UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Plague Spreaders
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Plague Spreaders: Political Conspirators and Agents of the Devil. A Study of Popular Belief in 17 th -Century Milan A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Alessandra Brivio Committee in charge: Professor Ulrike Strasser, Chair Professor Nancy Caciola, Co-Chair Professor Cathy Gere Professor Jack Greenstain Professor Janet Smarr 2017 Copyright Alessandra Brivio, 2017 All rights reserved. iii The Dissertation of Alessandra Brivio is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: Co-Chair Chair University of California, San Diego 2017 iii iv DEDICATION This dissertation is in memory of Professor John Marino, who first believed in the potential of my research and guided me through the tumultuous first four years of graduate school. It is also dedicated to papà Romano, who for the last seven years has religiously asked me every month if I was done with school. Papà, finalmente ho finito! iv v TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page .................................................................................. iii Dedication ......................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .............................................................................. v Acknowledgements ........................................................................... vi Vita .................................................................................................... viii Abstract of the Dissertation ............................................................... ix Introduction ........................................................................................ 1 Chapter 1 Identifying the Plague in Early Modern Milan .................... 15 Chapter 2 The Socio-Economic Cost of Plague ................................ 50 Chapter 3 To Harm of Heal? From the Magus to the Barber: the Mistrusted Use of the Secret of Nature ......................................... 79 Chapter 4 The Exploitation of Disease: the New Notions about Plague and the Emergence of a New Economy of Plague ........... 122 Chapter 5 The Untori as Agents of the Devil: the Influence of Religious Worldviews and the Perception of the Unzioni .............. 161 Epilogue ............................................................................................ 197 Appendix 1......................................................................................... 203 Bibliography ....................................................................................... 204 v vi ACKNOLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the many people that have supported my work during the last seven years. First of all, The History Department at the University of California, San Diego for the many travel grants that allowed me to conduct my archival research in Milan, Italy. I would also like to acknowledge the Italian Club of San Diego for their incredibly generous Graduate Student Fellowship received for the 2014-2015 and 2015-2016 academic years. I would like to acknowledge the many colleagues that have engaged with my work and offered invaluable suggestions, continuously challenging me to reach greater academic heights. First and foremost, Professor Ulrike Strasser, who has tirelessly read and re-read chapter drafts, directing my intellectual effort with a contagious passion. Professor Nancy Caciola, who has followed the development of my research since its embryonic stage and helped me to define my argument along the way. Professor Stanley Chodorow, for his dedication to teaching me the art of good writing. Professor Stefano D’Amico, at Texas Tech University, for sharing his expertise in the history of Milan and guiding the initial stages of my project. Professor Cynthia Truant. I can’t even begin to express my gratitude for the incredible editorial contribution offered during the writing of the final draft of this dissertation. In Milano, I must acknowledge the archivists at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana, and in particular Nino Cellamaro, who went above and beyond his responsibilities to help me complete my research. vi vii Least by not last, this dissertation is the fruit of family labor: the endless encouragement and support received from my husband, Jasper Giammarinaro and my children, Alessio and Giulia. They all kept me on task and never complained despite my many absences during the course of the last seven years. And my best friend Jennifer Bratton, who has been my greatest supporter and continued to care for my children when I needed to focus on my work. It ‘takes a village’ to write a dissertation! vii viii VITA 2000 Bachelor of Arts, Political Science, Università degli Studi di Milano 2013 Master of Arts, History. University of California, San Diego 2010-2017 Teaching Assistant, Humanities Program University of California, San Diego 2017 Doctor of Philosophy, University of California, San Diego FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Early Modern European History Minor Fields: Medieval History (Professor Nancy Caciola) Renaissance Art and Literature (Professor Jack Greenstein, Professor Janet Smarr) viii ix ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Plague Spreaders: Political Conspirators and Agents of the Devil. A Study of Popular Belief in 17 th -Century Milan by Alessandra Brivio Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, San Diego, 2017 Professor Ulrike Strasser, Chair Professor Nancy Caciola, Co-Chair This dissertation focuses on the broader questions regarding the response to natural calamities in the early modern period and on the popular reception of plague literature. The point of entry for my research is the plague outbreak of 1630 and in particular a curious phenomenon that took place in Milan, Italy. A belief begun spreading that people assisted by demons were using a poisonous ix x concoction to spread the plague. The episode became a cause célèbre thanks to Alessandro Manzoni who told the story of the plague-spreaders to criticize the faulty judicial system which tried and executed the plague spreaders based on superstitious beliefs rather than reason. The little scholarship available on the topic has often conflated the events of 1630 with witchcraft. In my dissertation, I contend that the phenomenon of plague spreading exemplifies the synthesis of complex popular beliefs that characterized the Milanese “ Seicento ”, and contemporaries did not perceive it simply as a form of witchcraft. I join the revisionist effort of the last forty years that has tried to bring light to the history of Milan during a century that, until the 1980’s, was labeled as a culturally “dark” period of Spanish domination, and for this reason neglected. x Introduction Since the beginning of the Italian Wars (1494-1539), the fate of the State of Milan was intimately tied to the struggle between the major European powers to control Italy. During the first three decades of the sixteenth century the ambitions of the King of France, Francis I and of the Emperor Charles V were mitigated by the attempts of the last heirs of the Sforza family to maintain their power over the state of Milan. But, when Duke Francesco Sforza II died without heirs in 1535, Charles V officially extended his rule on the Duchy of Milan opening an era of Spanish control that lasted until the XVIII century. At the beginning of the 17th century, the administration of the State of Milan was controlled by a mix of new organs of Spanish government and old municipal structures originated at the time of the Milanese commune and the Visconti’s signoria . The highest officer of the Spanish government was the governor (governatore) , who was appointed directly by the Spanish king every three years. He reported directly to the king and performed the diplomatic duties typical of a head of state. Immediately below the governor, the gran cancellier acted as a prime minister, with a vast jurisdiction over civil, juridical, and fiscal matters. He was also chosen by the Spanish crown from the Spanish and Milanese nobility, and he held his office for life. The Senate was the most important juridical organ of state government. Its members were chosen from the Milanese and Spanish nobility and they had full jurisdiction over civil and criminal cases. A number of 1 2 other offices controlled the particular aspects of civic government, such as treasury and minting ( Tesoreria generale and Giudice dei delle monete ), public order and police ( Capitano di Giustizia ), and public health ( Tribunale della sanità). For many decades, the historiography of Spanish Milan was influenced by the nationalist views of the nineteenth century Risorgimento. Intellectuals such as Benedetto Croce (1866-1952) blamed the indolence of the Spanish government for what they labeled as Milan’s ‘dark years.’ 1 Moved by antispagnolismo 2, that is an anti-Spanish sentiment, scholars imputed the lack of political and social progress in Milan and Naples to the bad government ( malgoverno ) of the Spanish monarchy. Furthermore, the Spanish Inquisition was considered one of the most repressive forces of religious innovation at work within the empire. 3 In the case of Milan, the Spanish Inquisition was kept at bay by the presence of two strong figures of the Counterreformation: Carlo and Federico Borromeo. Carlo was archbishops of Milan from 1564 to 1584, and his cousin Federico followed him as archbishop from 1595 until his death in 1631. Both cousins tirelessly