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This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Isotopic evidence of Bronze Age diet and subsistence practices in the southeastern Carpathian Bend area, Romania Ülle Aguraiuja PhD in Archaeology The University of Edinburgh 2017 ABSTRACT Human and faunal osteological material from the southeastern Carpathian Bend area, Romania, was analysed for δ13C, δ15N and δ34S to reconstruct the dietary practices of the Middle Bronze Age Monteoru culture. As a secondary objective, the extent of intraskeletal variation in stable isotope values was investigated by comparing skeletal elements with differing collagen turnover rates. The intraskeletal isotope results revealed a pattern where cortical bone samples produced statistically lower δ13C values compared to trabecular bone samples, highlighting the necessity for more systematic research to understand how stable isotopes are incorporated into bone collagen of various skeletal elements. Diet in the Monteoru culture was shown to be exclusively or predominantly terrestrial in origin with no detectable input of C4 or marine resources. Differences in average δ13C and δ15N values between the two sites included in the study (representing distinct phases of the culture) suggest a shift in dietary preferences from a more meat-based economy to a more dairy- and plant-based economy. The dissimilar contribution of animal foods to overall diet between the two sites was supported by estimates generated by the Bayesian mixing model FRUITS, which also showed that in both sites plant foods accounted for most of the calories consumed. The faunal isotopic data contained a few outliers, suggestive of deliberate movement of livestock, either through long-distance herding or trade. A combined approach using juvenile bone collagen and incrementally sectioned tooth dentine from adults demonstrates that the duration of breastfeeding varied between individuals, but that there were no significant differences in weaning practices between survivors and non-survivors. Sulphur isotopes reflect a population that was relatively homogeneous in its isotopic composition and local in origin, except for the presence of two possible migrants. The δ13C and δ15N data from the Carpathian Bend are comparable to those from contemporaneous sites in coastal and inland Greece and Croatia, suggesting a broad uniformity in Bronze Age dietary practices across Southeast Europe. As the first major stable isotope study conducted on osteological material from the Romanian Sub- Carpathians, this thesis provides new insights into the lives of these communities, expands our knowledge of Bronze Age subsistence strategies in Southeast Europe, and establishes a foundation for further isotopic investigations in the region. ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis was composed by myself, that the work contained herein is my own except where explicitly stated otherwise in the text, and that this work has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. _________________________________ Ülle Aguraiuja iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to extend my gratitude to my supervisors Prof. Clive Bonsall and Dr Kathleen McSweeney for their advice and guidance throughout my PhD studies. I am also thankful to the following staff at the University of Edinburgh for their roles in the completion of this thesis: to Alan Dalton, for his friendship and infinite help in the Bone Chemistry lab; to Dr Catriona Pickard, for her constant support and assistance; and to Prof. László Bartosiewicz, for his advice in archaeozoological matters. I owe a particular debt of gratitude to the staff at the ‘Francisc I. Rainer’ Institute of Anthropology in Bucharest, Romania, for providing me with a warm welcome and the opportunity to study and sample the skeletal material in their care. I am especially grateful to Drs Mihai Constantinescu, Andrei Soficaru and Mihaela Culea for their valuable help in sample collection and for offering insight into the Monteoru culture and Romanian prehistory in general. I am also grateful to the staff at the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre (especially Dr Kerry Sayle), and to Dr Angela Lamb and staff at the NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratories. Funding for this project was provided by a grant from the NERC Isotope Geosciences Facilities Steering Committee (IP-1611-0516), the University of Edinburgh (School of History, Classics and Archaeology), and the national scholarship programme ‘Kristjan Jaak’ (funded and managed by the Archimedes Foundation in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and Research in Estonia). Finally, I would like to extend my endless gratitude to my friends and family back home who have supported me – both morally and with shipments of homemade goods – and patiently waited for me to finish this PhD. Thank you, Cindy, for your support, friendship, and our walks through the Meadows. And thank you, Oliver, for everything. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Background ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Scope of the study .............................................................................................. 2 1.3. Thesis goals and structure .................................................................................. 4 2. Stable isotope analysis for palaeodietary reconstruction ................................... 7 2.1. Stable isotope ecology ....................................................................................... 7 2.1.1. Background and definitions ......................................................................... 7 2.1.2. Carbon ......................................................................................................... 9 2.1.3. Nitrogen ..................................................................................................... 12 2.1.4. Sulphur ...................................................................................................... 15 2.2. Skeletal tissues and isotope routing ................................................................. 17 2.3. Intraskeletal variation in bone stable isotope ratios ......................................... 18 2.3.1. Basics of bone remodelling ....................................................................... 19 2.3.2. Estimating bone turnover rates .................................................................. 20 2.3.3. Bone turnover rate in the human skeleton ................................................. 21 2.3.4. Age-related variations in bone turnover rates ........................................... 24 2.3.5. Extent of natural variation and analytical precision .................................. 28 2.3.6. Applying differences in bone turnover rates to stable isotope investigations of archaeological human remains: examples from case studies .......................... 29 3. History of palaeodietary research in Central and Southeast Europe ............. 34 3.1. Isotopic evidence of human palaeodiets .......................................................... 34 3.1.1. Mesolithic–Early Neolithic (ca. 9000–5000 BC) ...................................... 36 3.1.2. Neolithic–Eneolithic (ca. 5000–3000 BC) ................................................ 38 3.1.3. Bronze Age (ca. 3000–1000 BC) .............................................................. 42 3.1.4. Iron Age (ca. 1000–1 BC) ......................................................................... 45 3.1.5. Roman–Medieval (ca. AD 1–1400) .......................................................... 47 3.1.6. Subsistence practices through time ........................................................... 48 3.1.7. Variability of Bronze Age subsistence practices in Eurasia ...................... 55 3.2. Archaeozoological and archaeobotanical evidence for human subsistence .... 58 3.2.1. Animal exploitation ................................................................................... 58 3.2.2. Plant cultivation ......................................................................................... 62 4. Archaeological background................................................................................. 65 4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 65 4.2. Bronze Age in Romania ................................................................................... 66 v 4.3. Monteoru culture.............................................................................................. 68 4.3.1. Overview of culture ..................................................................................
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