Chassis Layout of an Autonomous Truck a Transportation Concept for the Mining Industry

Chassis Layout of an Autonomous Truck A Transportation Concept for the Mining Industry

Johannes Dahl Gabriél-André Grönvik

Mechanical Engineering, masters level 2016

Luleå University of Technology Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics Preface This thesis was performed by Johannes Dahl and Gabriél-André Grönvik at Scania. Johannes was studying Mechanical Engineering at Luleå University of Technology and has experience in product development and great knowledge in machine design and components. Gabriél was studying Vehicle Engineering at KTH and has competence in vehicle concepts, components and dynamics. The authors want to thank the supervisors Jenny Jerrelind at KTH, Torbjörn Lindbäck at LTU and Måns Lundberg at Scania for their support and advices. We also want to thank other personnel at Scania; our boss Christian Lauffs, Eric Falkgrim and Jan Dellrud for running this project, Mikael Wågberg and Daniel Bergqvist for sharing their expertise about the mining industry and everyone that we have been in contact with at Scania for exchanging many great ideas. Finally, we want to thank all staff at RTMX for great support, good advice and involvement.

II Abstract Autonomous driving might increase safety and profitability of trucks in many applications. The mining industry, with its enclosed and controlled areas, is ideal for early implementation of autonomous solutions. The possibility of increased productivity, profitability and safety for the mining industry and the mining area as a ground for development could, through collaboration, result in many benefits for both mining companies and truck manufactures. Scania must investigate how these autonomous vehicles should be constructed. The project goal is thereby to develop a chassis layout concept for an autonomous truck. The concept should improve profitability and safety for transportation of materials within the mining industry while minimizing the introduction of new components to Scania. The chosen approach is based on the Ulrich & Eppinger method for product development including generation and selection of concepts. Product requirements were specified from identified customer needs. The generated concepts were evaluated against these requirements and comparisons were performed with weighted matrices. Some benefits of the final chassis layout concept are a higher load carrying capacity, more robust component placement and higher ground clearance. The vehicle concept would also be able to operate in underground mines with low roof clearance which could open new market segments for Scania. However, the concept requires development to gain higher performance on load carrying components in the chassis front. The suggested concept shows that Scania could build and deliver autonomous mining vehicles with optimized chassis layouts based on Scania’s existing components within a near future. Keywords Autonomous, cab-less, driver-less, dump truck, chassis layout, hauling, mining transportation, underground mines, open-pit mines, mining industry.

III

IV Sammanfattning Autonom körning kan öka säkerheten och lönsamheten för lastbilar i många applikationer. Gruvindustin, med dess avgränsade och kontrollerade områden, är ideal för tidig implementation av autonoma lösningar. Möjligheten till ökad produktivitet, lönsamhet och säkerhet med gruvindustrin och gruvområderna som plats för utveckling kan, genom samarbete, resultera i många fördelar för både gruvföretagen och lastbilstillverkarna. Scania måste därmed undersöka hur dessa autonoma fordon bör konstrueras. Projektmålet är därmed att ta fram ett koncept på en chassilayout för en autonom lastbil. Konceptet bör öka lönsamheten och säkerheten för transport av material inom gruvindustrin medan introduktionen av, för Scania, nya komponenter minimeras. Det valda angreppssättet är baserat på Ulrich & Eppingers metod för produktutveckling inkluderande generering och urval av koncept. Produktkraven specificerades utifrån de identifierade kundkraven. De framtagna koncepten utvärderades mot dessa krav och jämförelser genomfördes med viktade matriser. Några fördelar hos det slutgiltiga chassilayoutskonceptet är högre lastkapacitet, mer robust komponentplacering och högre markfri gång. Fordonskonceptet har även möjlighet att köra i underjordiska gruvor med låg takhöjd vilket kan öppna upp nya marknadssegment för Scania. Dock kräver konceptet utveckling för att nå högre prestanda hos lastbärande komponenter i främre chassi. Det föreslagna konceptet visar att Scania skulle kunna bygga och leverera autonoma gruvbilar med optimerad chassilayout baserat på Scanias existerande komponenter inom en snar framtid. Nyckelord Autonom, hyttlös, förarlös, gruvbil, chassilayout, gruvtransport, underjordsgruvor, dagbrott, gruvindustri.

VI Contents

1 Background ...... 1 2 Problem formulation ...... 3 2.1 Project aim and goals ...... 3 2.2 Project delimitations ...... 3 2.3 Risk analysis ...... 3 3 Approach ...... 5 4 Market analysis ...... 7 4.1 The mining industry ...... 7 4.2 Operating conditions ...... 10 4.3 Benchmarking ...... 11 4.4 Customer needs ...... 20 4.5 Legal requirements ...... 20 4.6 Market opportunities ...... 20 5 Product requirements ...... 23 5.1 Mission statement ...... 23 5.2 Function degradation ...... 23 5.3 Product specification ...... 25 6 Concept design ...... 27 6.1 Technical specification ...... 27 6.2 Wheel configuration and powertrain ...... 28 6.3 First concept selection ...... 35 6.4 Bodywork and main components ...... 37 6.5 Second concept selection ...... 48 6.6 Finalizing ...... 49 7 Final concept ...... 51 8 Suggestions on new parts and modifications ...... 55 9 Discussion and conclusions ...... 57 10 Future work ...... 59 Appendix A ...... A.1 Appendix B ...... B.1 Appendix C ...... C.1 Appendix D ...... E.1 Appendix E ...... E.1 Appendix F ...... F.1

VII List of figures

Figure 1: Scheme of general product development process...... 5 Figure 2: Final workflow...... 6 Figure 3: Open pit mine [5]...... 7 Figure 4: Schematic of an underground mine [6]...... 8 Figure 5: Transportation solution within the mining industry...... 8 Figure 6: Open pit mine material flow [7]...... 9 Figure 7: Value creation of mining transportation tasks...... 11 Figure 8: Rigid haul tuck [15]...... 12 Figure 9: Articulated haulers, (a) underground use [16], (b) over-ground use [15]...... 12 Figure 10: Scania dump truck [17]...... 13 Figure 11: EcoTwin platooning [20]...... 14 Figure 12: Mercedes-Benz 2025 highway pilot concept [23]...... 14 Figure 13: Komatsu autonomous haulage system in Australia [27]...... 15 Figure 14: Function degradation including eleven different sub-categories...... 23 Figure 15: Reference truck used in Vehicle Optimizer...... 28 Figure 16: Cab-less truck with forward extended body...... 29 Figure 17: Cab-less truck with stronger front axles...... 30 Figure 18: Cab-less truck with shortened axle distances...... 30 Figure 19: Cab-less truck with greater overhang...... 31 Figure 20: Extended, cab-less truck with support axle and centred bogie...... 31 Figure 21: Cab-less truck with front extended frame and steering axles...... 32 Figure 22: Axle ground clearance...... 34 Figure 23: Ground clearance of frame mounted components...... 34 Figure 24: Wheel configuration and suspensions...... 35 Figure 25: First suggestion of performance step...... 36 Figure 26: Second suggestion of performance step...... 36 Figure 27: Piston unloading material [32]...... 37 Figure 28: Tipping the whole truck [33]...... 37 Figure 29: Falling object protection system [35]...... 38 Figure 30: High air intake, forward position...... 39 Figure 31: High air intake, angled forward position...... 39 Figure 32: Silencer positions, illustrated by large silencers...... 40 Figure 33: 200G Fuel tanks right and left hand position...... 41 Figure 34: 300G Fuel tank left hand position...... 42 Figure 35: AdBlue tank positions...... 42 Figure 36: Front axel air tanks positiones...... 43 Figure 37: Rear axle air tanks positiones...... 43 Figure 38: Air processing system, left corner position...... 44 Figure 39: Horn, repositioned left corner...... 44 Figure 40: Steering servo left and right hand positon...... 45 Figure 41: Engine cover from R-cab floor...... 46 Figure 42: Large engine cooler...... 46 Figure 43: Front interface layout with cut corners...... 47 Figure 44: Washer tank, left corner position...... 47 Figure 45: Example truck specified with parts from concept selection two...... 48 Figure 46: Final concept...... 51

VIII List of tables

Table 1: Risk analysis...... 4 Table 2: Tasks of Planning and Concept development phase in original method...... 5 Table 3: Truck components divided into three categories, phase 1, phase 2 and phase 3...... 24 Table 4: Summary of product specification...... 25

X 1 Background Scania has provided heavy trucks for the transport industry for the last 120 years and during the last 15 years they have been involved in the mining industry. This worldwide mining industry, found in deserts to jungles and arctic settings, is known for its rough and harsh environment [1]. Scania is currently delivering manually driven trucks for the transportation of ore and waste in the mining industry. With the constant competition in the vehicle industry it is important to find new, more cost efficient, solutions to transportation. An autonomous vehicle has the potential to make the transportation more efficient since it does not require a driver. Hence the vehicle does not require any cab which enables a variety of chassis layouts rather different from the standard Scania trucks of today. The new degrees of freedom enable new, possibly more efficient and flexible, vehicle concepts that may increase profitability for the customer. It is thereby important for Scania to explore these possibilities and investigate how and to which extent they could include these vehicles in their portfolio. Scania has therefore employed five groups of master thesis students within the subjects; chassis layout, communication, sensors vision, sensor placement and lighting. The students will cooperate with the aim to develop a vehicle concept of an autonomous mine transportation vehicle.

2 2 Problem formulation

2.1 Project aim and goals The overall question, leading to this project, was how Scania should include driverless, cab- less, efficient and flexible autonomous vehicles with the existing Scania bygglada in mind. Where the bygglada is Scania’s modular system including all truck components with several performance steps. A suitable environment for developing autonomous trucks would be an enclosed and controlled area such as a mine. Accordingly, the projects main aim was to investigate how a chassis layout for an autonomous mining vehicle for transportation of ore and waste can be realized with Scania’s existing bygglada. The secondary aim was to give suggestions of modifications of existing components or new components that could be added to the bygglada for future concept development. The result will be supporting decisions regarding Scania’s future development of autonomous trucks within the mining industry. The project will also guide future concept development. The project goal was to develop a vehicle with better performance than the conventional solutions on the market today, such as higher availability, flexibility, lower environmental impact, greater personnel safety and be more profitable for the customer. The vehicle should also be able to equip different bodyworks.

2.2 Project delimitations The project was performed by two engineer students in 20 weeks, see Appendix A, during the spring of 2016. The chassis should be designed for the mining industry based on Scania’s bygglada. It should also originate from the current standard frame width, frame cross section and frame bend angle used by Scania today as well as the existing powertrain. These components are crucial to the modularity of Scania’s bygglada and have been a great investment. The concepts should be developed from the customer needs and applications identified in the pre-study ”Förstudie om autonoma fordon i gruvindustrin” by Alina Ekström and Josephine Sörensen [2]. As well as requirements from the other master thesis groups. The autonomous vehicle is intended to operate within demarcated and controlled areas, and not on public roads. However, future mining vehicles might operate in both areas and the possibility to drive on public roads is therefore advantageous.

2.3 Risk analysis In order to prevent unnecessary harm to the project a risk analysis was made, shown in Table 1 below. This analysis displays identified risks during the project. Prevention plans are stated in order to prevent the risks from occurring. There are also action plans if one of the risk were to occur. The possible damage is rated from 1-5, where 1 is a minor disturbance and 5 is a huge setback. The probability is also rated from 1-5, where 1 is very unlikely and 5 is very likely. The score is a product of damage multiplied with probability and ranges from 1-25, where anything above 10 is a risk that has to be solved. Our analysis shows that none of the risks are scored high enough to make changes in the approach or the problem formulation. However, if

3 a risk would have emerged during the project with a higher score than 10 it would have been solved to ensure that the project runs with as little risks as possible. Table 1: Risk analysis.

Risk Damage Probability Score Prevention plan Action plan Restore as much as Data loss 5 1 5 Keeping data on Scania network possible, rewrite

Missed deadlines 2 3 6 Continuous follow-up of GANTT Reschedule

Communication and Illness - Minor 1 3 3 - rescheduling Change of scope and Illness - Major 5 1 5 - goal, contact mentor Consult experts within Lack of competence 1 5 5 Literature study the area Lack of project Revise scope and goal, 4 2 8 Continuous follow-up of GANTT resources contact mentor

4 3 Approach The final concept was to be generated through a modified version of the general product design process described in “Product Design and Development” [3]. The process, shown in Figure 1, consist of six phases; Planning, Concept development, System level design, Detailed design, Testing and refinement and Production ramp-up. Since the project result, as specified in 2.1 Project aim and goals, should be a final concept only the two first phases of the design process will be used.

Concept System level Detailed Testing and Production Planing development design design refinement ramp-up

Figure 1: Scheme of general product development process. The two phases can be broken down in to four main areas; market, design, manufacturing and other functions according to Table 2.

Table 2: Tasks of Planning and Concept development phase in original method.

Planning Concept development Marketing  Articulate market opportunity.  Collect customer needs.  Define market segments.  Identify lead users.  Identify competitive products. Design  Consider product platform and  Investigate feasibility of product architecture. concepts.  Assess new technologies.  Develop industrial design concepts.  Build and test experimental prototypes.  Develop product architecture. Manufacturing  Identify production constrains.  Estimate manufacturing cost  Set supply chain strategy  Assess production feasibility. Other functions  Research: Demonstrate available  Finance: Facilitate economic analysis. technologies.  Legal: Investigate patent issues.  Finance: Provide planning goals.  General management: Allocate project resources.

5 Financial, legal and supply strategies are outside the scope of this project. Market opportunities and segments as well as customer needs has been identified in the pre-study “Förstudie om Autonoma Fordon I Gruvindustrin” [2]. Though both were considered as requiring further investigation, or at least confirmation since the pre-study was done in 2012. The market and customer demands might have changed during the past four years. The remaining tasks forms the design process and was ordered into six phases as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Final workflow. The first step in the project was to state a project scope and an initial plan of the project resources. The second step was then to understand and verify the customer needs, operating environment and conditions, demonstrate available technologies through benchmarking and document related technologies. A comparison between the potential of the autonomous vehicle and the conventional solutions could then be performed. This would give the possibility to find areas where the autonomous vehicle is competitive. Based on the identified situations, where the autonomous vehicle has an advantage, a requirement specification was created to define the vehicle. It is also against this specification that the vehicle was verified. The chassis layout was then developed during three phases, assessing different parts of the vehicle concept. The overall vehicle concept was developed through iteration and the different subsystems were chosen by narrowing down developed concepts through selection. The selections were done based on related literature and consultancy from experts at Scania. The final concept is the result of the overall layout concept and the concepts chosen for each subsystem. Suggestions on new components or changes to existing components were also made. In order to achieve the goal, the following questions were answered:  What are the customer needs regarding transportation of ore and waste?  How are conventional ore and waste transportation vehicles designed and used today?  What potential is there in autonomous mining vehicles?  What is required of the vehicle?  How is the set of requirements effecting the vehicle chassis layout?  How can the layout be optimized to the new circumstances?  What new components or modifications to existing components should be included in the chassis layout?  How is maximum customer value achieved?  What are the benefits of a new layout?

6 4 Market analysis The market analysis consists of three main sections. An overall description of the mining industry describing the different mine types and material flows. A definition of the operating area and identification of operating conditions addressed by the project. A benchmark of competitive solutions and solutions available at Scania. The benchmarking consisted of five main areas;  Common transportation concepts within the mining industry.  Components from Scania’s bygglada relevant for heavy-duty dump trucks.  Competitive solutions on specific problems and subsystems.  Scania’s autonomous trucks today.  Competitors’ development of autonomous trucks. The market analysis also identifies customer needs and relevant legal requirements. Finally, Scania’s position on the market and future market opportunities are discussed.

4.1 The mining industry The mining industry spans many countries all over the world such as South Africa, Russia, Australia, Ukraine, Guinea and Sweden. There are different mining strategies including several transportations of waste and ore in an environment that is harsh and dangerous for both workers and vehicles.

4.1.1 Mining strategies There are two main types of mines, open pit mines and underground mines. When choosing which type of mine to operate there are many factors to take into account; size, shape and depth of the deposit, rock conditions, productivity, and costs are a few examples. An open pit mine is commonly used when excavating a near surface deposit [4]. The ore is excavated by using horizontal benches to get deeper into the ground, see Figure 3.

Figure 3: Open pit mine [5].

7 Underground mining is used if the ore deposit is shaped in a way that isn’t beneficial for open- pit mining or if surface mining has gone deep enough that underground mining is the next logical step to keep production rates high and costs low [4]. A schematic of an underground mine can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Schematic of an underground mine [6]. The material flow in a mine vary depending on what is extracted, the mines location, if it is an open pit or underground mine as well as the strategies chosen by the mining company. An illustrated overview of the transports within a mine can be seen in Figure 5. In contrast to coal mining, ore mining requires pre-processing before shipment. In the pre-processing the ore is grinded into smaller stones. This creates one transportation from the mine to the grinder and one transportation from the grinder to a long distance transport. The long distance transport is usually a train or a ship. In a coal mine, on the other hand, the material can be transported directly from the pit to the long distance transport. Though if the distance is long, it might be beneficial to reload the material onto a long haulage truck once out of the mine.

Figure 5: Transportation solutions within the mining industry.

8 A typical material flow from an open pit mine extracting ore, is shown in Figure 6. The process in an underground mine is in principle the same, with the difference that the first transportations takes place in tunnels. The in-pit or underground transportation takes place between the loading of the blasted material to the unloading at the crusher. A second vehicle transportation moves the material to the long distance transport.

Figure 6: Open pit mine material flow [7].

4.1.2 Safety The mining industry is among the most dangerous industries in the world [8] and a common problem for all transportation solutions are accidents and deadly accidents in particular [9]. Manual systems are prone to human error and in an analysis of mining incidents, unsafe acts of the operator were associated with 81.9% of the accidents [10]. Manual systems also involve more personnel. An investigation on fatal dump truck accidents shows that truck drivers accounted for 36% of the deaths during 1992-2007 [11]. This indicates that many accidents and deaths can be avoided by introducing autonomous trucks.

9 4.2 Operating conditions This project addresses the first transportation in the mine, either over ground or underground, from loading of the blasted material to the pre-processing or reloading of the material. That is not outside the mining area and on no public roads. The transported material may vary from coal to waste and ore.

4.2.1 Environment As mentioned earlier, dump trucks in the mining industry are working in very harsh environment. The operating conditions are putting trucks to the test and the expected life span of a vehicle is about three and a half to four years [12]. The trucks have to withstand for example rough roads, mud and dust, ice and snow, rocks and stones, temperatures ranging from -50 to 50 degrees Celsius, different humidity and all types of weather [2]. Today most of the mines are located below 2000 meters in altitude with the exception of mines in Peru where they are located at an altitude above 4000 meters [13]. In addition, when operating in an underground mine, blast gases and the risks of cave in after blasts has to be considered.

4.2.2 Terrain The terrain in mines differ, open-pit mines usually have gradients from 10-16% and underground mines around 14-19%. The road conditions are very different depending on what kind of mine it is. Open-pit mines are ranging from rough, very rough to off-road conditions and are also affected by weather. A road can be washed away or turned into a mud puddle and the terrain can change from one hour to another. Underground mines have more constant road conditions and are not affected by the weather to the same extent. In underground mines, there are many narrow passages and the ceiling can be very low from just under 3 to about 4 meters [14].

4.2.3 Daily operation The average annual mileage for a mining dump truck is 60 000 – 210 000 kilometres, this mileage is covered in 6 000 – 7 000 hours. During this mileage there are continuous stops for loading, unloading and meeting of other vehicles and personnel in narrow passages. A mining- truck can do up to 200 runs in one day. The speed limit differs depending on country and the mining companies own policies. In India there is a speed limit of 40 km/h, in Brazil 45 km/h and in Indonesia 60 km/h. However, the average laden speed is usually 10-30 km/h within the mine [13].

10 4.2.4 Customer profitability To reach a high profitability it is important to understand the vehicle tasks. These can be divided into three main categories; value creating tasks, non-value creating tasks and necessary but non- value creating tasks. As illustrated in Figure 7, a mine hauling truck is value creating when laden and transporting to the unloading station. Two good examples of necessary but non-value creating work are refuelling and driving the truck unladen to the loading point. Examples of non-value creating tasks are queuing, driver breaks and changeover of drivers.

Figure 7: Value creation of mining transportation tasks.

4.3 Benchmarking

4.3.1 Transportation concepts The identified competition consists of manual or autonomous road and rail vehicles and automatic conveyor systems. The pre-study [2] states that the autonomous trucks have a good opportunity when either of the loading or unloading point, or both, are mobile. Since conveyors and rail vehicles don’t have the same flexibility as road vehicles, they are mainly a competition when transportation takes place between two fixed points, and are thereby not considered as a big competitor. Three main road vehicle categories were identified; rigid haul trucks, articulated mining haulers and dump trucks. Rigid haul trucks Rigid haul trucks, see Figure 8, has a payload ranging from about 30 tonnes to over 360 tonnes resulting in gross vehicle masses from about 60 tonnes to over 560 tonnes. The load is typically distributed on two axles holding a total of six wheels. They can be as high as 8 meters, with a maximum height of 16 meters while tipping, almost 10 meters wide and over 15 meters long. Compared to their height, they have a relatively short wheelbase resulting in an outer turning radius of about 20 meters for the largest trucks. The trucks normally have a combustion engine

11 but can also be equipped with a hybrid powertrain with an electrical motor. There are examples of rigid haul trucks with pantographs that attaches to overhead lines in steep inclinations or over longer stretches [15].

Figure 8: Rigid haul tuck [15]. The rigid haul trucks require broad roads and can have such a high payload that it takes even the larger excavators several batches to fill, resulting in idling time. On the other hand, the high payload allows one single driver to transport large amount of material but this is no longer an advantage when trucks are automated. When the haul truck needs maintenance up to 363 tonnes of payload capacity is standing still. The customer might need many extra tons in payload to be able to operate continuously. With high payloads there are a lot more requirements on the surroundings during both loading and unloading. The loaders have to be bigger in order to minimize the loading time and the ore crushers have to be able to handle a big load. With a wider vehicle the roads have to be a lot wider resulting in either a bigger pit or less depth of the mine. Both of these results in less profits. The vehicles are also very specialized and thereby requires many unique components. Articulated haulers The articulated haulers can be divided into two subgroups. Haulers for underground or over- ground use, (a) and (b) respectively in Figure 9. They carry about the same amount of payload from 20 tonnes to 60 tonnes and has similar gross vehicle mass on 40 tonnes to a bit over 100 tonnes and have about the same dimensions. On the over-ground vehicles, the load is typically distributed on three axles holding a total of six wheels. The underground vehicles on the other hand, often have two axels holding four wheels in total. Both the over and underground trucks are about 2 to 3 meters high and 5 to 6 meters high while tipping, where the over ground haulers are slightly higher than the underground haulers. The vehicles overall width spans from about 2.4 to 3.5 meters and the length is typically 9 to 11 meters [15] [16].

Figure 9: Articulated haulers, (a) underground use [16], (b) over-ground use [15].

12 Characterizing for underground haulers is the low profile, suited for the low roof in the tunnels, with the components placed up to the maximum height of the body. These vehicles outer shape is also optimized for tight corners, often having a chamfered front and rear minimizing both the outer and inner turning radius [15]. The joint just behind the cab and engine allows for rotation around all tree axis and give the trucks a tight outer turning radius of about 7 to 10 meters. The joint makes the vehicle well suited for rough and uneven terrain. The vehicle’s main drawback is that it is very specialized and thereby requires many unique components [15]. Dump trucks Dump trucks, see Figure 10, are typically basic trucks with a payload ranging from 15 to 70 tonnes and a gross vehicle mass from about 30 to 100 tonnes. A dump truck specified as a heavy-duty truck usually has multiple steering and driving axles to enable maximum load carrying capacity and payload. Trucks for use on public roads are limited by regulated dimensions which may vary between countries. The most common limits to the outer dimension are; width 2.55 meters, height 4 meters and length 12 meters. The unloading of the truck is usually performed by tilting the body over the rear end or sideways.

Figure 10: Scania dump truck [17]. The main advantage of trucks is their diversity and flexibility in both layout and usage. Trucks can relatively easy be built for different tasks, loads and operating conditions while taking advantage of cost reduction through larger volumes and common solutions. However, the diversity of trucks also mean that it never becomes truly specialized. The smaller size of trucks lowers the amount of unavailable load carrying capacity during down-time and allows for narrower benches in open-pit mines. This enables steeper and deeper pits which may result in higher profit by avoiding overburden and allow a bigger fraction of the ore body to be mined within the open-pit. A typical dump truck is also allowed to drive and transport material on public roads which could make reloading unnecessary and transportation more efficient. Autonomous transport solutions EU is recognising autonomous trucks as a future transport solution. EU Truck Platooning Challenge 2016 is an initiative from the Netherlands who holds the presidency of the Council of Europe of the European Union. The challenge is a cross boarder project with the truck

13 manufactures DAF Trucks, Daimler Trucks, Iveco, MAN Truck & Bus, Scania and Volvo Group. The goal is to bring political attention to autonomous driving in Europe and to accelerate the development of smart mobility [18]. DAF and TNO has presented what is called EcoTwin, see Figure 11. A concept where a second truck autonomously follows a first leading truck driven by a driver. DAF’s goal is to have a system on the roads commercially before the year 2020 [19].

Figure 11: EcoTwin platooning [20]. Mercedes are developing a truck for the year 2025, shown in Figure 12, with a high level of automation relieving the driver on highways. The system is called Highway Pilot and manage accelerating, braking and steering. The vehicle supports vehicle-to-vehicle communication allowing it to alert the driver of approaching emergency vehicles. It also notifies the driver on slow vehicles blocking the trucks lane. The system is a type of autopilot. The truck is equipped with rear cameras rather than mirrors and side mounted radars to cover the blind spot. However, Dr. Wolfgang Bernhard at Mercedes concludes that laws and regulations have to change and national lawmakers needs to take action for these vehicles to be able to drive on public roads [21] [22].

Figure 12: Mercedes-Benz 2025 highway pilot concept [23].

14 Komatsu is offering FrontRunner® Autonomous Haulage System, Figure 13. A system of haulage trucks that can start, navigate along routes, recognize other trucks and vehicles as well as load and unload autonomously. A central computer is keeping track of, controlling and analysing the trucks in real time. These vehicles are able to work long shifts and does not require the same amount of stops as a manually driven truck. The system has been implemented and is tested in mines in Australia [24] [25] [26].

Figure 13: Komatsu autonomous haulage system in Australia [27].

4.3.2 Scania bygglada A mining truck consists of many subsystems and a selection of components were considered relevant for the vehicle concept. These components include the air tanks, axles, batteries, bodies, brakes, cooling, electrical control units, framework, fuel tanks, pneumatic systems, power take- off units, powertrain, after-treatment and exhaust system, air intake, steering, storage, wheel suspension and wheels. Air inlet and outlet The air for the engine combustion is usually taken from the front or closer to the roof via a snorkel. The snorkel is common for heavy duty trucks and is used in order to get cleaner air with less dust. The snorkels can have different length and be fastened to either the cab or the chassis. The position of the exhaust pipe on the trucks also vary. Its outlet can be placed to the left hand side, right hand side, in the middle of the cassis or vertically behind the cab. A high exhaust pipe requires more space but, besides looking powerful, it keeps the outlet out of water and mud as well as avoiding stirring up dust. If the opening gets blocked the engine has to pump the exhaust against a higher pressure resulting in higher fuel consumption or lower power output. Swirling dust increases the need of maintenance hence by minimizing dust in the operating environment the maintenance cycle can be extended [14]. Axles There are many different kinds of wheel setups. The number of wheels on a Scania dump-truck usually varies from 6 to 16 on 3 to 5 axles. Axles can be either steering, driving, both steering and driving or simply supporting. An axle normally holds two or four wheels and can be arranged separately or together as bogies with typically two axles. Wheels can sometimes be raised in order to lower the rolling resistance during unladen operation or to increase traction by increasing the load on the driving axle. Heavy duty trucks normally have rear-wheel drive

15 or all-wheel drive. They normally steer with one or two axles in the front but may also have steering axles in the rear. Batteries Scania offers batteries in two different setups, single and double configuration which both offers several different battery capacities. The single configuration consists of two 12 V batteries in a group giving 24 V and the double configuration consists of two of these groups. The double configuration is used to ensure that at least one group of batteries is charged so that the truck can be started. Bodies Scania does not build any bodies, instead Scania’s trucks are built so that different bodies can be fitted. For mining applications, the body typically consists of a flatbed and a subframe. While the flatbed holds the material, the purpose of the subframe is to make sure that the bodywork has the right stiffness and flexibility. The subframe also provides an interface to the truck frame with enough clearance between the flatbed and the wheels and helps distributing the load on to the truck frame. There are several different unloading techniques and the most common is the possibility to tip the body in one or two directions. Bodies for mining applications on Scania trucks are usually rear or side tipping. Brakes Scania uses two main types of brakes, disc and drum brakes, which are powered by a pneumatic system. Drum brakes are robust and enclosed which makes them suitable for harsh environments. Scania also has two supporting brake systems; an exhaust braking system and the retarder. The exhaust brake is implemented in the exhaust pipe and works by creating a higher exhaust pressure resulting in a higher resistance for the engine. The system is more powerful at low speeds and high engine rpm. The retarder, developed by Scania, is a hydraulic system mounted on the gearbox and generates most braking power in high speed [28]. Cooling The cooling of the engine is critical to maintain a high efficiency and low emissions. On Scania trucks the cooler is solely positioned in the front. The cooling effect is highly dependent on the size of the cooler which needs to provide the required cooling power. This is usually achieved solely by the head wind but when the speed is too low a fan mounted on the engine behind the cooler helps to increase the airflow. Electrical control units Many components on the truck require control by electrical control units, ECUs. There are currently several ECUs mounted on the truck and the number depends on the truck configuration. With an autonomous vehicle it is likely that the number of ECUs will increase, even though some will be removed together with the cab. Framework The framework consists of different components, such as side members and crossmembers. Scania’s side members consist of U-profiles which allows torsion while having a high load carrying capacity. To increase the load carrying capacity a side member reinforcement can be used. The side members are bent to create a Y-shape which enables the engine with mounts and

16 gearbox to fit. The crossmembers consists of single plate U-profiles which connect the sidemembers. Fuel tanks The fuel tanks are made in different material and sizes. Diesel tanks are made out of aluminium or aluminized steel depending on the requirements on robustness, corrosion and weight. Scania has a cylindrical aluminium tank that is specially designed for harsh environments such as rough roads where there are much vibrations [28]. Horn The horn is used for signalling and is located in the front, lower left corner, of the truck. Pneumatic system The pneumatic system is crucial on a Scania truck. It provides power to the brakes and may power trailers, air suspensions and the vehicle body. The system includes a compressor mounted on the engine followed by an air dryer, a pressure regulator and several air pressure tanks. There are different air pressure tank sizes depending on their positions. The sizes range from 10 litres up to 36.5 litres per air tank. There are some restrictions regarding the placement of the tanks. The tanks must be placed within sufficient range from the brakes to reduce the delay and must hold a sufficient volume and pressure of air. An air suspended chassis must also carry extra volume of air for the air springs. A regular non-air suspended 8x4 has 50-60 litres of compressed air for the front axles and 80-105 litres for the rear axles [29]. Power take-off The vehicle can be equipped with different power take-off units, PTOs. Engine-driven, flywheel-driven, gearbox-driven and transfer driven power take-off units in case of all wheel drive. When choosing power take-off unit there are many parameters to take into account hence a dialog with the bodybuilder is necessary. Powertrain The main components of the powertrain are the engine, clutch, gearbox, propeller shafts, a transfer gearbox in case of driven front axles and optionally a hub reduction gear. Scania’s engines are world leading in performance and emissions. Heavy duty trucks are equipped with diesel engines that may be set up in a hybrid configuration even though there are no examples of that today among Scania’s mining trucks. In the hybrid configuration an electric motor is attached in between the engine and the gearbox, extending total length of the package. In fully automated Opticruise, providing automatic gearshifts, the clutch is operated by an electric actuator and therefore require no clutch pedal. The gearbox can also be equipped with an oil cooler. This is important if the engine often runs on high engine speed combined with low gear or if the PTO is used often. Automatic gearboxes are not produced by Scania but bought from suppliers. The automatic gearbox is especially good for trucks with many starts and stops. Hub reduction gears, also known as final planetary gears, provides extra torque which facilitates starting in inclinations and on poor road surfaces easier.

17 SCR-system Scania SCR (selective catalytic reduction) is an after-treatment system that minimises the nitrogen oxide (NOx) levels in the exhaust gases. This is done by injecting urea-based additives, AdBlue, into the exhaust gases which converts the nitrogen oxides into water and nitrogen. The injection of AdBlue is done by a nozzle inside the silencer which has many different sizes depending on engine power and emission class. There are also different sizes of the AdBlue tank, ranging from 47 to 124 litres. The AdBlue tank can be positioned on either side of or under the frame. Steering Front axles are steered by a draglink arm connected to the steering servo positioned in the front right or left hand corner. Storage boxes The storage boxes are frame mounted and used to store tools and components. They come in three sizes; 600 m, 620 mm and 1000 mm in length [30]. Washer tank The washer tank is located in the front left corner. It is currently being used to clean windscreens and headlights. Wheel suspension Depending on the vehicle application different wheel suspensions are used. The main two categories are air and leaf springs which can be used in different combinations. Air springs give good comfort regardless of the load and the possibility to raise and lower the vehicle chassis. Leaf springs are used when robustness and simplicity is important and the loads are heavy. Scania has two main types of leaf springs; parabolic and trapezoidal springs. Parabolic springs gives better comfort and has relatively low weight which allows for more payload. They also have a longer life time than trapezoidal springs. Trapezoidal springs can take high loads and does not require dampers but they are heavy and usually used when there are no restrictions on vehicle weight [28]. Wheels Almost all rims at Scania are tubeless. Rims in steel are more durable but heavier then rims in aluminium and are common in construction and mining vehicles [28]. Depending on the operating environment different tires are used and the most common tire for heavy-duty applications is a larger off-road tire.

4.3.3 Unconventional solutions There are examples of bodies that enable unloading via hatches underneath the body, pushing the load of the flatbed or unloading it with a rolling belt. These methods do not require the body to be tilted at all and can be effective in tight environments. There exist many different and some unconventional wheel setups. Bogies can have up to three axles and there are vehicles with up to 20 wheels on up to 5 axels, all-wheel drive and all-wheel steering. There are some examples of vehicles able to steer close to 90 degrees on the front axle and some have separate axles on each side making it possible to steer the wheels individually. Also some trucks and trailers are tracked rather than having wheels.

18 There are examples of electrified transportation solutions in mines where hybrid trucks are used. These trucks can also utilize pantographs for recharging during operation or extending the vehicle electric range. It is then advantageously to position the overhead wires in steeper slopes or long stretches where the road will not be rerouted for a longer period of time.

4.3.4 Scania autonomous trucks An autonomous mining vehicle must be able to detect other vehicles, pedestrians and objects as well as understanding and judging the terrain. The vehicle also has to be able to communicate with other vehicles and the control centre. To monitor the surroundings, the vehicle utilizes different sensors such as cameras and radars. The sensors complement each other by providing vision of different kinds of objects at different ranges from the trucks as well as giving some redundancy. The sensors require a protected environment, safe from water, rocks, mud and dirt. One of the biggest concerns, when it comes to blocked vision, is dense particles containing water such as wet snow or slush. The communication between vehicles and the communication central is performed via antennas. The antennas must be able to emit and receive signals all around the truck. The signalling antennas also require clearance against metal objects that otherwise would block the signal. Only minor changes in the chassis layout are mandatory to automate trucks. Sensors, antennas and light for vision and communication are needed to be able to navigate the truck as well as a positioning system to accurately determine the position of the truck. To be able to steer the truck autonomously an electrical steering actuator controlling the steering mechanism is required. Camera The camera has a broad field of view and generates a high resolution measurement but its range is limited. The camera has to sit behind a transparent and clean surface in a protected environment. The position of the camera highly influences its measurement. A lower camera can easier identify irregularities in the ground. The camera also benefits from sitting on a rigid part of the vehicle since it is dependent of knowing its exact position. On Scania’s autonomous trucks today, the camera is sitting behind the windscreen in the suspended cab which creates complications. Radar Radars are good at detecting hard surfaces reflecting its signal but not as effective on soft objects such as pedestrians. A radar is quite robust and does not require a very clean operating environment. Radars may also be covered by plastic housings without disruption of the signal.

4.3.5 Scania mining truck specifications Scania mining trucks are usually specified with 3 to 5 axles and four driven wheels. They have a load carrying capacity of 22 to 37 tonnes, loading 9 tonnes on a front axle, 18 tonnes on a rear axle and up to 14 tonnes on a tag axle. The vehicles are equipped with drum brakes, leaf springs and off-road wheels.

19 4.4 Customer needs The main function of a transportation vehicle is to hold and move material. In order to do this within a mine many other requirements occur. A full list of these requirements related to the chassis layout can be found in Appendix C. The vehicle has to be compatible with the loader and unloading stations. It also has to be able to work in different climate and weather, drive on rough terrain, level differences and varying road conditions. To navigate the mine, the vehicle also has to be able to take sharp turns and go around tight corners, see 4.2 Operating conditions. Due to the harsh environment the customer demands robust vehicles with lasting chassis and body [2]. Other important properties are simple, quick, gentle and secure loading and unloading. The truck should minimize operating cost, maintenance and idling time. It should also be able to operate continuously for long hours. The customer wants a flexible vehicle able to fit different bodies and able to transport different material. The safety of the personnel is of high priority within the industry. The truck should therefore lower the risk of accidents, and personnel also has to feel safe around the vehicles [2].

4.5 Legal requirements Vehicles in the mining industry does not need to follow the regulations of road vehicles since the area in which they operate is considered enclosed. The only regulations that the vehicles need to fulfil are the emission and work-related regulations in each country. Though the customer often demands that the vehicle fulfils the regulations of public roads. It is currently not possible to operate an autonomous vehicle on public roads as there are no laws or regulations allowing that. To enable an autonomous vehicle to operate on public roads it has to fulfil many of the requirements of a normal truck as well as the upcoming laws and regulations regarding autonomous vehicles.

4.6 Market opportunities Scania’s largest markets are currently located in Brazil, Indonesia, India, Peru, Chile, Russia, South Africa and Australia. Not all of these markets are suited for autonomous mining vehicles, at least not in all parts of the mine. However, there are customers that would buy autonomous trucks if Scania offered these today [14]. The majority of Scania’s sales in mining are for open-pit mining and there are only few examples of Scania trucks running in underground mines, mainly due to low roof clearances. If autonomous vehicles could solve this issue, there would be a new potential market in underground mining for Scania. The largest potential for trucks is found where the mine is not adapted for rigid haul trucks. That includes smaller mines, old reopened mines or mines about to open, where trucks can be sold as the transport solution from the start [12]. Scania is for example not selling in-pit trucks in Australia. It wouldn’t be possible to compete against the rigid haul trucks as the infrastructure and loaders are dimensioned for those vehicles. To resize the mine and adapt it to trucks would be too costly for the customer [14].

20 Autonomous vehicles make the mining process more cost efficient by removing the driver. This does not only save the cost of the salary but the mining company does not need to build infrastructure to the same extent. Today some mining companies have to build hospitals, apartments, airports and stores, as well as providing bus transportation only for their drivers. Fewer or no drivers would decrease the need of supporting infrastructure. The removal of the driver will also make more uptime available. There are several occasions where the driver cannot or should not operate. For example, due to toxic blast gases that occurs after a blast. These gases have to be ventilated before a driver can work at that location. Other occasions could be breaks or driver changes. Without the downtime caused by drivers there will be an increase of uptime and productivity. Another limiting factor for manually driven trucks is the need of driver recruitment and education. It is sometimes hard to find enough drivers when the mine is expanding. In some markets it is common that the drivers lack driving skills. Many of the drivers are not educated truck drivers and they may not even have a license for a regular car. This is especially problematic in India where the circulation of drivers is very high. Scania is therefore unable to keep up with driver education which normally is an important part of Scania’s business idea. An autonomous truck is programed for efficient driving which lowers wear and saves fuel while minimising risks for accidents. An autonomous truck fleet is also more predictable which enables better management and utilisation of the trucks [31].

22 5 Product requirements In order to state a distinct course and establish a strong foundation for the concept generation the product requirements were identified. This was done with a mission statement and a product specification. As a complement and to ensure that the problem is fully thought through, a function degradation was performed. The product functions and components as well as their correlation were identified.

5.1 Mission statement The course for the concept development is expressed by the mission statement. The mission statement guides the development process and help to ensure that the project is progressing in the right direction. The statement was based on the identified main requirements; autonomous, cab-less, safe, profitable, reliable and transportation of material for the mining industry. The statement says that the project mission is to develop: “Reliable, cab-less and autonomous vehicles. Designed to improve profitability and safety for transportation of materials within the mining industry.”

5.2 Function degradation In order to generate chassis layout concepts, it is important to understand what components that has to be considered and how they are related. Therefore, a function degradation was performed to subdivide the vehicle tasks and functions into solutions and required components. The main function to transport material gave rise to eleven subtasks, see Figure 14. Note that, in contrast to manually driven trucks, there is no need of any cab, door, entry, interior or driver interface which allows for many new chassis configurations. The complete function degradation can be found in Appendix B.

Figure 14: Function degradation including eleven different sub-categories. These subtasks require several components that were divided into three groups according to Table 3. These groups were to be processed during three phases respectively in the concept generation phase. Note that some components might be optional and there may be several

23 solutions to their task. Group 1 components are associated to the vehicle main attributes such as load carrying capacity, turning radius, length and width. Group 2 components, and the tasks giving rise to them, has a great impact on the chassis layout. Group 3 consists of components with unknown specifications and requirements which thereby requires further investigation. Table 3: Truck components divided into three categories, phase 1, phase 2 and phase 3.

Group 1 Axles Gearbox Clutch Suspension Crossmembers Transfer gearbox Electric motor Propeller shaft Engine Wheel brakes Frame Wheels Group 2 AdBlue tank Engine protective casing Air intake Fan Air tank Fuel tank Air processing system Horn Batteries Mudguard Body Silencer Bumper Steering system Cooling system Subframe Exhaust pipe Washer container Group 3 Antennas Sensors Electric computer units Side markings Head and rear lamps Retro-reflectors

24 5.3 Product specification The product specification is an important document that guides projects and establishes a solid foundation for the concept generation phase. The specification was created from the project description and the information acquired during the need finding and benchmarking process. It presents quantified requirements and requests as well as a ranking of their importance. It is also against this specification that the concepts were verified. In Table 4 below a summary of the requirements are shown and the full product specification is found in Appendix C.

Table 4: Summary of product specification.

Requirements and requests Description Requirements influenced by loaders. Such as loading height and Compatible with loaders load carrying capacity. Compatible with public roads Legal requirements. Drivable in environment Defines the accessibility of the vehicle. Easy to produce Body building and currently available components. Fit in underground mines Dimensions required by underground mines. High availability Describes requirements for maintenance. Human friendly Communication to nearby personnel. Legal Required laws and regulations have to be fulfilled. Move material How the vehicle is supposed to function within the mine. Involves maintaining or improving the productivity. Such as Productive engine power and range. Robust Requirements to sustain operation in the mining environment. Safe Safety requirements concerning both vehicle and personnel.

26 6 Concept design The final concept was generated through three phases addressing each of the component groups presented in Table 3 respectively. Each phase generated, evaluated and selected solutions for the specific parts and functions of each group, keeping the final function and layout in mind. The first phase, presented in 6.2 Wheel configuration and powertrain, generated overall concepts with focus on the frame, powertrain, suspension, axles and wheels. Concepts were generated as sketches and setups in Vehicle Optimizer, a program created by Scania to analyse parameters such as load distribution and turning radius. In the second phase, described in 6.4 Bodywork and main components, more detailed concepts were created through 3D-modelling in CATIA. The feasibility of the concept selected in phase 1 was also evaluated. The concept generation in phase 2 considered the components in group 2 in Table 3. The third phase, presented in 6.6 Finalizing, considered the areas for sensors, electronic control units, antennas, headlight placement and retroreflectors. The space for sensors and electronic control units was roughly described by interfaces in the CATIA model as research on the subjects was not completed. The phases were initiated by identifying related requirements and requests, limiting factors and possibilities to the addressed functions. The different possibilities were then combined into concepts which were narrowed down and carried over to the next phase. As an example, after each phase a basic concept was generated and two performance steps to the basic concept were created during the first phase.

6.1 Technical specification A technical specification is a document used by Scania to allow customers to configure their truck to fit their demands instead of only offering fixed models. The chassis layout concept is developed by altering existing components and creating new combinations within the technical specification. This as well as introducing new components expands the technical specification. Every concept generated from the specification does not have to fulfil both the underground and open pit requirements. However, the technical specification should be able to offer choices to fulfil both. In order to generate concepts a draft of a technical specification was created, see Appendix D. The document accounts for all considered solutions, contained in a matrix, and the combination of these solutions gives all possible concepts.

27 6.2 Wheel configuration and powertrain The first phase addresses a section of the truck including suspension, axles, powertrain, side members, crossmembers and wheels. The absolute majority of the trucks sold to the mining industry by Scania are basic trucks with three to five axles. Therefore, and due to time limitations, the project was narrowed down to only consider basic truck concepts with five or less axles. The generated concepts in Appendix E were analysed in Vehicle Optimizer. The application uses simplified models to estimate many parameters of which load distribution, total load carrying capacity and turning radius were evaluated. A Scania mining truck was used as reference. The truck was specified with the maximum load carrying capacity of 12 tonnes on each front axle and 42 tonnes over the bogie as shown in Figure 15. The truck was also specified with a front axle moved forward by 50 mm which enhances load distribution and allows further extension of the body as explained below. The result is a front axle distance of 1990 mm, a wheel base of 4350 mm and 1450 mm between the axels in the bogie. The frame overhang is 840 mm and the body extends 270 mm after the frame end. The overall vehicle length is 8450 mm.

Figure 15: Reference truck used in Vehicle Optimizer.

6.2.1 Considered attributes and solutions The related vehicle properties and requirements are length, width, load carrying capacity, turning radius, supported driving and tipping directions, fuel consumption and ground clearance. Whether the vehicle is drivable on public roads or not and to what extent the concept can be realized with Scania’s bygglada are also important properties. Load carrying capacity The load carrying capacity is highly dependent on a good load carrying distribution. On the reference truck and Scania’s mining trucks today, the centre of gravity when loaded is just in front of the bogie, see Figure 15. Hence the majority of the load is carried on the rear axles.

28 The absence of the cab saves almost a tonne on the front axles and enables space to carry more load. However, the density of the ore is greater than the weight per occupied volume ratio of the cab. This drives the centre of mass forward if the body was to be extended towards the front as shown in Figure 16. This results in poor load distribution which gives a lower load carrying capacity. The maximum load of the front axles is thereby a limiting factor. In order to address this issue several solutions were considered.

Figure 16: Cab-less truck with forward extended body. One approach is to increase the maximum technical load of the front axles. However, this is limited by the space under the engine, the steering mechanism and suspension. In discussion with the axle, suspension and wheel development departments, NAA and RTCB at Scania it was concluded that an increase to 14 tonnes maximum technical load is reasonable, see Figure 17. That is an increase of 2 tonnes per axle. This would require heavier front axles, stiffer suspension and more durable and probably larger tires. Larger tires could limit the maximum steering angle on the front most axle resulting in larger turning radius. Though this cannot be evaluated at this point since that would require more information.

Figure 17: Cab-less truck with stronger front axles. Another concept is to decrease total load on the front axles by also moving the second axle forward. Discussions with RTCB resulted in a limitation of a 450 mm decrease of the axle distance resulting in a distance of 1540 mm as shown in Figure 18. Note that the solution only supports a small forward extension of the body. In this example the load on the front axles is reduced by about a tonne but does not compensate fully for the forward shifted centre of mass.

Figure 18: Cab-less truck with shortened axle distances. The solution could be achieved by shortening the suspension, which also would make it stiffer, or with asymmetric suspensions, altering its configuration between the first and the second front axle. Though an asymmetric suspension will give rise to steering errors and discussions with RTCB resulted in a recommendation of the first alternative. The load distribution could also be shifted towards the bogie by centring it under the load. This could be achieved by extending the frame behind the bogie, see Figure 19. The greater rear overhang would relieve the front axles but increases the risk of tip over when unloading. The

30 solution would also increase the volume capacity of the truck. Though, the truck becomes increasingly sensitive with higher load density and a heavy duty truck should therefore have a small overhang, making this option unsuitable.

Figure 19: Cab-less truck with greater overhang. To allow the body to extend behind the bogie, without creating a large overhang over the last rear axle, a steering supporting axle could be added. It would then be beneficial to also centre the bogie by moving it forward, see Figure 20.

Figure 20: Extended, cab-less truck with support axle and centred bogie. However, the main limit is the maximum angle and angular speed of the steering mechanism for the supporting axle. None of the suggested solution above allow the whole cab to be replaced by heavy payload, that is extending the body all the way to the front for transportation of ore and stone. Instead the space could be used for mounting those components that today are mounted on the frame. The overall weight of these components are less than the heavy load. This would retain a lower load in the front of the truck and the centre of mass would remain

31 closer to the bogie. The solution might also simplify sensor placement, give greater ground clearance and allow for smaller axle distances, since less components require space on the frame between the wheels. The components would act as a counter weight when tipping the body, lowering the risk of tip over when unloading. Any new developed front axles positioned under the engine would be restricted by the available space, limiting the maximum load carrying capacity. A more futuristic concept would therefore be to extend the frame in front of the engine to enable stronger steering axles with dual wheels. The concept cannot be built in Vehicle Optimizer but Figure 21 illustrates the wheel configuration. The axles could possibly be placed in both the front and the rear resulting in a symmetric wheel configuration with optimal load distribution when the body covering the truck from the front to the rear. The axles should have a maximum technical load of 16.5 tonnes in order for the vehicle to maintain the load carrying capacity. The concept would result in a longer vehicle with a large wheel base which puts high demands on the frame and subframe.

Figure 21: Cab-less truck with front extended frame and steering axles. However, the concept requires many new components that add to Scania’s bygglada while only contributing to a small segment of trucks. This is contrary to Scania’s modular system and highly undesired. Though if it would be found that the axles could be utilized by other types of trucks or if autonomous mining trucks are sold in larger numbers than Scania’s mining trucks today, the concept might be beneficial. Safety Safety is critical in the mining industry and some changes could contribute to the overall safety. With a lowered centre of gravity, the risk for the truck to roll over would be less. With a heavy front and a long vehicle, compared to body length, the risk of tip over would also be lower. These two accident are usually caused by material not unloading properly and sticking to the flat bed. A truck that only drives in one direction is also safer since it is clearly visible to personnel in which direction the truck is driving. Turning radius The turning radius is mainly influenced by the steering angles and wheel base, at Scania measured as the distance between the first steering axle and the first rear driven axle. An effective way of decreasing the turning radius is to design a shorter truck. However, to keep the truck length a steering supporting axle could be added at the rear allowing the non-steered axles to move forward. Another solution could be to have steering axles in both ends and with non-steering axles, if any, positioned in the middle of the truck, Figure 21 shows an example. If the axles allow the same steering angles as the front axles enables today, the effective wheelbase would in theory

32 be halved. The turning radius would be drastically decreased compared to a truck with non- steering rear axles and could be as low as 8 meters. This could be achieved by making a symmetric vehicle with the Y-shape in each end, allowing the existing front axles to be mounted. Another way of decreasing the turning radius would be to enable larger steering angles. This can be achieved by increasing the track width and thereby increasing the distance between the wheel and the frame. This would also slightly increase truck stability. The solution would be effective on the first steering axle, where the space between the wheel and the frame is narrow. The disadvantage of the solution is that it would require new axles that would be illegal to drive on public roads. Driving directions The vehicle could possibly drive in two directions and due to the autonomous driving, the forward direction is arbitrary. Via a modification of the driveline and gearbox in particular, the truck could even go in both directions in full speed. The autonomous driving also allows for different steering. The truck could be front, rear or all wheel steered and even alter between these in different situations and driving directions. Though, in order to gain sufficient traction, the rear set of axles should be driven. This is especially important when the truck is loaded or going uphill. This gives that a rear wheel steered concept requires axles that are both steering and driving. It also implies that a concept with altering forward direction would benefit from an all-wheel drive configuration. Tipping directions Side tipping does not put any special demands on the truck since the load usually is distributed over several axles. In contrast, rear tipping tends to put a high pressure on the rear most set of wheels and single wheels tend to dig into the ground. Hence, dual wheels or extra wide tires are required on the end which the body tip about. A considered solution to that problem was to equip the truck with stabilizers that would support the single wheels when tipping over them. This might lengthen the unloading cycle time and can be hard to fit if equipped in the front of the truck. Though the unloading point for mine transportation trucks is in almost all cases known in advance. This brings that the position and orientation of the vehicle can be planned and adjusted to the unloading location. Hence there is no reason for a transportation vehicle to be able to tip in more than one direction. Important is only that the concept is compatible with bodyworks featuring either side tipping or tipping over one end. In the case of end-tipping it is beneficial to allow tipping over the rear end that is not over the engine, since that does not require any new components or solutions. Length and width The length of the truck is, in this phase, given by the length of the frame. However, the frame must have enough space for frame mounted components and axles. The frame must also not extend to far out on the end around which the body tip about, as discussed above. Another dimensioning factor is the length between the supporting points on frame from the suspension. Shorter axle distances and wheel base decreases the moment and stress experienced by the frame. The width of the truck, in this first phase, is given by the axles. Scania’s regular axles fit within 2500 mm which is the limit to be able to drive on all public roads. Scania also uses a special

33 rear supporting axle for mining applications that is 2600 mm wide. The axle is steering, has a dual wheel setup and a mechanism bypassing the suspension to support the increased load when tipping over the rear side. It is thereby assumed that the concept will be wider than 2500 mm if an axle with this functionality is used. Ground clearance The ground clearance is given by several measures. One is height of the axle, illustrated in Figure 22, which is limited by the wheel size.

Figure 22: Axle ground clearance. A second measure is given by the lowest height of non-wheel and non-axle components, as shown in Figure 23. The measure depends on the axle distances and height of the frame as well as size and position of frame mounted components.

Figure 23: Ground clearance of frame mounted components. Hence ground clearance increases with larger tires, higher or no frame mounted components and a suspension configuration raising the frame. Fuel consumption The fuel consumption per transported tonne payload is mainly influenced by the choice of powertrain. Hence the chassis layout may mainly influence the fuel economy by allowing different powertrains such as different engines and hybrid drives. A full-electric vehicle requires recharging, a slow process that cause much down-time. This is contrary to the industry’s demand on up-time and availability. Therefore, the full-electric vehicle was rejected.

34 6.3 First concept selection The first concept selection was performed by comparing the different solutions in a matrix, see Appendix F. The first stage of the comparison was made by ensuring that each concept fulfilled all related requirements. The second stage was based on a reference system. Where one of the concepts which had the potential to fulfil all of the requests was set as a reference, with a score of 3 in each criteria. All other concepts were scored against this reference, where 1 was the lowest score and 5 was the highest. Each criteria score was multiplied with the weight percentage of the corresponding request, where the weight percentage is based on how important the request is. This gave a weighted score that was summed up to achieve a total score for the concept. The top three concepts were then chosen for further evaluation. During this evaluation a basic concept and two corresponding performance steps were selected. A 3D mock-up of the basic concept was created in CATIA. An evaluation of the clearance between the gearbox and the second front axle showed that the minimum allowed axel distance between the front axles was 1640 millimetres. This to be able to remove the gearbox from beneath the truck. The suggested axle distance of 1540 millimetres was thereby rejected and changed to 1640 millimetres. The winning basic concept is evolved from a Scania 8x4 basic tipper. The technical specification was then updated to include solely the required solutions. New features to Scania are stronger front axles with 14 tonnes maximum technical load and the smaller front axle distance. The new front axle concepts require shorter and stiffer leaf springs and more durable tires dimensioned to fit within 1640 millimetres and to be able to withstand the 14 tonnes of nominal load. Also the axles, steering, frame and subframe requires dimensioning for the heavier load.

6.3.1 Basic concept The concept example is one of the most basic models generated from the technical specification with two steering axles in the front and a bogie in the rear, see Figure 24.

1031 1640 2510 1450 840

Figure 24: Wheel configuration and suspensions.

Performance The concept, together with the available performance steps, fulfils all related requirements and four out of six requests. The supported gross vehicle mass is 70 tonnes, the outer track radius was estimated to just under 10 m and the frame has a length of 7471 mm. The length of the frame enables bodies long enough, to keep the vehicle overall height under 2.8 m while holding enough volume to carry the available payload. The layout concept allows rear, front and all- wheel drive configurations as well as two-way driving in full speed. The concept is also

35 compatible with the highest, at Scania today available, frame configuration which enables a high ground clearance.

6.3.2 Performance steps If higher load carrying capacity is requested, it could be achieved with an extra axle. For this, two concepts were considered. To maintain the manoeuvrability and turning radius the extra axle should be added as a steered supporting axle behind the bogie, keeping the wheelbase of 4150 mm unchanged, see Figure 25. This would increase the load carrying capacity by 14 tonnes. The solution is currently used in Scania’s 10x4*6 trucks in mining applications but have experienced some complications. The axle also makes the truck illegal to drive on public roads.

1031 1640 2510 1450 1350 840

Figure 25: First suggestion of performance step. To maintain the vehicle width, the extra axle should be added as a third steered front axle, see Figure 26. This would increase the load carrying capacity by 9 tonnes. To ensure that the axle is not overloaded a smart air suspension would be used though this limits the maximum technical load. This solution also increases the wheelbase to 5300 mm resulting in a kerb radius of about 12 m corresponding to an increase of 2300 mm turning radius.

1031 1640 1540 2120 1450 840

Figure 26: Second suggestion of performance step. If several full speed-driving directions are requested the concepts could be equipped with a special powertrain designed for this task. An all-wheel drive configuration would then be preferred which is achieved via a transfer gearbox between the last front axle and the first rear axle. Note that while driving with the bogie in front the vehicle will be rear wheel steered.

36 6.4 Bodywork and main components The second phase addresses the bodywork, bumper, air tanks, air intake, exhaust treatment and outlet, AdBlue tank, cooling system, steering systems, fuel tanks, batteries, mudguards, washer tank, horn, air processing unit and the engine protective cover. This section of the truck is related to all vehicle requirements and requests, found in Appendix C. Considered components and solutions Bodywork and unloading techniques The main function of the body work is to hold and unload material. A method to unload material without tipping is to push the load of the body with a piston, see Figure 27 or rolling belt.

Figure 27: Piston unloading material [32]. This method does not create the instability that might occur when tipping and the vehicle does not require extra roof clearance in underground mines. There are also examples of where hydraulic tipping is not needed. Instead the whole truck is tipped by an external mechanism, see Figure 28. However, the solutions are not commonly used and experience at Scania concludes that the system causes increased maintenance and down-time.

Figure 28: Tipping the whole truck [33]. The solution to tip the body is more reliable. Compare to non-tipping solutions in underground applications, it has proved to be more cost efficient to create extra roof clearance at the unloading locations.

37 Rear tipping is generally more robust, simple and less costly than side tipping. Though side tipping is safer and quicker and requires less roof clearance. In order to enable both strategies the body must have sufficient clearance to the surrounding components both to the rear and the sides. It is important that the body volume matches the load carrying capacity so that the maximum possible pay load can be utilized while the truck is still not easily overloaded. Though the density of the load is varying greatly. The minimum volume is thereby given by an approximated average load density of mixed stone and ore of 2100-2600 kg/m3 [34]. To increase or decrees the volume capacity for a given flatbed length, the body height or with can be adjusted. These variations already exist on the market today. However, broadening the flatbed makes the vehicle illegal to drive on public roads. It is also important that the frame can withstand the stresses from the extra load and shifted load distribution. This could be ensured by extending the subframe forward, a solution that is allowed by the absence of the cab. The extra length would reduce stresses on the main frame and could help support the extra load shifted towards the front. Another possibility would be to strengthen the regular frame and body while removing the subframe. This would be beneficial to get into underground mines as it would decrease the overall height. A secondary function of the body is to protect the truck from falling rocks and dirt. The body therefore often has a falling object protection system, FOPS, covering the cab. On a cab-less truck the FOPS could cover sensitive components mounted in the front as well as the engine. The FOPS often cover the cab and has a small inclination that prevents rocks from falling in front of the vehicle, see Figure 29.

Figure 29: Falling object protection system [35]. However, the bodywork has the main influence on the vehicle overall height, which increases with the FOPS. This could become limiting to the trucks ability to enter underground mines. A body work for underground applications, with low clearance to the roof, would thereby preferably have a FOPS without inclination or no FOPS at all. A removal of the FOPS would greatly reduce the maximum height when tipping over the truck end.

38 Air intake The performance of the high air intake, HAI, and its filter will be the same even if relocated as long as it is kept high. This allows for the intake to be moved forward, kept on the right side of the truck, into the space normally occupied by the cab as shown in Figure 30. The forward position of the intake allows for a longer body which enables a greater volume and payload. As well as shorter piping as the inlet to the engine is positioned right next to the HAI. The solution would require new brackets and a new outlet, after the filter, adapted to a position in level with the inlet of the turbocharger.

Figure 30: High air intake, forward position. If a chamfered front is used, as discussed under Truck front below, the air intake could be slightly angled in order to align with the truck front, as shown in Figure 31.

Figure 31: High air intake, angled forward position.

39 Exhaust and silencer In case the vehicle is specified with a shortened front axle distance, the existing silencer positions are no longer feasible. A solution is then to use a modification of the existing rear position on 4626 mm of the silencer, moving it forward by 450 mm, resulting in position a) in Figure 32. The solution only requires minor changes of the pipes and utilizes thereby Scania’s existing bygglada to a high extent.

Figure 32: Silencer positions, illustrated by large silencers. Another concept is to place the silencer where the cab used to be, either over the first front wheel or the engine, position b) and c) in Figure 32. The current position of the silencer as well as position a) is exposed to falling rocks and wheel loaders loading the truck. The altered positions also allow for higher ground clearance and greater robustness as the component is less exposed. The silencer could also be rotated in position b) and c) to gain a low inlet pointing downwards and a high outlet pointing upwards. The solution would result in very short exhaust pipes both to the inlet and from the outlet of the silencer while providing vertical exhaust. The rotation would require minor changes of the silencer such as replacement of sensors and new supports. In comparison to position b), position c) shifts the carried payload and moves the centre of mass slightly towards the rear which enhance load distribution. However, it uses more spaces in the front that could be needed for sensors, ECUs and headlights. The close proximity to sensors and ECUs would also require heat covers for isolation between these components and the silencer. The position also complicates the design of brackets as it would have to be supported by both sidemembers, creating complications when the sidemembers move relative to each other. It would also slightly complicate the removal of the engine cover and thereby maintenance. The exhaust system is quite flexible. It is relatively easy to reroute and the exhausts could even be led through the body. If a close cooperation with the body builders or if the body can be strictly specified, the body could be used as the only exhaust outlet eliminating the need of a vertical exhaust. The body could also be specified to allow both heating and non-heating of the freight and still lead the exhausts through the body. Whether the body is heated or not is especially important when transporting material in very cold conditions where the freight might stick to the body due to refreezing water, melted by the body heater.

40 Fuel and AdBlue tanks Mining trucks are today refuelled during driver change, something that does not take place with an autonomous vehicle. This gives the opportunity to operate continuously for a whole shift, 22 hours, if the truck can carry enough fuel. Though the fuel is heavy. A Scania truck today carries typically 200 to 400 litre of diesel and refuels one or two times a day. The weight of the filled fuel tanks is about 225 to 450 kilograms. The necessary time to refuel varies but, if refuelled by a fuel truck, it can be done within ten minutes. In order to operate a whole 22 hour shift without refuelling, the truck would have to carry about three times the amount of fuel, that is 600 to 1200 litres corresponding to 675 and 1350 kg. This would reduce the load carrying capacity by 450 to 900 kilograms and thereby the productivity by 0.9 % to 1.8 %, given a payload of 50 tonnes. The saved time for not refuelling twice a day saving six to ten minutes each time, the up-time would be increased by about 0.95 % to 1.5 %, assuming operation during 22 hours per day. This indicates that the impact on increasing the fuel capacity to avoid refuelling, might be small and not certainly positive. However, a more thorough analysis would be needed for each case and customer. The stop for refuelling could also allow for the vehicle to be cleaned and a quick inspection of the vehicle to be carried out. This might ease maintenance and prevent unplanned disruption. The position and type of fuel tanks should ease refuelling while maintaining a high ground clearance and robustness. Placing the fuel tanks in the old cab space would enable the greatest ground clearance but would also complicate refuelling. If the regular position on the frame is used, the G tanks should be chosen for maximum ground clearance. The short wheelbase of 4150 mm in combination with the tighter front axle distance allows for 200 and 300 litre G- tanks, as shown in Figure 33 and Figure 34. That is a maximum of 600 litres on the frame if dedicating all available space on the frame to the fuel.

Figure 33: 200 G Fuel tanks right and left hand position.

Figure 34: 300 G Fuel tank left hand position. Scania’s Euro 5 and 6 engines allow the AdBlue tank to be placed anywhere on the chassis. But if the tank is used together with a euro 4 engine the AdBlue-pump cannot be placed above the injection to the silencer as it will disturb the ratio between exhausts and AdBlue. However, the Euro 3 engines do not use any AdBlue. The maximum amount of fuel and AdBlue held by the truck should be in such proportion so that they are depleted and require refilling at the same time. As an example, an AdBlue tank with a nominal volume of 47, 80 or 105 litre is enough for 650, 1250 or 1600 litres of diesel respectively. Ongoing development will also allow a combination of up to two tanks. For ground clearance one or two 500 S, 47 litre tanks are preferably chosen due to its small size and high position on the frame. The considered positions are shown in Figure 35. Another solution would be to place the AdBlue tank in the front in the previous cab space. This would free more space on the frame, reduce the amount of tubing and result in greater robustness. Though refilling of the tank would most likely be more difficult since the tank would be positioned higher above the ground. Another special installation could be to place the tank in the lower right corner. This space is unoccupied in a heavy duty mining vehicle since it is the position of the air inlet filter for the frontal air intake. Mining vehicles are preferably specified with a high air intake.

Figure 35: AdBlue tank positions.

42 Air tanks The air tanks hold 10 to 36.5 litre of pressurised air and there are several available mounting positions, resulting in many possible combinations and available solutions. Some pressure tank positions are suitable for both rear and front axle brakes while some positions only are suitable for either of them. At least one of the tanks should be positioned close to the brakes in order to prevent delay while braking. The front axle air tanks, shown in Figure 36, should hold 50-60 litres and would typically consist of two 30 litres air tanks. The most suitable positions would be above either front wheel or in the triangular space between the mudguards.

Figure 36: Front axel air tanks positiones. The rear axle air tanks, shown in Figure 37, holds 80-105 litres of pressurised air, normally divided on several 15 or 30 litres tanks. Suitable positions are both on the outside and inside of the frame. Though tanks mounted on the inside are less vulnerable and leaves space for other frame mounted components.

Figure 37: Rear axle air tanks positiones. One solution to gain 105 litres of air would be to mount two 30 litres air tanks on top of each other on the outside of the frame and three 15 litres tanks in between the frame side members. The two 30 litres tanks could also be replaced with one 30 litres air tank on each side, in the triangular area between the front axle mudguards. Another option is to place one 30 litres air

43 tank in the triangular area between the front axle mudguards and have one of the 15 litres tanks mounted inside the frame. Air Processing System The air processing unit, APS, has not been repositioned, see Figure 38. The size of the APS is determined by how much compressed air is used by the truck. If the compressed air will be used to clean the sensors as well as braking the vehicle, another dryer will probably be needed. This would increase the APS size. With an increased size the layout may be changed as two dryers does not fit with the XL wheel house.

Figure 38: Air processing system, left corner position.

Horn The universal way of signalling that the vehicle is ready for loading or notice someone of the vehicle approaching is to sound the horn. As the wheel loaders will be driven by workers and other humans will work around these trucks the component is kept even in the autonomous concept, see Figure 39. With the cut corners in the front the horn must be repositioned, however it is still positioned in the front left corner.

Figure 39: Horn, repositioned left corner.

44 Steering system In contrast to trucks steered by a driver, the absence of the steering wheel and steering wheel shaft enables the steering servo to be placed on either side of the truck, disregarding left or right hand traffic, as shown in Figure 40. This could enable more optimal and compact packaging of components in the vehicle front. Dump trucks in mining applications does not utilize the frontal air intake, FAI. This leaves a great amount of space in the right front corner of the vehicle where the FAI filter otherwise is positioned. A suggested layout concept would thereby be to use the right hand side position of the steering mechanism, design for left hand traffic.

Figure 40: Steering servo left and right hand positon. The steering could either use hydraulic or electric servo steering. The hydraulic system is used in the trucks today and the electric system is under development. The hydraulic system is controlled by an electric motor which acts as the driver input. The main advantage of the electric system is that it can operate when the engine is shut off and that it is more robust since it does not use a hydraulic system. As the steering wheel shaft to the cab is removed it is possible to relocate the steering mechanism. This enables more optimum positioning relative the suspension which could result in a decrease of steering errors. Engine protective casing The cab, on regular trucks, work as an engine protective casing and a noise reducer. Since the cab is removed a new casing should be developed. With an engine protective casing it is possible to lead the generated heat from the engine away from the silencer, which would greatly improve its working condition. The new concept could originate from the existing floor of the R- or S-cab, as shown in Figure 41, depending on the space requirements of the cooler in the front. To avoid unnecessary tilting or removal of components during maintenance the casing should cover solely the engine and be possible to remove or tilt without dismounting components mounted above the front wheels.

Figure 41: Engine cover from R-cab floor.

Cooling system With the driver removed there are possibilities to improve the current cooling of the engine compared to Scania’s mining trucks today. This could be achieved by installing the biggest cooler available, seen in Figure 42, or even develop a larger cooler.

Figure 42: Large engine cooler. The increased payload will most likely demand more cooling, which could be solved with the biggest fan currently available. According to experts at RTGR, the cooling system should be able to support driving in two directions if the truck is equipped with the biggest cooler and fan available. If needed it would also be possible to develop new side mounted coolers to further enhance the cooling for multi-directional driving.

46 Truck front The truck does no longer need the boarding steps to the cab which allow the outer turning radius to be improved by cutting the corners of the front and bumper as shown in Figure 43. This would require either a relocation or redesign of the head lamp installation. The opportunity seems feasible and promising but requires further investigation.

Figure 43: Front interface layout with cut corners.

Washer tank Even though the driver is removed there is still a need for a washer tank, see Figure 44. There are sensors that will need a clear protective screen. Depending on how often the protective screen in front of the sensors have to be cleaned and how much washer fluid it requires the size of the tank can vary.

Figure 44: Washer tank, left corner position.

47 6.5 Second concept selection The second concept selection was performed as a selection and combination of several partial concepts. An example of a truck, based on a basic 8x4 from concept selection one, featuring the parts from the second concept selection is shown in Figure 45. The concept supports both side and rear tipping bodies. The forward angled position of the high air intake was suggested as well as position c) in Figure 32 of the silencer. The concept was equipped with two 200 G tanks holding a total of 400 litres of fuel and the AdBlue tank was positioned on the outside of the frame on the right hand side behind the fuel tank. The air pressure tanks for the front axles were positioned over the front wheel on the left hand side together with the batteries. The rear pressure tanks were positioned both within and on the outside of the frame behind the fuel tank on the left hand side. The air processing unit, horn, washer tank and steering servo was kept in their original positions in the left front corner. The engine was covered by the floor from an R- cab and the corresponding cooler was used. Finally, an approximate model for a front with cut corners was added. In order to ease maintenance, the concept was also equipped with boarding steps between the front mudguards as well as a catwalk on top of the subframe.

Figure 45: Example truck specified with parts from concept selection two. The concept requires development of new brackets and variations on some existing components as well as and mudguards for the second axle. The body building interface should be updated to allow the flatbed and the subframe to extend further forward. The extended subframe would support the increased load on the frame and front axles.

48 6.6 Finalizing During this phase the focus was on assuring that there is enough space for sensors, antennas and headlamps as well as electronic control units. This was done through discussions with experts and employees within the different areas. The overall aim was to keep antennas and sensors mounted on the chassis as it would be more complicated to integrate them into the truck body since Scania does not build these. Antennas The vehicle to vehicle communication will be done by a combination of patch antennas and dipole antennas. The placement of the antennas is currently being investigated but the discussions held has concluded that there shouldn’t be any conflict between the current chassis layout and the requirement of the sensors. Electrical control units To make the system more robust the electronic control units have been placed in a protective casing in the front. The aim is to keep their working environment stationary with a certain temperature and moisture to assure that they will work during the vehicles lifetime. Headlamps With the cut corners it's no longer possible to have the headlamps in the same position without altering them. This together with the removal of the driver and absence of legal requirements enables the option for different placements and configurations. When the driver is removed it is possible that the lighting will be optimised for the cameras instead. One suggestion is to put the headlamps next to the sensors to get a better illumination for the sensors as this would minimise shadows. Retro-reflectors There will be people working around the autonomous vehicles, but to which extent is not clear. Therefore, further investigation on safety measures have to be conducted. The placement of retro-reflectors will depend on the need of visibility and placement of position lighting. Sensors There would be no space complications if the vehicle would use the current configuration of sensors. The current configuration is a combination of cameras and radars providing a 360- degree vision. If additional sensors would be needed or some sensors would have to change position, there is several available positions in the front of the truck. This configuration is suitable when the vehicle is driving in one direction. To drive in two directions, both forward and backward, two fronts would be needed. The current rear positions for sensors is not high enough for the road surface assessment. With two fronts only side tipping is possible and the benefits of two-way driving does not outweigh the benefits from being compatible with rear tipping flatbeds in terms of flexibility and productivity.

50 7 Final concept As stated in 4.6 Market opportunities there are many advantages with an autonomous vehicle. With the presented final concept, see Figure 46, additional advantages can be achieved by a more optimized chassis layout. The performance of the concept as well as benefits and drawbacks are described below.

Figure 46: Final concept.

Enhanced cooling capacity As the cab is removed, the truck can be specified with a larger cooler. It is even possible to develop bigger coolers to further enhance the cooling capacity. This is especially important since the concept increases the load carrying capacity and thereby the powertrain and engine load. Greater ground clearance The combination of larger tires, smaller and higher positioned frame mounted components as well a shorter wheelbase results in high ground clearance, greater then Scania’s mining trucks today. This increases flexibility and ensures production even under bad road conditions. Greater range The concept is able to carry more fuel than Scania’s mining trucks of the same size today. This gives the possibility to reduce the need of refuelling which might raise up-time for some customers and result in higher productivity and profitability. Higher payload to weight ratio With the cab removed and an overall shorter vehicle the vehicle weight is reduced. This increases the payload to vehicle weight ratio which in turn decreases fuel consumption per transported tonne, increases profitability and lowers environmental impact. Increased payload The development of stronger front axles and the new chassis layout results in an increase of about 5 tonnes, around 10 %, payload compared to an 8x4 truck with maximum loaded axles. This increases the productivity and profitability for the customer.

51 More robust component placement Those components that today are mounted on the frame but in the final concept are placed above the frame in the truck front has a lowered risk of being damaged. The risk of components being hit by wheel loaders when the truck is loaded or damaged by stones lying on the road is decreased. This in combination with the higher ground clearance results in more robust component placement which could extend the maintenance cycle. Optimized air in and outlet position With the new position and orientation of the high air intake, HAI, and silencer there will be much less piping. The in- and outlet of the engine is next to the HAI and silencer respectively. The silencer will also be less affected by the heat radiated from the engine which results in better operating condition for the silencer. Public roads The concept follows the same restrictions to the outer dimensions as Scania’s manual trucks on the field today. This makes implementation of the concept where trucks are already present easier as well as allowing the vehicle to be transported on public roads and simplifies transportation between mining sites. It also enables further development of the concept for long distance transportations on public roads and not only within the mine, once the legal requirements regarding autonomous vehicles are in place. Underground and open-pit compatibility The same vehicle can be used in both underground and open-pit mines. The vehicle height is about 2760 millimetres which is enough to enter underground mines with the lowest roof clearance today. The only component that decides the vehicle height over 2.8 meters is the body. By choosing the appropriate body the vehicle is able to operate in all mines. This could open a new segment of the mining industry and expand Scania’s available market. Simplified maintenance Maintenance is eased by removal of the cab and by adding a catwalk on the subframe which provides easy access to the chassis front. While fuel and AdBlue tanks are positioned for easy access, the silencer and batteries are positioned to gain robustness which reduces the risk of failure. The high utilization of Scania’s existing bygglada also favours maintenance since much of the customer’s knowledge about Scania’s trucks is valid also for this autonomous solution. Smaller turning radius With a shorter wheelbase and cut front corners, the turning radius was decreased with about 0.6 meters corresponding to a 6 % reduction. With smaller turning radius it is easier to manoeuvre on narrow roads and in tight underground mine tunnels which allows the customer to save money by keeping roads and tunnels smaller. Suitable for different applications The final concept is not constrained to hauling applications. The body is the main deciding factor on what application the vehicle will be applied to. The vehicles could be used in both open pit and underground mines for transportation of ore and waste, of personnel and equipment or as a water tank truck and much more. Tip stability The removal of the cab and shortening of the truck decreases the truck weight, especially in the front, which increases the risk of tip over when unloading over the rear end. The tip cylinder

52 must be placed under rather than in front of the flat bed which further decreases stability. Though it usually results in faster unloading. Utilization of Scania’s bygglada The concept utilizes the bygglada to a high extent as most components are carried over from the manual trucks of today. This reduces the time for development and lowers the cost of the vehicle.

54 8 Suggestions on new parts and modifications To be able to produce this concept, some components would have to be modified or added. The modifications are described in summary here and individually in detail below. The concept requires development of new brackets for those components moved from their standard positions. It also requires a new variation of the silencer adapted to the new rotation. The exhaust pipes have to be rerouted and a new air outlet from the high air intake filter is needed. The concept also requires a new truck front including redesign of external panels and reconsideration of headlight positioning. Mudguards compatible with XL-wheels for the second front axle should be developed in order to protect sensors from dirt and a cover for the engine must also be developed. To utilize the available volume over the engine and front axles the body building interface has to be redefined. The concept could also benefit from a new higher mount for air tanks on the outer side of the frame in order to gain maximum ground clearance though it is not mandatory. Whether the higher mount, which adds variations to the bygglada, would be profitable is subject for further investigation. Air inlet and exhaust The new silencers position requires the exhaust pipes to be rerouted. The piping is dependent on the chosen solution, such as vertical exhaust or exhaust through the body. A new air outlet from the high air intake filter is also needed in order to fit the new position. Bodybuilding interface The new layout enables more space for the body and a new body builder interface must be established. The different possible specifications of the concept create variations of the interface. The most influencing variations are engine and silencer type. A Euro 6, V8 engine and silencer enables least space while a Euro 3 or less with a 13 litres engine or smaller gives most space for the body. Brackets New brackets must be developed for those components that has been moved from their standard positions of today. That is high air intake, silencer, front axle air tanks and batteries. Engine protective casing With the removal of the cab there is still a need for protection of the engine. As well as heat and noise protection from the engine towards other components. The cover could originate from the engine tunnel on the cab which has these functions and features. Front With the cut corners a new front has to be developed. The new sensor, electronic control unit, antenna and headlight placement should be taken into account when designing the front as well as their climate and cleaning systems. Front wheel suspension A new front wheel suspension, including leaf springs, axles, tires and steering mechanism, that has a maximum technical load of 14 tonnes has to be developed. The suspension and tires must also fit within 1640 millimetres axle distance.

55 Mudguards To protect the sensors from dirt, mudguards for XL-wheels on second front axle are needed. Though these could be built by the bodybuilder if Scania does not develop them. Silencer The new orientation of the silencer, and rotated 180 degrees around its Y-axis, requires a variant. The new version includes altered sensor positions to ensure the right dosage of AdBlue into the exhaust.

56 9 Discussion and conclusions The project shows that Scania has the potential to develop a driverless and cables autonomous truck for the mining industry with a few modifications of the bygglada. The suggested concept would have better overall performance and in particular higher availability, higher flexabillity, lower environmental impact and greater personnel safety while providing higher profitability for the customer compared to the conventional solutions on the market today. However, the suggested changes to the bygglada are based on what experts at each department at Scania believe is possible. Thereby, to confirm that the concept is feasible further research and development is required. In order to be able to develop a concept for a whole autonomous truck within the project limits some assumptions and delimitations were made. Basic trucks or tractors To limit the scope in the beginning of the project a sales analysis was performed. This showed that the basic trucks accounts for the majority of the trucks sold for transportation within the mining industry. With this analysis in mind tractors and trailers were ignored. These type of trucks are currently being sold and are operating within the mining industry. A chassis layout for autonomous tractors would be subject for further investigation. Cabling and piping During the project some knowledge about cabling and piping has been acquired. However, the layout is not very dependent of these at this stage of the concept. Although the design minimizes the piping by placing components as close to the source as possible. Many of the cables that are routed to the cab are removed as they are for the driver. Even though there are more electronic control units with autonomous driving it will most likely be a lesser or equal amount of cables. Calculations In order to be able to create a layout for a whole truck an overall knowledge was achieved. However, there was no time for calculations on specific components as to evaluate how they would be affected by the suggested changes. Instead an overall calculation of load distribution was performed with Vehicle Optimizer and the feasibility of the suggested concepts was instead assessed through discussions with experts on the different areas. In order to simulate a cab-less truck in Vehicle Optimizer some estimations had to be done since the programme is limited to chassis layouts including a cab. However, loads can be added or subtracted directly to the front and rear axles respectively. The chassis concepts were thereby specified with the smallest cab with an estimated weight of about 900 kg. The front axle load was then compensated by a subtraction of 900 kg. However, the cab’s centre of gravity is not located over the middle of the front axles. This creates a lever arm from the cabs centre of mass to the front axle’s centre. The lever arm contributes towards an over estimate of the front axle load and underestimated rear axle load. That is, the front axles might be relived more than 900 kg and the rear axles might experience an increased load which has not been taken into account. On the other hand, not the whole cab is removed since some modified parts of the front are kept. This gives that the weight of the removed components might be less than 900 kg and contributes to an underestimate of the front axle load. These two errors partially cancel each other, resulting in a smaller total error.

57 Vehicle Optimizer does also not allow the user to specify a body that extends further forward then the cab. In order to evaluate the forward extension of the flatbed, the weight of the body and the centre of mass for both body and load was adjusted to the corresponding weight and position of a longer flatbed. These two workarounds fully simulate the forward extended body in a load distribution analysis. When evaluating the flatbed volume relative to load density the flatbed was simply specified with its correct length. This results in false load distributions on the axles but the axle loads are not of interest in the volume and density analysis. Another source of error to the load distribution analysis is that the exact weight of the different components on the truck is unknown. Customer needs The list of customer needs was based on a four years old pre-study, performed in 2012. Some of these needs could have changed and new could have emerged but there were no resources to perform another study. Therefore, the ranking had to rely on a combination of the pre-study and the competence of experts on Scania. Dimensioning When designing the vehicle, the most extreme case was used for dimensioning. The biggest possible components were used, such as V8 engine, large Euro 6 silencer and cooling system. If all of these components are able fit on the truck it is possible to use any smaller performance step as well.

58 10 Future work The possibility to increase the maximum technical load up to 14 tonnes on the front axles must be further evaluated and confirmed through more thorough analysis of the whole chassis front. The higher load carrying capacity increases productivity which is profitable for the customer but the profitability for Scania must be evaluated. Development costs and other consequences as well as benefits of the new performance steps has to be analysed. The new components and performance steps might be useful in other applications than mining and autonomous vehicles. Scania’s mining segment might also grow with the new technology and enhanced performance. There is a new possibility to outcompete specialised mining transportation vehicle and the ability to operate in low underground mines opens a new segment of the market. These factors should all enhance the profitability for Scania. The decreased front axle distance leaves little space for removal of the gearbox which complicates maintenance. The extent of this problem for the future gearboxes must be made clear and possible solutions to ease the procedure should be addressed. The final concept is a basic concept designed for high density load such as ore and stone. The performance steps on the wheel configuration presented in 6.3.2 Performance steps should be able to utilize the component placements of the basic concept but this requires confirmation. However, the component placement for a vehicle optimized for transportation of lighter materials, such as coal, would differ from the final concept. Then volume capacity and vehicle length may then become the dimensioning factors. In that case, the silencer could be kept on the frame and behind the second front axle allowing the flatbed to extend over the engine, batteries and pressure tanks, all the way to the high air intake and electronic control units in the front. The author’s belief is that, aside from the already suggested changes to the bygglada, an introduction of silencer position a) presented in Figure 32 on page 40, would allow for that coal transportation concept. However, this requires further investigation. Suggestion on different technical solutions to manage the increased load on the front axles has been discussed during the project. One of these suggestions is a distributing suspension. The solution could reduce the load variation on the axles and thereby lower the demands on components in the chassis front. Another issue is that the increased maximum load on the wheels might require larger tires. This could result in a decreased maximum steering angle and thereby an increased smallest turning radius. Though there is no requirement on comfort which could enable new types of tires with sufficient load carrying capacity and smaller or equal size as Scania’s larger tires today. Another solution could be to implement the idea of wider track with, allowing for larger steering angles. The performance of the steering mechanism could also be enhanced since it does no longer need to connect to the steering shaft. The steering servo would then be moved relative to the suspension into a more optimized position. However, that would create new performance steps only applicable on cab-less trucks. Regarding safety, a big question is how the vehicle is supposed to be turned off when something goes wrong. It must be possible to force a shut down but how would that be performed? Does this require an emergency stop button on the vehicle? And how would it then be accessed when the vehicle is driving and does this requirement change the chassis layout? These questions must be answered and requires further studies.

59 The positioning of the sensors, radars, headlights and antennas have to be re-evaluated once their requirements are known. Depending on the sensor, electronic control unit, and antenna placement and on how big their respective protective casings with climate control has to be, the layout might have to be changed slightly.

60 Bibliography

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Appendix A

A.1 GANTT-Table and scheme

A.1

A.1A.2 Appendix B

B.1 Function degradation schemes

B.1

B.2 B.3

C.1

Appendix C

C.1 Product specification Provide customer features Easy to produce Prestigious Compatible with public roads Compatible Profitable Productive Good drivability General requests Legal Human friendly High availability Easy to produce Fit in underground mines infrastructure Compatible with todays Productive Drivable in environment Robust Safe Move material General requirement Note: 3 = highest prio then 2 and 1 equals lowest prio. Storage capability Easy to realize Easy body building Robust appearance Height for public road Width for public road Length for public road Fitt in underground mines with low roof clearence Low maximum tipping height Compatible with loadersbigger Low fuel consumption Able to heat freight More efficient loading and unloading Reduce body cycle time High ground clearance on frame mounted components Small outer turning radius Specific requests Fulfil legal requirements Communicate intentions Acceptable noise level Easy to clean and repair Easy body building Low maximum tipping height Low maximum height Sufficient loading height Sufficient volume Sufficient LCC Unload over front or rear edge Sufficient range Fast unloading Sufficient engine power Steerability Sufficient ground clearance on frame mounted components Sufficient ground clearance on axles Sufficient outer turning radius Intake of clean air Sustain mud, dust and dirt Sustain high temperature range and weather Sustain falling rocks and hits from side, front and rear. Visible Indicate driving direction Sufficient lightning for cameras Good sensor vision and communication Avoid Tip-over Park Effective braking Perform a full operating cycle Specific requirement Product specification Priority 1 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 New components must sustain -40 to 50 deg Celsius and different weather. Open-pit requirement All sensitive or crucial components covered. Durable materials on exterior. Support 360 degrees vision around the truck. Some blind spots may exist. Open-pit request Clearly show when driving, breaking, turning, reversing, unloading etc. ≥ ≥ 60 tonnes LCC. Protective covers on all sensitive components. Durable materials. ≤ 11000 ≤ mm.11000 ≤ ≤ 7000 mm. ≤ 9000 mm. ≤ 4200 mm. ≥ ≥ 630 mm. ≥ 570 mm. Potential to start, load, transport, unload and drive back. Unload over front or rear edge and support tipping.side If ICE powertrain: able to fit Scania Euro 3-6 engines. - - - "Waterproof". Easy to access all components. Keep theKeep freight against the body unfrozen. Utilize Scania's bygglada to a high extent. Sound-proofing of engine and gearbox. Equipped with a parking brake system. One easy to access storage box. ≥ ≥ 30-40 L pressured air per axle. Equal or faster than rear tipping. Defined body building interface. ≥ ≥ 23% load on steering axles. Support markingside lights. Maximum 2 refuels per day. Tipping height ≤ 8000 mm. Support directional lights. Faster than competitors. At least as good as HAI. support 23 m^3 bodies. Space forSpace hybrid drive. Robust components. Fit Fit different engines. minimum 35 tonnes. Avoid turn around. Non-changing. ≤12000 mm.≤12000 ≤ ≤ 4000 mm. ≤ 2550 mm. ≥ ≥ 300 mm. Unknown Specialized for underground forSpecialized requirement underground Specialized for underground forSpecialized request underground height ≤ 2800 mm. ≤ 10000 ≤ mm.10000 ≤ ≤ 5600 mm. ≤ 8000 mm. ≤ 7000 mm. ≤ 3400 mm. ≤ 2700 mm. ≥ ≥ 440 mm. ≥ 390 mm. -

C.1

D.1 Appendix D

D.1 Technical Specification - Draft 0

Technical specification Type Basic Articulated Vehicle width ≤ 2,55m >2,55m Vehicle length ≤ 12m >12m Vehicle height ≤ 4m <2.8m Wheel configuration 6x4 8x4 10x4*6 10x8*6 8x6*4 12x12*8 8x8*/8 10x4*8 10x8*8 10x6*6 ? Propulsion Wheels Small Medium Large Powertrain ICE Electric Hybrid Gearbox Yes Differential Yes Propeller shaft Yes Clutch Yes Middle drive Yes No Exhaust pipe Vertical (long) Vertical (short) Middle Side Rear Through body None Store energy Fuel tank Battery Fuel tank & Battery Accept energy Pantograph None Air intake + filter FAI HAI Side None Cooling system Front Side Front & Rear None Silencer / SCR Yes No SCR tank Yes No Hub reduction gear Yes No Stop / slow / hold vehicle Air tank Yes Braking Drum Retarder Yes No Exhaust brake Yes No APS Yes Compressor Yes On ICE Parking brake system Yes Carry Frame Y Double Y Extra long Y Extra short Y Suspension Air Leaf Axles Front Rear Support Steered bogie Join frames Crossmembers Boxes Subframe Yes No Hold material Body Non-removeable Removeable Drain freight Through body Side Rear Front None Non-freeze Yes No Unload material Unload Tip front Tip side Tip rear PTO Yes Start Starter battery Yes No Navigate Lighting Headlamp Sensors + casing Yes Steering Draglink EST Antennas Yes Electric control units Yes Power steering + pump Yes No Avoid vehicle damage Protective casing (engine) Yes Bumper Yes Mudguard Yes No Avoid personnel injury Visibility Side-markings Rearlamp Retro reflectors Horn Yes

D.1

E.1 Appendix E

E.1 Wheel configuration concepts

Steering front axle

Steering driven front axle

Steering front axle with double mounted wheels

Steering driven front axle with double mounted wheels

Driven bogie

Non-driven bogie

Non-driven supporting axle

Driven support axle

Non-driven steering support axle

Driven steering support axle

Truck stabilizers Engine and gearbox

Electric motor

Frame Y-shape

Frame straight

NOTE: Drawings are not to scale .

E.1 E.2 Concept 1 – Tight wheel setup Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 10x4 78 ton 9.9 m 8.5 m 2.55 m

Pros  High LCC Cons  No space for frame mounted components

E.2 E.3 Concept 2 – Tight wheel setup, steering rear axle Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 10x4*6 80 ton 8 m 8 m 2.60 m

Pros  Small turning radius  High LCC Cons  Wide, not legal on public roads  No space for frame mounted components

E.3 E.4 Concept 2.2 – 2-way driveable, tight wheel setup, steering rear axle Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 10x4*6 80 ton 8 m 8 m 2.60 m

Pros  Small turning radius  High LCC  Driveable in two directions Cons  Wide, not legal on public roads  No space for frame mounted components

E.4 E.5 Concept 3 - Tight wheel setup, enhanced load carrying capacity Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 12x4*8 92 ton 9.9 m 9.1 m 2.60 m

Pros  Very high LCC Cons  Wide, not legal on public roads  No space for frame mounted components Note Performance step on Concept 1 and Concept 2

E.5 E.6 Concept 5 – Two way driving Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 10x4 78 ton 9.9 m 8.5 m 2.55 m

Pros  May tip in 2 directions  Drivable in 2 directions Cons  Tipping cycle over front may be slower due to deployment of stilts  Alternating between front and rear wheel steering when changing driving direction

E.6 E.7 Concept 6 – Two way driving Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 12x10 78 -92 ton 9.6 m 10 m 2.55-2.60 m

Pros  May have very high LCC  Drivable in 2 directions Cons  Front wheel steered in both directions

E.7 E.8 Concept 7 – Two way driving Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 12x8 80 -108 ton ~9 m 11 m 2.55-2.60 m

Pros  May have very high LCC  Drivable in 2 directions  May tip in 2 directions  Electric drive for alternated driving direction  Regenerative breaking downhill  May crab (generate lateral acceleration without generating yaw) Cons  Very long

E.8 E.9 Concept 8 – Two way driving Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 8x8 56 -84 ton ~7.7 m 9 m 2.55-2.60 m

Pros  Drivable in 2 directions  May tip in 2 directions  May crab (generate lateral acceleration without generating yaw) Cons

E.9 E.10 Concept 9 – Stronger front axles, Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 10x4 80 ton 10,2 m 9,2 m 2.55 m

Pros Cons  Requires stronger front axles

E.10 E.11 Concept 10 – Stronger front axles, symmetric Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 12x8 90 ton 10,2 m 11 m 2.55 m

Pros  Very high LCC  Drivable in 2 directions Cons  Requires stronger front axles  Only supports side tipping  Very long

E.11 E.12 Concept 11 – Stronger front axles, symmetric, front tipping Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 12x8 90 ton 10,2 m 11 m 2.55 m

Pros  Very high LCC  Drivable in 2 directions  Front / side tipping Cons  Requires stronger front axles  Very long  May slow down unloading time

E.12 E.13 Concept 12 – Symmetric; Hybrid; Side-tipping Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 12x8 90 ton 8,2 m 9,5 m 2,5 m

Pros  High LCC  Drivable in 2 directions  Uses Y-frame  Possibly hybrid Cons  Requires stronger front axles  Only supports side tipping  Long vehicle

E.13

E.14 Concept 13 – Single wheel; Side-tipping; Large volumes Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 10x4 62 ton 8,2 m 10,2 m 2,5 m

Pros  Good turning radius  Able to transport large volumes  Could possibly be hybrid with “double Y”  Side mounted components Cons  Need stronger front axles for higher LCC  Side-tipping only, unless very high tipping height is allowed.

E.14 E.15 Concept 14 – Rear steering; Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 10x6*6 78 ton 9.9 m 8.5 m 2.55 m

Pros  Side tip / Front tip  Drives both directions  Only known components Cons  Rear steering  No frame mounted components

E.15 E.16 Concept 15 – Rear / Side-tipping; Small turning radius Wheel Max technical Kerb Approximate Width configuration load radius length 8x6*4 66 ton 8,2m 7,1m 2,5m

Pros  Very good turning radius  Able to side tip / rear tip Cons  Need supports to rear tip  Lower LCC

E.16 Appendix F

F.1 First concept selection

Specific requests Priority Open-pit request Underground request Weight 1. Small outer turning radius 2 ≤ 8000 mm ≤ 7300 mm 12,12% 2. High ground clearance on frame mounted components1,5 ≥ 700 mm ≥ 440 mm 9,09% 3. More efficient loading and unloading 2 Avoid turn around. 12,12% 4. Low fuel consumption 2,5 Hybrid drive 15,15% 5. Compatible with bigger loaders 2,5 ≥ 60 tonnes LCC - 15,15% 6. Length for public road 1,5 ≤12000 mm 9,09% 7. Width for public road 1,5 ≤ 2550 mm 9,09% 8. Easy to realize 3 Utilize Scania's bygglada to a high extent 18,18% 100% Green: Winning concept Yellow: Available concept Red: Does not fulfil all requirements

Concept 1 Note Concept 2 Note Concept 2.2 Note 1. 3 0,4 9,9 m 4 0,5 8 m 4 0,5 8 m 2. 3 0,3 no fr.m. comp. 3 0,3 no fr.m. comp. 3 0,3 no fr.m. comp. 3. 3 0,4 No 3 0,4 No 4 0,5 Yes 4. 3 0,5 No 3 0,5 No 3 0,5 No 5. 3 0,5 78 ton GVM 3 0,5 80 ton GVM 3 0,5 80 ton GVM 6. 3 0,3 8,5 m 3 0,3 8 m 3 0,3 8 m 7. 3 0,3 2500 mm 3 0,3 2600 mm 3 0,3 2600 mm 8. 3 0,5 New f.susp. 3 0,5 New f.susp. 3 0,5 New f.susp.+gerabox 3,00 3,12 3,24

Concept 3 Note Concept 5 Note Concept 6 Note 1. 3 0,4 9,9 m 3 0,4 9,9 m 4 0,4 9,6 m 2. 3 0,3 no fr.m. comp. 3 0,3 no fr.m. comp. 3 0,3 no fr.m. comp. 3. 3 0,4 No 4 0,5 Yes 3 0,4 No 4. 3 0,5 No 3 0,5 No 3 0,5 No 5. 4 0,6 92 ton GVM 3 0,5 78 ton GVM 4 0,6 92 ton GVM 6. 3 0,3 9,1 m 3 0,3 8,5 m 3 0,3 9,6 m 7. 3 0,3 2600 mm 3 0,3 2550 mm 3 0,3 2600 mm 8. 2,5 0,5 New f.susp. 2 0,4 New f.susp.+stilts 1 0,2 New f.susp.+steer.ax. 3,06 2,94 2,85

Concept 7 Note Concept 8 Note Concept 9 Note 1. 3 0,4 9 m 4,5 0,5 7,7 m 2 0,2 10,2 m 2. 2 0,2 Fr.m. comp. 2 0,2 Fr.m. comp. 2 0,2 Fr.m. comp. 3. 3 0,4 No 4 0,5 Yes 3 0,4 No 4. 4 0,6 Yes 3 0,5 No 3 0,5 No 5. 5 0,8 100 ton GVM 3 0,5 84 ton GVM 3 0,5 80 ton GVM 6. 2 0,2 11 m 3 0,3 9 m 3 0,3 9,2 m 7. 3 0,3 2550 mm 3 0,3 2550 mm 3 0,3 2550 mm 8. 2 0,4 New steer.ax.+frame 2 0,4 New steer.ax.+frame 3 0,5 Stronger front axles 3,09 3,03 2,79

Concept 10 Note Concept 11 Note Concept 12 Note 1. 2 0,2 10,2 m 2 0,2 10,2 m 4 0,5 8,2 m 2. 2 0,2 Fr.m. comp. 2 0,2 Fr.m. comp. 3 0,3 No fr.m. comp. 3. 3 0,4 No 4 0,5 Yes 3 0,4 No 4. 3 0,5 No 3 0,5 No 3 0,5 No 5. 4 0,6 90 ton GVM 4 0,6 90 ton GVM 4 0,6 90 ton GVM 6. 2 0,2 11 m 2 0,2 11 m 2 0,2 9,5 m 7. 3 0,3 2550 mm 3 0,3 2550 mm 3 0,3 2550 mm 8. 3 0,5 Stronger front axles 3 0,5 Stronger front axles 3 0,5 New fr.susp. 2,85 2,97 3,18

Concept 13 Note Concept 14 Note Concept 15 Note 1. 4 0,5 8,2 m 3 0,4 9,9 m 3 0,4 8,2 m 2. 2 0,2 Fr.m. comp. 3 0,3 no fr.m. comp. 2 0,2 fr.m. comp. 3. 3 0,4 No 4 0,5 Yes 3 0,4 No 4. 3 0,5 No 3 0,5 No 3 0,5 No 5. 2 0,3 60 ton GVM 3 0,5 78 ton GVM 2 0,3 66 ton GVM 6. 2 0,2 9,5 m 3 0,3 8,5 m 3 0,3 7,1 m 7. 3 0,3 2550 mm 3 0,3 2500 mm 3 0,3 2500 mm 8. 4 0,7 None 3 0,5 New f.susp. 3 0,5 New f.axles 2,97 3,12 2,76

F.1