mining origins, it is located on Ogui Street. The main forms of transportation in the city are taxi cabs and buses. Okada (motorcycles), once served as public transportation in the city until the state government banned them from this use in April 2009. Most transport enters and leaves the city through Enugu's Ogbete Motor Park, Garki Motor Park serves as

142 | P a g e a transport pick-up point as well. Unregistered taxis are known as Kabu Kabu and are differentiated with registered ones through the lack of yellow paint on the unregistered vehicles. In 2009, Enugu introduced a taxi job scheme under 'Coal City Cabs' to help in the eradication of poverty in the city. 200 registered Nissan Sunny taxis, provided by the state government; and 200 registered Suzuki taxis, provided by the Umuchinemere Pro-Credit Micro Finance Bank, were given out on loan to unemployed citizens in the city who will operate as taxi drivers and will own the vehicles after payments are completed. 20 buses with the capacity for 82 passengers seated and standing were introduced as Coal City Shuttle buses on 13 March 2009 to run as public transport for Enugu urban.

The main airport in the state is the Akanu Ibiam International Airport which can be accessed by buses and taxis. Renovations began on 30 November 2009 to upgrade it to accommodate wide-bodied aircraft. These plans include extending the 2,400-metre (7,900 ft) runway by 600 metres (2,000 ft) to make it 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long; the runway will be widened from 45 to 60 metres (148 to 200 ft). It is estimated that the project will cost ₦4.13bn (27.3 million US Dollars As of 26 June 2010).

The A3, or the Enugu-Port Harcourt highway, was opened in the 1970s and links the two cities together by passing through Aba, a major urban settlement. The A3 goes further on past Enugu's north to link to the city of Jos via Makurdi. Two more highways, the A232 from Benin City, Asaba and Onitsha to Enugu's east and the A343 from Abakaliki to Enugu's west, makes Enugu the site of a major junction.

5.2.11 Culture/ the people

As a Northern Igbo city, Enugu shares cultural traits with its neighbouring towns. Two important Igbo traditional festivals take place in Enugu annually; the Mmanwu festival and the New yam festival. The Mmanwu festival takes place in November and features various types of masquerades that each have a name. This festival is held at the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium as a parade of carnival-like masquerades that are accompanied by music and it is supported by the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture. The second important Igbo festival, the New yam festival known as 'iwa ji', is held between August and October marking the harvesting and feasting of the new yam. The yam is a root vegetable that is the staple crop and a cultural symbol for the Igbo people. Recently created festivals include the Enugu Festival of Arts which is managed by the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture. The festival highlights African culture and traditions and it is here that the Enugu Council of Arts and

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Culture included the Mmanwu parade as part of the events. The Enugu Festival of Arts was started in 1986; it has modernised the Mmanwu festival by transferring it from its traditional village surroundings to the urban setting of Enugu. Diana, Princess of Wales was a notable spectator of Enugu's cultural shows when she visited the city in 1990.

The tourism industry in Enugu, managed by the Enugu State Tourism Board (ESTB), is small; however, the state government recognises a variety of historic and recreational sites. These sites include places like the Udi Hills, from which the majority of Enugu city can be viewed. The Polo amusement park is a funfair that is among the first generation of public parks in the city; other parks in the city include the Murtala Muhammed Park. Enugu's former coal mines, Onyeama and Okpara, are open to public visits. Some other spots include: The Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) Sculptural Garden and Art Gallery, the Eastern Region Parliamentary Building, the Old Government Lodge, and Enugu Golf course. Enugu Zoo is another attraction in the city. It is divided into the botanical garden and the zoological section. A National Museum is located near Enugu at its north, although it receives few visitors. It is managed by National Commission for Museums and Monuments (NCMM). Other galleries include the Bona Gallery.

5.2.12 Vegetation

The vegetation on the highlands of Awgu and stretching through its rocky promontories‘ to link with the undulating hills of Udi, is of the semi-tropical rainforest type. It is characteristically green and is complemented in the Nsukka area by typical grassy vegetation. Fresh water swamp forests occur in the Niger Anambra Basin.

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Figure 5.4: Map of Nigeria showing the vegetation spread Source: www.fao.org

5.3 ENUGU EAST LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Enugu East is a Local Government Area of Enugu State, Nigeria. Its headquarters are in the town of Nkwo Nike. It has an area of 383 km² and a population of 279,089 at the 2006 census.

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Figure 5.5: Part map of Enugu showing Enugu East. Source: Google earth image

5.3.1 Proposed Site location for Auto mobile dealership center (Auto Mall) Enugu

The Site for the project is located within the Emene axis of Enugu East city. In the North East direction is the Akani Ibiam international airport and not too far is the Emene industrial layout located on the far east of the site. The NNPC mega station is located Adjacent the site, the popular Naira triangle is directly opposite the site.

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Figure 5.6: Map of section of Enugu showing the proposed site along Enugu- Abakiliki road. Source: Google earth image. 5.4 SITE CHARACTERISTICS AND ANALYSIS

5.4.1 Geographical Location of the site

The proposed site is located along the popular Enugu-Abakiliki road in Emene axises of Enugu east L.G.A of Enugu State. It is located South West of Akani Ibiam international airport and North East of the NNPC mega station. The site geographical coordinates are 6° 19' 0" North, 7° 33' 0" East. (Google maps. 2010).

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Figure 5.7: Map showing the proposed Site location

Source: Google earth Map

5.4.2 Access

Access to the site is by road through any of the two Major roads around the site (i.e. the Enugu- Abakiliki road and the Enugu Port Harcourt Express road on the south). It is also accessible to pedestrians for whom sidewalks have been adequately provided on the streets of Enugu.

Plate 5.3: The Enugu-Abakiliki road Source: Author‘s field photos, 2012

5.4.3 Physical Characteristics

The proposed site slopes from the North side towards the Southeast, the difference in height from the highest to the lowest points being at approximately one metre over a distance of approx.100m which seems relatively level. The Vegetation presently on site is

148 | P a g e sparse. There are some low trees on the site as well as shrubs and grasses in clusters. The soil appears firm and strong.

Plates 5.4: The site, showing the physical attribute. Source: Author‘s field photos, 2012

5.4.4 Choice of Location

The site has been found suitable for the proposed auto mobile dealership centre. This is as a result of the following advantages derived from some criteria:

a) Quick and easy accessibility due to the availability of access roads b) Enough land area for future expansion. c) Availability of public utilities and infrastructure. d) The site is a virgin land and served by the well accessed Enugu-Abakiliki and Enugu Port Harcourt road. e) The site would enjoy shoppers, ranging from international visitors, coming into Enugu from the international airport eg Tourist, sport fans, etc. those coming via the road from the south, it is close to major areas of New Heaven, Independent layout, Abakpa, and Emene.

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Figure 5.8: Site Layout showing the proposed site and its environs. Source: Author (2012)

5.4.5 Geology, Soil and Land Capability

The Nigerian soil map published in 1967, divides Nigeria into four major soil zones namely:

 The zone of alluvial soil  The south forest soils  The northern zone of sand soils  The interior zone of laterite soil

Enugu falls into the category of the interior zone of laterite soil. The soil here is well drained and capable of withstanding intensive development. Generally, the soil type of Enugu has a high load bearing capacity which can withstand any type of building erected on it.

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5.4.6 Climatic Analysis

Enugu is in the hot humid zone 0.8o north and south of equator. There are two main seasons, namely:

 The dry season: The dry season is as a result of the North-East Trade Winds. This wind brought with it dust from the Sahara Desert and is by nature dry. This season lasts from November to March.  The rainy season: The rainy season lasts from April to October; and is brought about by the prevailing moisture laden southwest winds that blow from the Atlantic.

However, the demarcation between the seasons is not as sharp as in the dry season, that is to say that the seasons do not change so dramatically.

5.4.7 Rainfall and wind

Enugu being in the hot humid zone experiences heavy down pour. The annual mean monthly rainfall ranges from 4.83mm to 317mm. Though January and December record very low rainfall, there is no month without rainfall. The peak of rainfall alternates between July and September, in August there is a little break in rainfall, which is normally referred to as August break.

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Figure 5.9: Mean monthly rainfall for Enugu State. Source: Department of Meteorological Services, Ibadan.

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The two prevailing winds in Enugu are the North East Trade Winds and the South West Monsoon Winds. The North East Trade Winds blows from the Sahara in Northern Africa, and is characterized by the dryness it causes during the dry season. The North East Trade Winds brings also with it a great deal of dust and the harmattan phenomenon. On the other hand, the South West Monsoon Winds blows from the Atlantic Ocean, and is characterized by the wetness it causes during the rainy season. These two winds alternate twice every year.

10

(mi) 9

8

7

6

5

4

3

W i n d f o r c e 2

1

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 5.10: Mean wind force in Enugu State. Source: Department of Meteorological Services, Ibadan

Figure 5.11: Map of Nigeria showing wind pattern. (Source: Norman (2004).

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5.4.8 Temperature

Temperature ° C Daily annual max. mean 29.3 - 32.6 Daily annual min. mean 21.8 - 23.8 Mean annual temperature 25.5

Table 5.12 : Mean temperature values for Enugu State. Source: Department of Meteorological Services, Ibadan.

(C)

35

30

25

20

15

10

Temperature5

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Figure 5.13: Mean monthly temperatures for Enugu State (Source: Department of Meteorological Services, Ibadan).

Enugu is characterized by high temperature ranging from 27.43oC to 31.80oC (81.37oF to 89.24oF), within the period 1975 and 1985. The comfort conditions, as regards temperature, are 21oC to 26.67oC (70oF to 80oF) in the hot humid zones. Therefore for greater part of the year the temperature is above the comfort zones.

5.4.9 Relative humidity

The relative humidity is high throughout the year. The mean monthly relative humidity ranges from 59.97 to 94.23, measured within the period 1975 to 1985. Consequently, the climate could be uncomfortable because body heat loss is low.

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Relative Humidity % Max. annual mean relative humidity 85.3 - 95.4 Min. annual mean relative humidity 52.8 - 77.6 Mean annual relative humidity 77.5 Table 5.14: Mean relative humidity values for Enugu State (Source: Department of Meteorological Services, Ibadan)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

Relative20 humidity

10

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 5.15: Mean monthly relative humidity for Enugu State (Source: Department of Meteorological Services, Ibadan)

5.4.10 Vegetation

The region lies on the southern part of the Guinea Savannah belt (figure 5.4). This broad belt is covered Parkland or Guinea Savannah. It is of the semitropical rainforest type. It is characteristically green and is complemented by typical grassy vegetation.

5.4.11 Terrain and Topography

Site studies shows that Enugu east lies over 500 meters above sea level, most of its area is on relatively level ground making it a good ground for construction. The proposed site slopes mildly from the Northwest side towards the Southeast.

5.4.12 Characteristic Housing Problem in Enugu.

 The atmosphere has high vapour pressure hence all uncovered housing metallic parts are liable to rust and wooden part to rot.

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 The trade wind, which usually comes from the southwest trade wind basically, brings cold breeze blowing on the surface. Hence the prevailing wind and storm must be studied before building is oriented. Also ventilation of internal space is of major importance.  Convention Rainfall usually has its peak in the month of July and September at an average annual precipitation of 1400mm could affect the roofing if not well designed to have the proper slope.  High temperature which usually is at its hottest month in June with temperature up to 270C could affect the thermal comfort of building occupants. Hence there is need for prevention of internal temperature rise during the day in order to enhance minimization of temperature during the evening and night.  Buildings are also prone to biological attack or fungal growth.

5.4.13 Design Solution and Recommendations in the Enugu

 A careful selection of materials and design details which will enhance a moderate interior temperature.  The roof should be made of lightweight covers such as tiles, asbestos sheet and aluminum roofing sheets and should be constructed with a high pitch to allow free fall of water during raining season.  Spaces should be provided for trees between buildings help in achieving good ventilation.  Also a good choice of material for the building from likelihood of biological attack by insect and fungal growth.  FCT like other warm wet climate requires the architect to study the direction of prevailing wind to enhance the best ventilation  A large opening for doors and windows are of advantage for ventilation and also enhances lower interior temperature.

5.5 SPACE AND FUNCTIONAL ANALYSES

This section outlines the various functional units of an auto mobile dealership canter (auto mall). This will involve the selection of what functions to allot spaces to, how much area is

155 | P a g e to be allotted to such functions and the location for the given function. Also, the function of a space goes a long way to determine the location or placement of the space in the design and on the site. Space can be seen to have its meaning in the harmony of objects location. This is consequent upon order and this in turn, is derived from a well-conceived plan.

5.5.1 Administration

For this section, the following shall be considered:

 Its functions,  Categories of users involved,  The functional spaces required.

5.5.1.1 Functions

 They oversees that the smooth running of the mall is greatly ensured.  Co-ordinates the activities of various departments of the mall.  Main areas of coordination include, Finance, human resources, accounts, record keeping.

5.5.1.2 Category of Users Involved

 Manager‘s Offices,  Company Staff (Receptionist, Personal assistants, etc)

5.5.1.3 Critical Design Requirements

 Its Location should separated from shoppers and it must be privately located.  Adequate size of space to accommodate the above stated functions.  Flexibility in the design of office spaces

5.5.1.4 Spaces Include.

. Waiting lounge . Board meeting Room/ Conference Room. . CEO‘s Office . Assistant Manager

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. Stores . Accounts Manager‘s Office . Accounts Office (General) . Logistics Officer‘s office . General Office . Administrative . Convenience

5.5.2 Car Sale’s Section: (Each Brand to Contain)

 Marketing Dept  Brand‘s Mini lounge with digital display of Cars  Offices  Car Brand meeting Room  Logistics Officers Office  Convenience  Brand‘s Car showroom.  Spare Parts shops

5.5.3 Retail Shops

 Shops

5.5.6 Security Department

 CCTV Room  Convenience  Guard Room

5.5.7 Stores

5.5.8 Car Garages/Warehouse/after sales maintenance

5.5.9 Convenience.

5.5.10 Modern Temporal Display Stands outside the Building

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5.5.11 Central Show room For Brands Of cars:

5.6 SPACE PROGRAM

SPACES Areas Allocated (M2) Administration Section Waiting lounge 40 Board meeting Room/ Conference Room. 80 CEO‘s Office 25 Assistant Manager 20 Stores 4 Accounts Manager‘s Office 20 Accounts Office (General) 20 Open Offices 60 Convenience 2 Car Sale’s Section: (Each Brand to Contain) Marketing Dept 60 Brand‘s Mini lounge with digital display of Cars 9 Offices 20 Car Brand meeting Room 50 Logistics Officers Office 20 General Office 60 Accounts Officer 20 Open Offices 20 Convenience 2 Retail Shops Eatry stands 240 Food Court 400 Conveniences 2 Children‘s playing spot. 100 Banking & Insurance Banking hall 100 Manager‘s Office 20 Teller points 30 Open Offices 100 Security Department CCTV Room 40 Convenience 2 Store 4 Stores 80 Convenience. 100 Central Show room For Brands Of cars: 400 Car Garages/Warehouse 1200

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REFERENCES

Department of metrological services, Ibadan

Duckworth, Edward Harland (1961). Enugu-Coal Town. Nigeria magazine (Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Information. Cultural Division) (70): 251.

Government of Anambra State (1978), A Comprehensive physical development plan for Enugu, Government Press, Enugu.

Gerold, L.A, and D.W Watkins, 2005. Short duration rainfall frequency analysis in Michigan using scale-invariance assumptions. Journal of Hydrological Engineering, Volume 10, issue 6, pp. 450-457.

Hosking, J.R.M, and Wallis, J.R. 1997. Regional frequency analysis: an approach based on L-moments. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. http://www.climate-charts.com (2002). Retrieved may 10, 2012 http://www.igooglemaps.com/africa/nigeria.

Nigeria, Chief Secretary‘s office (1963). The Nigeria handbook (10 ed.) eastern line: Government printer, Lagos. pp.83.

Reifsnyder, William E., darnhofer, Till (1989). Metrological and Agroforestry. World Agroforestry Center. pp. 544.

Thomas, Larry (2002). Coal geology (reprint ed.). Nigeria: John Wiley and sons. pp. 64.

Wikipedia. (May, 2012). Retrieved May 4, 2012: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/enugu.

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CHAPTER SIX

DESIGN SYNTHESIS

6.0 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

According to Charles Eames, Design is a plan for arranging elements in such a way as best to accomplish a particular purpose (www.designwashere.com). Descriptions resulting from design activity contain components of the design and their relationships, and represent the designed artifact in a form that facilitates manufacture, assembly, or construction (Gero, 1990). Design compilation is the automatic generation of the design descriptions from specifications. Design is an essential part of many creative activities. Notably, it is an integral part of engineering practice. Hence, good engineering requires good design. Good design, in turn, calls for appropriate design tools and methodologies (Waldron, 1999).

‖ every building must have a strong idea that is architectural, rather than painterly, one that is related to the activity in the building...... ‖ (Barness) this (concept) should not only be appropriate but should also support the main intentions, characteristics and goals of the project at hand. This is because architectural type, materials available, construction technique, and cultural value within the study area determine it. Going by the above points, an auto dealership center should be a conception of motion and how to control it. The generally accepted concept of the nature of motion, in which motion is regarded as a continuous change in the position of some "thing" in a three-dimensional space that acts as a background or container Dewey(2011) such as in dynamism. This continuous change should transcend throughout the building forms its interior spaces, circulation, to the outside that is the landscape and other element that aid in the architectural composition.

The design process, at its best will integrate the aspirations of arts, science and culture. (Jeff Smith, www. designwashere.com)

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Plate 6.0: Showing Object in Motion. (Source: http://www.voreen.org)

The philosophy of this design is centered on the prospective car owner who moves from one sector (within the facility) to the other (motion) in search of the right choice of car to solve their basic private need for transportation. Its architectural themes should reflect dynamism, motion, flexibility and control.

6.1 THE CONCEPT

The design concept for any proposed building is the central idea or theme behind an architectural design (Groak, 1992). As such it is the architect who will formulate what he thinks is the most important design factor for that particular project.

This continuous change (motion) and the control is the concept of this design. This idea will be achieved with the use of modern building materials, sensation of motion could be inculcated and earnest achievement of a design that is sustainable would be highly prioritized.

Also the idea of form follows function concept (Luis Sullivan) will be greatly used to generate appealing forms to encourage shoppers and also to attract tourists envisaged at its location.

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Plate 6.1: car wheel and steering representing motion and control in Auto mobiles Sources: retrieved from www.google/car wheel/images.com

6.2 DESIGN CONTRIBUTION

The state (Enugu) quest towards realizing its aspiration of developing into economical viable states, by providing public infrastructure in all sectors of the state as can be seen in the recent construction and commissioning of the Polo park mall popularly called Shoprite, this design of an Auto mobile dealership center (auto mall) first of its kind south east of Nigerian will add to the number of structure used to identify the city of Enugu. The design will not only improve the face of Enugu and its environs but also it will attract investors and customers from within and outside of Enugu that will take advantage of numerous opportunity that this will offer.

6.3 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

The study is expected to contribute to the body of knowledge by creating awareness to designers and all involve in the industry, the appropriate design strategies and the relevant options needed for effective control and management of fire outbreak within an architectural space.

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6.4 CONCLUSIONS

Automobile dealership center (Auto mall) is a realistic project that the private individual, cooperate societies could decide to execute in the future in Enugu and other parts of the country. The idea of bringing more than one brand manufacturer under a single facility will encourage healthy competition and also give car buyers the option of choice under one same roof.

The design is expected to contain state of the art facilities that would redefine the way cars are being shopped and put Enugu in the map as a hub for one stop car shopping.

6.5 THE DESIGN

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REFERENCES:

Gero, J.S. (1990) Design Prototypes: A knowledge Representation Schema for Design. AI Magazine, 11(4), pp. 26-36.

Groak, S. (1992). The Idea of Building: Thought and Action in the Design and Production of Buildings. London, E. & F.N. Spon. http://www.voreen.org, retrieved on 15th June, 2012.

Larson, D. B. (2010, January 13). Motion Perseption. Retrieved February 1, 2011, from Reciprocity: http://www.reciprocalsystem.com/ce/changconc.htm

Walter H. Ehrenstein jr., L. R. (2010, January 30). Motion Perpection. Retrieved February 7, 2011, from BRITANNICA, ENCYCLOPÆDIA: http://www.britannica.com/

Wikipedia. (2010, November 8). Retrieved November 4, 2010, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Calatrava www.google/car wheel/images.com, retrieved on 15th June, 2012. www.designwashere.com, retrieved on 15th June, 2012.

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