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Wilhelm von Humboldt's Study of The Kawi Language : The Proof of the Existence Of the Malayan-Polynesian Language Culture

(,);r "" . . a/ttf a:"u, ::::2,0:)/� ' '--� a��.&d� �w/' by Muriel Mirak �� We issbach

f Wilhelm von Humboldt were alive today, he would be delighted with the I discovery of Maui's inscriptions, and would throw himself into studying it, with every fibreof his being. In a certain sense, the deciphering of these inscriptions, which shows that the Maori language was a com­ mon language or part of a language group in Polynesia, itself confirms Humboldt's own findings. For it was Wilhelm von Humboldt who was the first to rigorously examine the languages of this part of the world, and to establish scientifically that all the languages of the region, from Madagascar to east of Pitcairn Island, were part of one language culture. The last and greatest work by Humboldt, entitled Ober die Kawi­ How is it possible to reconcile the Sp rache (Onthe KawiLanguage ), deals with this. The work, published vast multiplicityin the world and throuahout history, sucif h diverse posthumously in 1836-39, is prefaced by a lengthy introduction, enti­ cultures as the Chinese and the Greek, tled "Uber die Ve rschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und showina them to be manifestations if ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwicklung des menschenge­ the same human spirit? schlechts," (in English, "On Language: The Diversity of Human

Wilhelm von Humboldt. Credit: Corbis-Bettmann

29

© 1999 Schiller Institute, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission strictly prohibited. Language-Structure and Its Influence on the Mental Humboldt believed that the people of this region "seem Development of Mankind"). This introduction, perhaps never to have attained to the possession of writing, and thus his greatest work on the general theory of language, is fo rgo all the cultivation dependent on this, although they well-known, having gone through numerous editions, and are not lacking in pregnant sagas, penetrating eloquence, translations into other languages. But, this is only the and poetry in markedly different styles." Such literary introduction! The three volumes of the work that actually works must therefore have been recorded in writing at a apply his theory to the particular case of the Kawi lan­ later time. Humboldt saw these languages not as a degener­ guage, have remained a matter fo r specialists, available ation, but as representing the original state of the Malayan only in the reading rooms of libraries. (In one English group. What he accomplished was to subject the main lan­ translation of "On Language," it is even stated that the guages known to comparative analysis, to establish their planned three volumes never appeared-an outright lie!) membership in one language fa mily. As fo r the ethnic Humboldt's work opens with the fo llowing words: stock, Humboldt specifies that in both the broad areas identified,the people belong to the same stock. "If we enter If we consider their dwelling-place, their mode of govern­ ment, their history, and above all their language, the peo­ more accurately into color differences," he says, they consti­ ples of Ma layan stock stand in a stranger connection with tute "the more or less light-brown among whites in gener­ peoples of different culture than perhaps any other people al." In addition to this stock, he mentions a group similar to on earth. They inhabit merely islands and archipelagoes, Black Africans, particularly in New Guinea, New Britain, which are spread so fa r and wide, however, as to fu rnish New Ireland, and New Hebrides. Given that the languages irrefutable testimony of their early skills as navigators. . . . of these people had not been recorded, Humboldt could If we take together the members of these ethnic groups not include them in his study--exceptfo r the special case of who deserve to be called Malayan in the narrower sense Madagascar, which will be treated later. . . . we find these people, to name only points where the The manner he chose to go about this enormous task, linguist encounters adequately studied material, on the was not to take the vocabularies of all the languages Philippines, and there in the most richly developed and involved, and compare them, as if running them through individual state of language, on Java, Sumatra, Malacca, a computer. Rather, Humboldt seized upon what was an and Madagascar. But a large number of incontestable ver­ bal affinities, andeven the names of a significantnumber of egregious characteristic within the languages, a singulari­ islands, give evidence that the isles lying close to these ty, which was the very strong Indian influence. A glance points have the same population too, and that the more at the map [SEE Figure 1] explains why it would be obvi­ strictly Malayan sp eech -community extends over that whole ous fo r people from India to travel to the islands and pop­ area of the South Asiatic Ocean which runs southwards ulate them. Yet, as Humboldt saw, this is not uniform from the Philippines down to the western coasts of New throughout the region. The overwhelming Indian influ­ Guinea, and then west about the island chains adjoining ence, not only in language, but also in religion, literature, the eastern tip of Java, into the waters of Java and Sumatra, and customs, he fo und to have affected the Malayan cir­ up to the strait ofMalacca. cle "in the narrower sense," that is, the Indian archipel­ Humboldt goes on, to assert that ago per se. It is here that an alphabetic script was fo und, and of the Indian type. East of the narrower Malayan community here delineated, The questions posed by the extraordinary Indian from New Zealand to Easter Island, from there north­ influence, fo r Humboldt, were two: He asked himself wards to the Sandwich Islands, and again west to the "whether . . . the whole civilization of the archipelago is Philippines, there dwells an island population betraying the entirely of Indian origin? And whether, also, from a peri­ most unmistakable marks of ancient blood-relationship od preceding all literature and the latest and most refined with the Malayan races. The languages, of which we also have an exact grammatical knowledge of those spoken in development of speech, there have existed connections New Zealand, Tahiti, the Sandwich Islands, and Tonga, between Sanskrit and the Malayan languages in the prove the same thing, by a large number of similar words widest sense, that can still be demonstrated in the com­ and essential agreements in organic structure. mon elements of speech?" Humboldt's tendency was to answer the first question negatively, and to assume that He also writes that there had been "a true and indigenous civilization among the brown race of the archipelago." He saw no reason to In many places we find amongthem fragments of a sacred language now unintelligible to themselves, and the custom, think that "the Malayans should be denied a social civi­ on certain occasions, of ceremoniously reviving antiquated lization of their own creation." expressions, [which 1 is evidence, not only of the wealth, age, As to the second question, Humboldt tended to and depth of the language, but also of attention to the answer in the affirmative, that the Indian-Malayan con­ changing designation of objects over time. tact had been ancient and continuing:

30 Austric language family: lollolll olV 0 X • Non-Austric language family: V 0 VI 0 VII 0 VIII 0 IX •

: MARIANA IS.

MICRONESIA ::.�','\.� . .. :.;,� MARSHALL IS.

..: KIRIBATI

:,' ,TUVALU MAAOUESAS " IV IS, ••••

�VANUATU . ..:�MOA· I ":' POLYNESIA ::, JFIJI;"� "': . ,� � ":" TONGA : ...� .. :

FIGURE 1. The vast maritime region stretching fr om Madagascar to partsof Southeast Asia, New Zealand, and Polynesia, was shown by Humboldt to comprisea single Malayan-Polynesian language culture, fo unded upon what istoday known as the Austric languagefa mily.

Without yet mentioning Tagalic, which incorporates a fa ir and so try to see whether this way, together with that dis­ number of Sanskrit words for quite different classes of cussed hitherto, may lead to a more correct judgment of the objects, we also find in the language of Madagascar and in relations among peoples and languages throughout the that of the South Sea Islands, right down to the pronoun, entire mass of islands. sounds and words belonging directly to Sanskrit; and even the stages of sound-change, which can be viewed as a com­ His method, therefore, was to penetrate to the inner­ parative index of the antiquity of mingling, are themselves most the Kawi language, which represented the highest different in such languages from the narrower Malayan cir­ expression of the Indian-Sanskrit language cultural influ­ cle, in which, as in Javanese, there is also visible an influence ence, but from the standpoint of the "indigenous ele­ from Indian language and literature that was exerted at a ment," which Humboldt recognized must be the basis of much later date. Now how we are to explain this ... the identity of the language group as a whole. What he remains, of course, extremely doubtful. ...[H]ere it is asked himself was, essentially, what is the underlying, enough for me to have drawn attention to an influence of Sanskrit upon the languages of the Malayan stock, which indigenous language beneath the Sanskrit influence? diffe rs essentially from that of the mental cultivation and What relationship does it bear to the languages in the literature transplanted to them, and seems to belong to a strictly Malayan group, and, then, what is their relation­ much earlier period and to different relationships among ship to all the languages of the vast island world? the peoples concerned. From its very name, the Kawi language betrays its deep debt to Sanskrit (Skr.). Derived from the root ku, To conduct his research, therefore, Humboldt which means "to sound," or "resound," in Sanskrit it fo cussed on that area of greatest Indian influence, which means "poet," and, in derived fo rms, a "wise, educated was manifest in the "flowering of the Kawi language, as man." The generic name given to the syllabic meter in the most intimate intertwining of Indian and indigenous Kawi poetry, is sekar kawt� which means "flowersof the culture on the island that possessed the earliest and most language," and is derived from the Skr. sekhara, "gar­ numerous Indian settlements," which was the island of land." Sekar, "flower," is the usual expression fo r poetry. Java. Humboldt went on: And in the "Brata Yuddha," the poem which Humboldt used as the basis fo r his study of the Kawi language, the Here I shall always be looking primarily to the indigenous related word kawindhra means "a good singer." The element in this linguistic union, but will take an extended view of it in its entire kinship, and will pursue its develop­ "Brata Yuddha" itself, which means "war [from Skr. ment up to the point where I believe I find its character Yu dha] of the ancestors of Bharata," is inspired by the most fu lly and purely evolved in the Tagalic tongue. In the great Indian epic poem Mahabharata (which contains the third book [he concluded], I shall spread myself over the "Bhagavad Gita"). The names of the main characters are whole archipelago, return to the problems just indicated, the same, and it recounts the process of the war in seven

31 Philology: The Science of Language andHistory

hat manifestation of human fe sted in the fa ct that any language breaking work in this direction was Wactivity best expresses the can be translated into any other, done by a collaborator of Humboldt's, uniqueness ofman, as distinct from all Humboldt focussed on the particular Franz Bopp, who discovered the exis­ other species? What activity, at the characteristics of a language, in order tence of the Indo-European language same time, demonstrates the multi­ to identify its specifically national group. Bopp had compared the verbal plicity of human society, of diverse character. Since language is the most systems of languages, including the cultures developed by different immediate fo rm of activity which Sanskrit of ancient India, Classical human civilizations? How is it possi­ man invents to communicate with Greek and Latin, and various Ger­ ble to reconcile the vast multiplicity in others, and to investigate the universe, manic languages, among others. By the world and throughout history, of then the fo rm in which a people showing that such apparently distant such diverse cultures as the Chinese shapes its language most immediately languages had verbal systems, conju­ and the Greek, showing them to be expresses the national character of gations, which obeyed the same two manifestations of the same that people. Hence, in Humboldt's laws-and hence, shared the same human spirit? work it becomes clear that language "geometrical" structure-Bopp These are questions which the sci­ provides the key to the character of showed that the languages must have ence of philology, the study of lan­ the nation. been related also in their historical guages in their historical development, development. Language: Living Organism answers. Wilhelm von Humboldt was A Other philologists, among them In v ew, language was not the founder of this modern science, Humboldt's i Jacob Grimm, had studied theway in and the Nineteenth-century German a fixed system, as some modern lin­ which, through time, certain sound schoolof philology was the greatest the guists might think. Language is a liv­ differences in words of distant lan­ world has ever known. Other great ing organism, a fo rm of energy, which guages, which have the same mean­ names associated with Humboldt and changes, develops, and also in some ing, can come about. By comparing cases, of a this school include Franz Bopp, Ras­ degenerates, in the course groups of roots in diffe rent languages, mus Rask, and Jacob Grimm. people's evolution. The achievements which are used to designate the same of a language, such as Greek in the actions or things, one can discover the Universal Principles of Language Classical period,denote the more gen­ laws of change in sound. For exam­ Wilhelm von Humboldt, who was a eral progress of that people and cul­ ple, if in Sanskrit the word for close collaborator of Germany's ture; thus, for Humboldt, the teaching "father" is "pitr," and the word fo r

c of Classical Greek and the study of "father" i n Germanic, is "Vater" national poet, Fried ri h Schiller, o c t Greek culture, must be the means (modern English an appr a hed he study of language "father"), d if from the standpoint of the humanist through which to develop the mind. It such examples can be shown to exist spirit which pervaded all his work: was Humboldt's extraordinary educa­ consistently, then it appears that the tion program, which he elaborated "p" sound in Sanskrit corresponds to seeing in man the highest product of creation, Humboldt identified in lan­ and introduced in Prussia, based large­ the "P' sound (spelled v) in Germanic, guage the most universal expression ly on the study of Classical languages, and so fo rth. of the capacities of the human mind. to shape the character of the student, The study of philology as conduct­ To understand how man conceptual­ which laid the basis fo r the flowering ed by Humboldt, was not an academic izes the universe, and how man orga­ of science and culture in Germany, in exercise, but a passionate search to dis­ nizes social relations, one must, Europe, and in the United States, in cover the laws governing the creative Humboldt realized, examine the way the Nineteenth century. processes of the human mind. For in which man develops language. In looking at the multiplicity of Humboldt, there was nothing more Through his study of numerous lan­ language, Humboldt used a compara­ joyful than to discover and learn a guages-well over fifty, ranging from tive approach, to see how diffe rent new language. In 1803, he wrote, Basque, to the Native American lan­ peoples succeeded in solving the same "The internal, mysterious, wonderful guages, from Sanskrit to Chinese­ task, of expressing concepts. At the coherence of all languages, but above Humboldt succeeded in demonstrat­ same time, the comparative approach all the extreme pleasure of entering ing the universal principles of lan­ made it possible to establish scientifi­ with each new language into a new guage in general. cally the relationship among different mode of thinking and fe eling, exerts While emphasizing the universal languages and therefore, historically, an infinite attraction on me." principles, whose existence is mani- among diffe rent peoples. The ground- -MMW

32 battles. It is just one example of the way in which Kawi thing, "lost," and also equals o. Kirti-ning means "well­ culture assimilated the Indian religious culture, which is water" and in Sanskrit means also "fame." The original also evident in its great architecture. root of the word is krt� which means "flow, bubble," like The Indian influence in the Kawi language and cul­ water or fa me. The Sanskrit and Javanese words fo r ture is also manifest in the characteristic method of count­ "work," something that has been created, also apply, ing years in dates, by using words fo r numbers, a method from the root kri (whence our verb "create"). In Java, the known as "Chandhra Sangkala." (Chandra sangkala is word karte, was used to denote a state with an orderly from Sanskrit, with the second term meaning "collection, administration, that is, where a state of quiet and peace quantity, addition," from the root kal, "to count," and the reigns. It is used to designate 4, from its meaning as firstelement meaning, "method"; thus, "counting accord­ "water," since there are fo ur oceans in the world. Finally, ing to the method.") For example, to signify the date 1021, bumi, corresponding to Skr. bhumi, means "earth," or the Sanskrit expression would be sasipakshakhaike. The "world" (in extended sense, "land"), of which there is syllables are read left to right, but they refer to the date only one. Thus the phrase would read, "Lost and gone is read from right to left. Thus, 1 is expressed by sasin, the work [pride] of the land," certainly an appropriate which means "moon." There is only one moon, therefore way of characterizing the event. the correspondence. Paksha means wings, and stands fo r The penetration of Sanskrit into Javanese-what 2, fo r obvious reasons. The other syllables, kha and eka, must have been the language of the people of Java when are number words fo r 0 and 1, respectively. the Indian settlers arrived-goes fa r deeper, however. As When this usage was taken over in the Kawi lan­ Humboldt shows through an incredibly thorough exami­ guage, it was in a certain sense fu rther developed, such nation of vocabulary, word-formation, and grammar, the that not only syllables strung together stood fo r the date, influence is determining. The following examples make but the syllables constituted a phrase, which had to do the point. with what the date recorded. For example, there is the In the process of the creation of Kawi, Sanskrit words story of a Muslim king who had travelled to Java, in entered the Javanese language, almost always in the fo rm hopes of converting the King of Majapahit, to whom he of a substantive, specificallyin the nominative case singu­ had promised his daughter, to Islam. The enterprise ran lar, which were then transformed, according to the into difficulties, many of the entourage fe ll ill and died, Javanese laws of word-formation, into verbs, adjectives, and his daughter herself became very sick. The king etc. Sanskrit verbs or roots never enter the language as prayed to the Almighty, that, if the venture were destined such, but only in a nominative fo rm. Thus, fo r example, to succeed, his daughter should be saved, and if not, not. Skr. bhukti (which refers to the act of eating) becomes b­ His daughter died in the year 1313, and the date was in-ukti, or, with consonant shifts, ma-muktt�· dwija ("bird") recorded as fo llows: becomes dwtja, or dhwtjangga, through duplication, a process often used fo r poetical reasons, to lengthen the Kaya wulan putri iku. syllables. Thus also rana ("battle"), which becomes rana, 3 1 3 1 or ranangga, or rananggana, etc. The plural in Kawi is Ka ya means "fire," which, as in Sanskrit (agni) stands fo rmed often by repetition, thus Skr. wira, fo r "warrior," fo r 3. Wu lan is the Javanese word fo r "moon," again fo r 1. becomes wira wira, "warriors." Putri is Sanskrit fo r "daughter of the prince," and stands As fo r the verb, it is fo rmed from the Sanskrit nomi­ fo r 3, fo r reasons which even Humboldt could not fa th­ native, in various ways. For instance, the syllable um is om. Finally iku or hiku, is the Javanese pronoun fo r a dis­ inserted right before the initial consonant, or after the ini­ tant person ("she, over there"), and corresponds to 1. Thus tial vowel: thus, the noun tiba, meaning "fall," becomes a the phrase would be translated "Like unto the moon was verb, "to fa ll," as tumiba; lampah, "trip," becomes a verb, that princess," in Humboldt's rendition. The numbers "to walk," as lumampah. Or, the verb can be distin­ would be 3131, read from right to left, the date 1313. guished from the noun, through a different initial conso­ Another, more obvious example, denotes the leg­ nant: thus, neda is "to eat," whereas teda is "food"; nulis, endary date 1400, when the state of Majapahit was con­ "to write," and tulis, "writing"; niti� "to prove," and titi� quered by Muslims. This date is rendered as fo llows: "proof." As a result of the emphasis on the noun or substantive Sirna ilang kirti-ning bumi. fo rm, verbal expressions are often in the passive voice. o 0 4 1 For instance, one would say literally, "my seeing was the Sirna is the Sanskrit passive particle from the verb sri, star," to indicate, "I saw the star." The passive is fo rmed sirna, meaning "destroyed," and it therefore corresponds through the prefixka-. Since, in Kawi, there is no inflec­ to nothing, O. liang or hilang is Javanese fo r the same tion to the verb, as opposed to Sanskrit's highly developed

33 inflectional system, the meaning of a sentence must be grasped through word order and context. However, DESCRIPTION Humboldt consulted Kawi does have tense distinction, with a past, present, and GEOGUAI'IUQUE , J-IISTOIUQUE ET CO!'>DlEnCIALE previousstudies DE criticized and fu ture, as well as some differentiation of moods, by British colonial agents especially the imperative and subjunctive. The fo llowing Th omas Ruffles and John gives an idea of how difficultit may be to figureout how L'ARCHIPEL INDIEN, Crawfurd. Left: 1824 ,�. MM. IAf'f'L£S, ''''''D G ...... n ,.. .-H.h.£ ''''U'' •• BATAVr.� ". l .... Cl.AW�'UID, ._ ... Ito<...... CoUODO SOLT.. "" luo; of a sentence should be read. 080«4.""...... French-languageedition DU DI'UIU !l" LES .-.a;t;U. us iUS. J.a u."fGI!U. LEIi IEUCII)'U £T LU �bCU nu IIUITAIiJ DI tKft1l ullm OIl ��Dr. Rufflesand Crawfurd. Thus prayer his to three-world be spoken victory in battle ••• M. lBRCIHL.n'''PLod DO �o.n:" """,T; Below: Transcription of ht e mwU tk d tie 'd."rlrJ cck'��J OIWM?e ya-a Kawi ic, This actually means: ep the "Brata Yuddha. " Right: Phonetic Thus was his prayer spoken to the three worlds, fo r victory comparisonof Roman, in the battle. Devanagari (Sanskrit), and other Ma layan BRUXELLES, Kawi, Can II. TARLIER, .,.U,.U, lUI DI L',.n:UU, alphabets (top), If there is difficulty in grasping the sense, owing to &T CJIn JOBARD, L1TIO.OCU'.. , llIE "IU CIlUCI.l.I.D.,'. and various the row of words without grammatical indicators, there Javanese scripts (bottom). is, on the other hand, as Humboldt emphasizes, a "noble brevity and a stronger impact of the poetical images which fo llow one another immediately." Wilhelm von Humboldt concludes from his study of Kawi, that it was "an older fo rm of the Javanese national language, which however, in the elaboration of scientific knowledge transplanted there from India, assimilated an indeterminable number of pure Sanskrit words, and thereby, as well as owing to the peculiarity of its exclu­ sively poetical diction, became a closed fo rm of speech, deviating from the usual fo rm of speech." It was, howev­ er, the language of the educated population, which grad­ ually fe ll out of use, fo llowing the emigration of the last Brahmins out of Majapahit to Bali, in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries. As to the time frame, when the Indian influence was firstintroduced to Java, Humboldt had no clear records. The annals of Java begin with the era of Ari Saka, who was reputed to have brought the era from India, in the year A.D. 74 or 78. This coincides with the period of the Brahmin figure named Tritresta, who was said to have Whether or not a pre-Kawi alphabet for Javanese built the firststate on Java, after it had been taken under existed was not known to Humboldt, but he did not the rule of Vishnu. The massive impact of Sanskrit on exclude it. the language, greater than that on any other language in The question to be raised at this point is, what is the Malayan group, led Humboldt to conclude that the Javanese? If one puts to one side all the Sanskrit elements Indian colonists who settled there must have used San­ of Kawi, and examines the remainder of the language, skrit as their living, spoken language, which places the which Humboldt called the non-Sanskrit Kawi, would it settlement fa r back in time. be the same as modern Javanese? To answer this ques­ The dating of the "Brata Yuddha" is also controver­ tion, and the related one-what is the entire Malayan sial; one version puts it at A.D. 706, another, at A.D. 1079. language group, and what are its relations to the other The alphabet in use fo r Kawi must have been introduced great language groups of the world?-Humboldt broad­ by the Indians, and taken up by other languages as well, ened his study, to cover all those languages which were like the Biscaya and Tagalic. This alphabet, Humboldt known from the region. takes to be the same as modern Javanese, but written in He was the firstto do this, and it was not only a mon­ different signs, with numerous sounds in common with umental task philologically: it also constituted a direct Sanskrit. However, it is not simply the Sanskrit alphabet, challenge to the language studies that had been conduct­ because it has many fe wer consonants, lacking the entire ed up to that point. Significantly, prior to Humboldt's array of aspirated consonants, fo r example. efforts, the only studies that existed on the Kawi lan-

34 available, contained only 139 of the original 719 fo ur-line stanzas. Humboldt, eager to have a better version, finally got one fr om Crawfurd, who 1&"11. had generously added 19 stan­ ------��------·t � _.,..w. ,f.,. zas. Raffles, it appears, had �r �. decided to omit anything which he found objectionable, which was clearly a lot. But, in addition to such obvious manipulations, both Raffles and Crawfurd, in Humboldt's view, had com­ mitted ghastly errors of method. Most importantly, they had neglected to consider languages from the stand­ point of the entire language

7 area in question, and limited Ul '"C:' � 51 1TT' t;:; b1' jJl '[SI ill 'l! 'W �'UJ 'iJl � � F51"a themselves to very small h,nchrl< J, /; s", zl'J) 'y 7tiii ll" .J' b tni areas. Crawfurd, in his histo­

;t ry, considered only the area '\fI'r"P S' rr £:: 1::' 'ell '� )J' 1j' fb lJU'W�UJi'1U''i:J �g b.) 'C) (jl5 from Sumatra to New J. ,. ,� ,. k J. J Guinea, and from 110 to 190 latitude, as the area of Indian J. '\J1 'a.a, 'i m C CSt lJl CJ flJ1 '\.4 'iJ c::l e=- '\.U-.::unE:Jl'i:IMc;1'til� �") influence. Most important, n. 110.01.. r .. k. d,. /;. ./. w: l. p. p. 4. ). " . ,.;;;, 71< m .Y .ff '0 l; -,ij. Humboldt writes, is the fa ct that Crawfurd thus ignores � U.� �� mc�� cru�cK�w �8 n��� the basic demographic fa cts of • r .\ .. rio. k J ./ l I' ,t ;' i y ,,;;, "" of � � � the region: that, in the small area he had carved out fo r study, there lived side by side black-skinned people with curly hair and whites with guage, were those of British and Dutch colonial agents. straight hair, whereas the blacks no longer lived in Java The first, Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles (1721- and Sumatra. Furthermore, on Madagascar, there lived 1826), was an English East India administrator and Lieu­ at the time of these studies blacks of African extraction, tenant governor of Java from 1811-1815. He is credited as well as Malayans and Arabs together, and they all with having secured Singapore fo r the East India Com­ spoke the exact same language. As Humboldt stressed, pany in 1819. John Crawfurd was resident at the court of this extraordinary fa ct meant that the common language the Sultan on Java, and the author of a Historyof the Indi­ they shared must go very fa r back in antiquity, since it an Archipelago (1820). It was Raffles's 1817 History of Java, had effectively replaced any other languages which and Crawfurd's work, which provided Humboldt basic would have been specific to the black African popula­ information on Java, as well as texts of the "Brata Yud­ tion. On these grounds alone, in Humboldt's view, it is dha" poem. absolutely outrageous to leave Madagascar out of the Needless to say, Raffles's approach was not disinterest­ area of study. ed. His leading aim appears to have been to fa lsify the Furthermore, he complains, the "English scholars" record, especially to deny the possible existence of an utterly ignore the Tagalic language, which lies in the independent Javanese civilization and language. He con­ area. (Another Briton, William Marsden, had acknowl­ sidered the Kawi language to be an artificial idiom used edged the importance of Tagalic, but had, said Hum­ by a priest caste, essentially a dead language used only rit­ boldt, nonetheless excluded it from his word analysis in ually. The version of the "Brata Yuddha" which he made the Archaeologia Britannica.) For Humboldt, on the

35 other hand, the Tagalic language was of absolutely cru­ fo re concrete grammatical fo rms, borrowed from one cial importance, because (1) it shows a very broad another." But he went beyond vocabulary, since "[o]ne agreement with Malaysian; (2) of all the languages in cannot consider languages as an aggregate of words. the group, it has the richest grammatical development, Each is a system, whereby sound is linked to thought. such that the grammars of the others can be understand The business of the language researcher is to findthe key only from this standpoint-just as Greek can be best to this system." understood from the standpoint of Sanskrit; (3) neither In this spirit, Humboldt assembled a list of over one Arabic nor Indian religion or literature have altered hundred words, from Malaysian (proper, i.e. as spoken in Tagalic's original color; and (4) there is no other lan­ Malacca), Bugi, Madecassian (or Malagasy), Tagalic, and guage of the group which has so many research aids, the Polynesian languages: Tonga, New Zealand, Ta hiti, like dictionaries and grammars, largely thanks to the and Hawaiian. The comparative tables, completed by his work of Spanish missionaries. student Buschmann, show striking similarities, as the fe w Perhaps the English scholars did not want to discover examples in Ta ble I demonstrate. (The large number of the truth about the languages and the peoples of the great examples fo r Madecassian derive from the fa ct that sever­ ocean civilization; Humboldt, however, did. In fa ct, he al sources were consulted, including dictionaries and the even rejected the name Polynesian to designate this cate­ translation of the Holy Scriptures). gory, on the grounds that it was geographical and limit­ But, not only are the words similar. Grammatically, the ed, and preferred to it the term Malaysian, meaning not pronoun fo r the first person singular, I, is also the same: only the language culture, but the people. New Zealand ahau, Mad. ahe, ahy; the Ihl sound is trans­ The linguistic material that Humboldt considered was fo rmed in the other languages (except Tahiti) into its cor­ vast. He examined vocabulary, which showed "not only responding hard sound, ingua, eo, aeo, ku, aku, very much that these peoples designed many concepts with the same in the same way that Latin ego is constructed from Skr. terms, but that they also took the same route to shaping aham, or in the way that English "I," diffe rs from German the language, creating words with the same sounds "ich" or "ik." Also, in the third person singular, there is an according to the same laws, and that they possess there- extraordinary similarity, especially in the possessive fo rm,

1. TABLE Comparison ofvoc abularywords within the Ma layan-Polynesian language fa mily.

Mal. Jav. Bugi Mad. Tag. Tonga N.Z. Tah. Haw.

to die mati mati mate matte matay mate mate mate make pati fa tte patay (death) mate (death) fa te (death) matte

fruit biiah woh buwa voa bongaa fooa hodu hua voha auoy voua

year taun rahun taung taoune taon tow makahiki taun tau taonne

fire api hapi api afou apuy afi ahi auahi ahi genm af al gm affe Kr. latu motte

K. hapuyi, langourou bahning

(Kr. designates the elevated language, and K. stands for Kawi.)

36 "his": Mad. ny mpiana'ny, which means "his young ones"; ery was to establish the link between the two branches. Mal. kapala -nia, meaning "his head"; Tag. ang yna-niya, The word Humboldt is referring to is an adverb of meaning "his mother"; Ta h. to'na ahu, "his dress"; N.Z. time; if this verbal particle fu nctions as an adverb of t8natok/� "his axe"; Tong. anafa ile, "his house." time, he says, then it is certain that other verbal particles

The relationship among these languages is also trans­ will also have that function. "The Mal.juga andjua, ... parent in number; and so on and so fo rth, fo r the is an adverb of very varied and complicated meaning, process of word-formation, syntax, and other aspects of often meaning 'empty,' this means one can hardly the language. attribute a meaning to it." However, he goes on, "in the In the final part of his monumental study, Humboldt meaning of 'still,' it functions as the sign of the present moved yet fa rther eastward, to examine the languages of and imperfect tenses." The single example he gives fo r the South Sea Islands [SEE map, Figure 1] And, here this is a phrase which means: "a huge blustering rose up again, by comparing the basic vocabulary, the laws of in the sea, such that the little ship was covered with grammar and syntax, he was able to demonstrate the waves." The original is tetapi iya tidor juga. Another nature and degree of relationship among them, as well as example given is tiada juga, meaning "not yet," which between the eastern and western branches of the had the function of placing the verb in the perfect tense Malayan group. (as in English, "it has not yet happened"). Another The method Humboldt applied is truly wonderful, example shows it as the sign fo r the pluperfect, in the because he fo cussed on identifying the crucial example to meaning of "already" (as in English, "it had already prove the general law. In the case of the verbal particles, occurred"). Humboldt notes a curious fact, which is, that Humboldt himself says that "this discovery is one of the the verbal particle always appears after the word it mod­ most important discoveries that I have made in my striv­ ifies in the western branch of Malayan, and always ing to present the whole Malayan language group as a comes before the word, in the eastern branch. Humboldt unity of system and sounds, and would by itself sufficeto draws up a chart showing the overview of the word fo r justify this work of mine and its tendency." This discov- the whole language fa mily [SEE Table II].

TABLE II. Overview of the verbal particleof time fo r the entire Malayan-Polyne sianlanguage family, as presented in "On the Kawi Language. "

Adverb Verbal Particle Pronoun

Mal. juga "also" 2. "only, alone" 3. "so" juga sign of present, itu juga "the same" (m.) 4. "however; moreover" 5. "still" imperfect, perfect, sarna and sama juga 6. "already" (lamajuga "already long pluperfect "the same" (m.) since" )

jua "only" 2. "so" 3. "still" Kawi juga "only"

Jav. huga "also" 2. "only" 3. "so" hiyahika huga "the same" (m.) 4. "yet, however" (hiyahika "this one")

Mad. coua "also" 2. "yet" 3. "more" isicoua "the same" (n.) (davantage, plus quecela) [isi, "this one" (m.)] zanicoua "the same" (m. & n.) Tonga gua loa "before, long ago" gua sign of present, sometimes of preterite

N.Z. koa sign of perfect

Tah. ua sign of present, taua, aua "this one" (m.) preterite, future, of imperfect conj.

Haw. ua sign of present, ua "this one" (m.) imperfect, perfect

37 Having reached this point, Humboldt takes one fu r­ the grammatical words do not fu se with others. ther crucial step, and considers the entire group which By the same token, he identified several aspects he has established as the Malay fa mily, in comparison which they shared with American languages, but speci­ with, first, the Chinese language, and then, with the fied that the overall grammatical construction of the native languages of America. With Chinese, the group two groups had very significant differences. One key has much in common: The South Sea Islands languages feature of American languages is their use of the first have the habit of fo rming different words by making person plural pronoun, "we," in both the exclusive and very slight sound changes, almost imperceptible to the the inclusive fo rm: one says either "we" (and you) or untrained ear. And, "these languages recall the Chi­ "we" (without you). This characteristic, which had nese, in that the words which indicate a grammatical been thought unique to America, Humboldt showed to relationship, follow or precede the expression of the be shared by the languages in the Malayan group, those concept separately from it, such that they, more than in Malaysia proper, as well as in the Philippines and the other languages, could be written in a script similar Polynesia. *' to Chinese." Humboldt was very clear about how such phenomena In his detailed analysis of three languages in the came into being in the course of human history: On the South Sea Island group (Tonga, New Zealand, and one hand, he saw the ocean, not as a hindrance, but as a Ta hiti), Humboldt identified several characteristics connecting factor among peoples. On the other, he recog- which they shared with Chinese, such that they could be written in Chinese characters. These are: that each word which can be considered by itself, exists in the • In this connection, Humboldt also noted the findings in Kentucky and Tennessee, of ancient graves showing burial practices similar to word order by itself, including words which indicate a those in the Sandwich, Caroline, and Fiji Islands, and the conclu­ grammatical relation; that none of these words under­ sion drawn by one Hr. Mitchell, that colonists had arrived there goes any changes in the context of the phrase; and, that from the Malaysian-Pacificregion.

Humboldt's Discovery To day

a mo the H a ii n The following excerptfrom dern the Strait of Formosa (now the Tai­ islands; by A.D. 400 wa a wan as e most linguistshows the long-term impact of Strait) and became the fi rst Islands and E t r Island-the inhabitants of Taiwan. And n er of Humboldt's groundbreaking "On the from orth n and eastern islands Poly­ h se shipbuilding icul nesia-had beenoccupied; while New Ka wi Language, " published in 1836- Taiwan t e agr tur­ 1839. The implications for the even alists spread first southward to the Zealand-the most southern island earlier development of man's maritime Philippines, and then eastward and group in Polynesia-was not reached culture have not been pursued by this westward throughout most of Ocea­ until around A.D. 800. contemporaryauthor , however. nia. The archeological record indi­ This bare-bones account is based cates that the northern Philippines on the archaeological record, as he Austric language fa mily were reached by 5,000 B.P., and 500 worked out by the English archaeolo­ T[Malayan-Polynesian-Ed.] of years later these migrants had spread gist Peter Bellwood (1991) and others, Southeast Asia consists of four sub­ as far south as Java and Timor, as fa r and of necessity pre sents little more fa milies: Austroasiatic, Miao-Yao, west as Malaysia, and eastward to the than a relative chronology of one of Daic, and Austronesian, the last two southern coast of New Guinea. By the broadest dispersals in human pre­

of which appear to be closest to each around 3,200 B.P. the expansion had history. Unmentioned are the extraor­ other. ... Austronesian languages are reached Madagascar, fa r to the west, dinary navigational skills these peoples fo und on Taiwan, which is probably and had spread as fa r east as Samoa, developed, and the remarkable boats the original homeland of the fa mily, in the central Pacific,and the Mariana they constructed to facilitate trans­ but also on islands throughout the Islands and Guam, in Micronesia. oceanic voyages across hundreds, even Pacific Ocean, and even on Madagas­ During the next millennium the thousands, of miles of open water. car, in the Indian Ocean close to expansion spread to encompass the -fr om Merritt Ruhlen, Afr ica .... remainder of Micronesia. The final The Origin of Language:

About 6,000 years ago [populations step in this vast human dispersal was Tracing the Evolution ofthe from China or Southeast Asia] crossed the occupation of the Polynesian Mother Tongue, 1994

38 nized that when such contacts occurred, as between the able that the islands of Malaysia and Polynesia were Indian civilization and the island populations, "the pre­ populated by waves of settlers from India and Egypt, dominance of a civilization so ancient and so cultivated in going back to as early as the Third millennium B.C., in every branch of human activity as that of India was the case of India, and the Second millennium B.C., in bound to attract to it nations of an alert and lively sensi­ the case of Egypt. The records of gold mining conduct­ tivity. This was more a moral change," he writes, "how­ ed on the island of Sumatra in the Second millennium ever, than a political one," and he refers to the way Hin­ B.C., point to probable Egyptian explorers. Most proba­ duism "struck roots among the Malaysian people," show­ bly, it was settlers of Dravidian stock from India, who ing "that as a spiritual fo rce, it again excited the mind, set may have been the dark-skinned people referred to in the imagination to work and became powerful through the early records of the islands; some affinities of the the impression wrought upon the admiration of peoples Dravidian languages with those of Papua New Guinea, capable of development." have been researched. Following the Dravidians, who Considering this, what would Wilhelm von Hum­ went to the islands, or stayed in southern India, came boldt have said, had he seen the cave drawings from San­ the Aryans of Sanskrit language culture, who had tiago de Chile, and those of his beloved Java, and those of entered India from Central Asia, and thence, travelled Pitcairn Island? Upon hearing that the name of the cap­ on to the islands. Thus, the continuing waves of settle­ tain of the ship was Rata, he most certainly would have ments from India, which Humboldt hypothesized, as exclaimed, "Aha! You know, that is fa scinating! Because well as from Egypt, would explain what Humboldt the name Ratu, was used as the word fo r 'king' or 'prince' found: the existence of a deep layer of Sanskrit in the in Javanese." As he noted, "It was so explicitly treated as Malayan family, even beneath the Sanskrit assimilated a Javanese word that it developed fo rms with indigenous in the Kawi language. Furthermore, such waves of sound changes and fo rm changes, like ngratu, meaning migration from Egypt, would explain the similarities 'to recognize or acknowledge someone as king,' and ngra­ which become manifest in the inscriptions by Maui, tonni, which meant 'to govern, to rule.' " The same comparable to those in Libya and other sites in north­ word, Humboldt pointed out, is fo und in Malaysian ern Africa. proper, as ratu, in Sundanese on Madura and Bali, and Most unfortunately, Wilhelm von Humboldt died in also in Tagalic as dato. Not only, but there are legends in 1835. Just six years later, in 1841, one of his greatest stu­ Polynesia, about the white god who created the place, dents, Franz Bopp, published a work entitled Ober die named Maui.... Ve rwandschaft der malayisch -polynesischen Sprachen mit Humboldt would have been intrigued by the idea, that den indisch-europaischen (On the Kinship of the Malayan­ Egyptians had travelled through the ocean islands and Polynesian Language to the Indo-European), a work fo r left their inscriptions everywhere. He, too, in his great which he came under attack. Bopp was the genius who work, had cited "obscure reports" about Egyptians who had virtually invented the science of comparative philol­ had been banished or otherwise left their homeland fo r ogy in 1816 with his groundbreaking work on the con­ the islands in the eastern oceans. jugation systems of Indo-European languages (On the But, what would have thrilled him 'the most, is the System of Conjugations of the Sanskrit Language in Com­ idea that there was indeed one language, Maori, which parison to those of the Gree� Latin, Persian, and German was documented at least as early as the Third century Languages).

B.C. from the northern coasts of Africa, to Java and east­ Then, in his 1841 work, Bopp had dared to assert an wards as fa r as Pitcairn Island. Maori, still spoken today affinity between those languages which Humboldt had on New Zealand, is the modern fo rm, indeed very dif­ reunited into one family, and the Indo-European group fe rent, but the same language genealogically, as the (of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Germanic, Italic, etc.). Bopp ancient Maori in which Rata and Maui wrote their was thus undertaking the task which Humboldt did not inscriptions. Whether the roots of Maori were planted live long enough to tackle, to examine the organic rela­ into the soil of the ocean islands at the time of the Egypt­ tionship between Sanskrit, as primary among Indo-Euro­ ian expedition, or much earlier, the fa ct is, that Maori is pean, and the Malayan fa mily. And, in 1890, another fol­ one of the dialects of the vast language group of so-called lower of Humboldt's, Carl Abel, went so fa r as to propose Malayo-Polynesian, which Humboldt named the a relationship between ancient Egyptian and Indo-Euro­ Malayan fa mily. pean, which, in light of Maui's inscriptions, is rich with From the archaeological and historical records implications. which have emerged since Humboldt's time, it is prob- Abel recounts in a fa mous lecture he delivered pre-

39 senting his findings, that, if the Nineteenth-century or power. It has been a passionate endeavor, to plumb the European classicists-those dedicated to the study of depths of the human mind, in its uniquely human capac­ Greek and Latin, etc.-had been destabilized by the dis­ ity to create language, and to trace out the process covery of the relationship of the classical tongues to an through which human populations have moved about ancient Indian language, Sanskrit, which was a fa r older, the earth, to populate and develop it, in fruitful commu­ more developed and perhaps actually parent tongue to nication with one another. Humboldt understood philol­ theirs (a discovery now universally accepted!), it was par­ ogy in this vein, as contributing to the process of the per­ tially out of a sense of cultural superiority. The "Hel­ fection of mankind, as he wrote in On the Ka wi lenists and Latinists," he said, "had always impatiently Language: borne their dark-skinned cousinship," and balked at the If there is one idea which is visible in all of history in ever idea that everything had to be explained from the stand­ more extended value, if ever one [idea] proves the fr equent­ point of Sanskrit grammar. Now, continued Abel, "After ly contested, but even more frequendy misunderstood,per­ such precedents, it was not the least to be wondered at, fe ction of the entire species, then is it the idea of humanity, that when the Egyptian began to ask fo r admission on its the striving to lift the limits which prejudices and one-sided own behalf into the Indo-European circle, the same cold views of all types place hostilely between men, and to treat reception was repeated which Sanskrit originally experi­ humanity as a whole, without regard to religion, nation enced" (speech to the Ninth Congress of Orientalists, and skin color, as one great, closely fraternal group, one London, 1891). existing whole, for the achievement of one aim, of the free Philological study, at least in the tradition of the great development of internal strength. . . . minds like Humboldt, Bopp, Grimm, Abel, and others, Language enclasps more than anything else in men, the

has never been an academic pursuit, to win recognition whole species . . . .

RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY Critical Survey of Studies on the LAnguages of Java Wilhelm von Humboldts Werke, ed. by Albert Leitzmann, Vol. III, E.M. Uhlenbeck, A 1799-1818 (Berlin: B. Behrs Verlag, 1904); Vol. V, 1823-1826; Vol. and Madura} (Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1964). VI 1827-1835 (Berlin: 1907). Gerhard Kahlo, Grundriss der malaysichen und indonesichen Sprache Wilhelm von Humboldt, On LAnguage: The Diversity of Human LAn­ (Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1957). guage-Structure and Its Influence on the Mental Development of Theodore G. Th. Pigeaud, Literature of Java (Bibliotech Universitatis Mankind, trans. by Peter Heath (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer­ Lugduni Batavorum, 1968). Vol. I, Synopsis of Javanese Litera­ sity Press, 1988). ture, 1967. iii, Vol. IV, Supplement, 1980. Klaus Hammacher, ed., Universalismus und Wissenschaft im Werk und Prof. Dr. Renward Brandstetter, Charakterisierung der Ep ik der Wirken der Briider Humboldt (Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann, Malaien (Luzern: GebrtiderRabe r, 1891). 1976). Ernst Ulrich Kratz, Indonesische Miirchen (Eugen Diederichs Verlag, Der Briefwechsel zwischen Friedrich Schiller und Wilhelm von Humboldt 1973). (Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 1962). Dr. C. Klasi, Der malaiische Reineke Fuchs (Frauenfeld: Von Huber & Franz Bopp, Ober das Conjungationssytem der Sanskritsprache in Co., 1912). Vergelichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen un Alfred B. Hudson, The Barito Isolects of Borneo (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell germanischen Sprache (Frankfurt am Main: Karl Joseph Win­ University Press, 1967). dischmann, 1816; facsimile Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, Josef Roeder, Felsbilder und Vorgeschichte des McCluer-Golfes West­ 1975). NeuGuinea, (Darmstadt: L.C.Wittich, 1959). Dr. E. Kieckers, Die Sp rachstiimme der Erde (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, Josef Roeder, Alahatala, Die Religion der Inlandstiimme Mittelcerams, a 1931). publication of the Frobenius Institute and the Johann-Wolfgang­ Hermann Weigand, "The Two and Seventy Languages of the Goethe-Universitat (Frankfurt am Main: Bamberger Verlagshaus World," Germanic Review, 1942. Meisenbach & Co., 1948). Richard Salzner, Sprachenatlasdes IndopaziflSchen Raumes (Wiesbaden: P. Rivet, Les Ma layo-Polynesiens en Amerique (Paris: 1926). Otto Harrassowitz, 1960). Karel Petracek, Altagyptisch, Hamitosemitisch und ihre Beziehungen zu Jules Bloch, The Grammatical Structure of Dravidian Languages einigen Sprachfamilien in Afrika und Asien (Prague: Univerzita (Poona: 1954). Karlova, 1988). P.K. Parameswaran Nair, History of Malayalam Literature (New Del­ Carl Abel, Agyptisch und Indogermanisch, Vorlesung in der Abteilung hi: Sahitya Akademi, 1967). ftir Sprachwissenschaft des Freien Deutschen Hochstiftes gehal­ K.M. George, A Survey of Malayalam Literature (Asia Publishing ten von Carl Abel (Frankfurt am Main: GertiderKnauer, 1890). House, 1968). Raymond O. Faulkner, A Concise Dictionaryof Middle Egyptian (Lon­ M.M. Raffles and John Crawfurd, Description geographique, historique don: Oxford University Press, 1962). et commerciale de Java et des autres iles de I'Archipel Indien (Brussels: Giuliano Bonfante and Larissa Bonfante, The Etruscan Language Chez H. Tarlier, 1824). (New York: New York University Press, 1983). Eric-Dieter Krause, Lehrbuch der indonesischen Sp rache (Leipzig: VEB Dr. lng. Fr. Friese, Geschichte der Bergbau und Hiittentechnik (Berlin: Verlag Enzyklopaedie, 1984). Julius Springer, 1908).

40 One cannot understand what is happening to the world today without considering what is to be learned of a process which has been thousands of years in the making. All the things that have happened over these thousands of years are now embodied in a great crisis which grips this planet as a whole.

-LYNDON H. LAROUCHE, JR. February 13, 1999 Signposts to recovery.

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