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Continue In order to continue to use our website, we ask you to confirm your identity as a person. Thank you so much for your cooperation. It is a question-and-answer forum for students, teachers and visitors to the general village to exchange articles, answers and notes. Answer now and help others. Answer Now Here's How It Works: Anyone can ask a question Anyone can answer the best answers voted and climb to the top of Basidiomycota includes three subphyla: Ustilaginomycotina (smuts), Pucciniomykotina (rust), and Agarmyicocotina, traditional hymenomicetes or basidiomycetes, such as mushrooms, mushrooms From: Advances in Applied Microbiology, 2014Thomas N. Taylor,... Edith L. Taylor, of Fossil Mushrooms, 2015 Basidiomycota is a monophyletic group with more than 31,000 living species known, approximately one-third of all fungi; however, molecular and genetic studies show that more diversity has yet to be discovered in this group. The group includes mushrooms, smut and rust. Basidiomycota are important contributors to the functioning of ecosystems at several levels and are the main degradors of various wood components, including lignin. The most diagnostic feature of the group is the club structure, the basidia, on which the meyospores (basidiospores) are produced. The group is probably ancient, but early fossil records are difficult to interpret due to lack of diagnostic functions; The oldest compound clip dates from the Mississippi (Lower Carboniferous). The vast majority of the fossil basidiomycota described to date originate from Cenozoic.Thomas J. Volk, in the Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 2001 Basidiomycota carry their sexual spores externally on a usually club structure called basidiem, which is often carried on or in a fertile body called basidirp or basidiome. This filum includes well-known mushrooms, both edible and poisonous, as well as puffballs, ice mushrooms, jelly mushrooms and coral mushrooms (Figure 8). These species, which produce fruit and vegetable bodies, demonstrate different methods of increasing their surface area, as discussed in section IV,C.Figure 7. Basidius shows two of the four basidiospores produced by meiosis and pinching spores from the basidia. Figure 8. (A) Armillaria nabsnona, (B) Tremella reticulata, (C) Trames versicolor, (D) Pulcherricium caeruleum. See also the color of the plate 14, Volume 1.The Basidiomycota also contain perhaps the most important pathogens of plants, rust and smut. These fungi do not produce macroscopic fruiting of bodies, but instead carry their spores on the stems, leaves and flowers of host plants. However, remember that mycelium is internal and sucks nutrients out of the plant. The impact on the plant ranges from reduced yields to death. Rust, in particular, has a very complex it often takes two unrelated host species to complete their growth phases. Thomas Wolf, in the Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), 2013 Basidiomycota carry their sexual spores outwardly on a usually club-shaped structure called basidia, which often carries on or in a fruit-bearing body called basidiocarpa or basidioma (Figure 7). This phylum includes well-known mushrooms, both edible and poisonous, as well as meatballs, puffballs, ice mushrooms, jelly mushrooms and coral mushrooms (Figure 8). Many of the most valuable edible species, such as royal painkillers, matsutake and foxes, form a ectomy with host plants. (see Mycorrhizae) Species that produce fruit and vegetable bodies demonstrate different methods of increasing their surface area, as discussed in surface area and Reproduction.Figure 7. Basidius, showing four basidiosporas produced by meiosis and pinching spores from the basidium. Figure 8. a) Armillaria nabsnona, b) Tremella reticulata, (c) Trametes versicolor, d) Pulcherricium caeruleum. Basidiomycota also include perhaps the most important pathogens of crop production, rust and smut, which are responsible for billions of U.S. dollars each year in lost yields. These fungi do not produce macroscopic fruiting of bodies, but instead carry their spores on the stems, leaves and flowers of host plants. However, remember that mycelium is internal and sucks nutrients out of the plant using its exoenzyme. The impact on the plant ranges from reduced yields to death. Rust is also interesting because of their very complex life cycles, often requiring two unrelated host species to complete their growth phases. For example, a black wheat stem rust agent alternates between wheat and barbary, taking a year to complete your life cycle. Lynn Boddy, in Mushrooms (Third Edition), 2016Some Basidiomycota have one locus-type pairing (and therefore a unifying), but the general population has a large number of pairing-type alleles. Mating occurs between any haploid mycelium, different types of mating (i.e. have different alleles of the locus of the marriage type). Thus, the nucleus of the diploid base is heterozygous for mating type (e.g. A1A2). Thus, two haploid spores suffered on the basidia will be one type of mating (e.g. A1) and two others (e.g. A2). This is why this type of system is sometimes called bipolar. Since any diploid strain gives two types of mating, inbreeding potential, as in breeding systems with only two types of mating, is 50%. That is, if the miselia of a large number of basidiospores from the same fruit body in pairs in all combinations, 50% of the pairs will mate successfully. Since, however, a large number of mating types can occur in Almost all encounters with non-brothers strains can be compatible and outbreeding potential can approach 100% 100% 4.3), so there is a bias towards crossing. Thomas N. Taylor, ... Michael Krings, in Paleobotany (Second Edition), 2009 Basidiomycota, monophyletic sister group Ascomycota, includes ∼ 30,000 extant species divided into three main lines (subfil): rust (Puccinomycotina), smut (Ustilyagococotina), and mushrooms (Agaricomycotina). They are known from both terrestrial and aquatic habitats around the world and include important plant pathogens (e.g. wheat rust, corn smut), and edible mushrooms. The most diagnostic feature of basidimics is basidia (pl. basidia), usually a club cell where nuclear synthesis (carioyamia) occurs and the structure on which sexual spores (basidispores) are produced. Some basidia are carried on complex, multicellular fruit and vegetable bodies, such as mushrooms (FIG. 3.66). Other features of basidiomycete include hygrouts of hyphal, called clamp compounds, and the presence of a dicaprio phase in the life cycle, a condition in which each cell in the tallus contains two nuclei. Some basidiomycetes are involved in ectomies, while others are symbiotic associated with various insects, such as leaf-cutting ants and termites. One example of the interaction between fungus and termite is the Miocene-Pliocene termite trace of the fossil microfavicnus; this inogen is thought to represent fungus combs of fungus-growing termites (Duringer et al,2007). The crests consist of alveolar masses, in which the walls have a pellet structure. Figure 3.66. The life story of the basidiomyte fungus. (From Taylor and Taylor, 1993.) Basidiomycota today play an important role in the carbon cycle by decaying organic matter, including wood; Suspected basidiomycetic fungi were found in Mid Devon, shortly after terrestrial plants first began producing secondary growth. There are a number of carbon fossils that look like modern basidiometic fetal bodies, or basidiocarpas (Lindley and Hutton, 1831-1837; Leskere, 1877; Herzer, 1893; Hollick, 1910) (FIG. 3.67). However, almost all of these reports were subsequently interrogated and the samples reinterpreted as non-black (Pirozynski, 1976b). The fact that there are so few reports of basidiomycetes associated with fossil tree is puzzling, since today they are the main decomposers of cellulose and lignin, the main components of the walls of plant cells. Figure 3.67. Arthur Hollick.One well-documented basidiomycete from Pennsylvania is a Palaeoancistrus martini, a fungus found in the tracheids of the cearor zigopteris (Dennis, 1970). There are several features of this fungus that offer similarities to the living saprotrophic members of Basidiomycota. One is the presence of a smooth, narrow, septatous gif (4.8 microns in diameter) that follow a straight within the tracheid. tracheid. With gifs are both terminal and inter-calorie chlamydospores. Some gifs have incomplete clip ties in which the clamp hook does not form a complete connection to the gif, while in other clamp compounds are well developed. Another basidiomyte was described in the secondary xylem of several Paleozoic and Mesozoic forests from Gondwana (FIG. 3.68), but in this case it is the symptoms caused by the fungus, due to the fungus itself, which provides identification. The activity of this fungus leads to the formation of numerous longitudinal, spindle-shaped decay centers in secondary xylem (FIG. 3.69), called pocket rot (Stubblefield and Taylor, 1986). In other regions of secondary xylem, for example, in the root vertebral and stems classified as morphogen Araukarixolone, there is a gif with simple and medallion clamping compounds (FIG. 3.70). The elongated, spindle-shaped areas in the fossils are identical to those caused by modern white pocket rot mushrooms (Blanchette, 1980). Other structural features in fossil forests indicate a consistent delegification of the secondary cell wall (FIG. 3.71), such as the loss of the average lamella between wooden cells, and they are also characteristic of modern white rotten fungi. Paleafibulus is another fossil fungus with clamping compounds (FIG. 3.72) and thick-walled spores known from Antarctica's mid-Triassic permineralyted peat (Osborn et al., 1989). Studies of wood-rotting fossil fungi provide an opportunity to indirectly study the biochemical evolution of fungi, based on models and features associated with the deregification and removal of cellulose from the wall of the host cell. Figure 3.68. Cross-section of the Araukarioxylon tree, showing the symptom (white areas) of white pocket rot (triassic). Bar 2 cm. Figure 3.69. The fragmented surface of the waiting tree, showing elongated spindles (white) white pocket rot. Bar 1 cm. Figure 3.70. Medallion clip communication (arrow) in Araucarioxylon wood infested with pocket rot (triassic). Bar 20 microns. (From Stablefield and Taylor, 1986.) Figure 3.71. Separation of layers of the wall of wood cells due to fungal degradation (triassic). Bar-55 micrometers. Figure 3.72. Paleobibulus showing gif, spores and the compound of the clamp (arrow) (trias). Bar-35 micrometers. Some of the most common members of Basidiomycota are mushrooms (Hibbett, 2006). Today, the oldest gill mushrooms (agarika or agarika) come from amber. The oldest of these is the archeomarasmius leggeti (FIG. 3.73), buried in a piece of late Cretaceous (Turonic; 94-90 Ma) amber from the Raritian Formation of New Jersey, USA (Hibbett et al., 1997). The pile, or fungus cover, ranges from 3-6 mm in diameter and contains elliptical basidispors up to 8 microns in length. Another gill shaped by Protomycena electra Junior juniors Amber (Miocene; 20-15 Ma) (Hibbett et al., 1997); This fungus is similar to the waiting litter leaf and the woody rotting genus of Mycenae. Coprinites dominicana is another fungus found in Dominican amber. It has a ∼3.5 mm in diameter with 28 gills extending from the lower surface (Poinar and Singer, 1990). The last homobasidiomycete reported from Dominican amber is Aureofungus yaniguaensis (Hibbett et al., 2003). This is similar to other fossils of agariki in amber, and suggests that among some homobasidiomycete lines there were relatively few morphological changes with cenozoic, at least in those features that can be compared in the amber matrix. Figure 3.73. Archeomarasmius leggeti (small). (Courtesy of D. Hibbert.) Basidiomycetes that do not have gills but possess large basidiocarps with poroid hymenofars (spores produced by layers in fruit-bearing bodies) have been described from fossils like bracket, shelf, or polyporous mushrooms (examined in Fleischmann et al, 2007). Members of this group tend to have saprotrophs involved in the degradation of cellulose and lignin, but some are also parasites of woody plants. The kranhamite quacinoporites are a fragment of an early Cretaceous (Barrem) basidocarp described from the permenteralised marine calcine nodules of British Columbia, Canada (Smith et al., 2004). Gimenofar consists of numerous parallel pipes, each with a diameter of up to 540 microns. Appianouriths are also a poroid (bracket) fungus, built from small tubes, from young Eocene rocks on the east side of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Both specimens have septate gif; basidiocarps are interpreted as persistent and placed in Hymenochaetales. Another fossil polyporous fungus is ganodermite libicus (FIG. 3.74) of the lower middle Miocene (Neogene) of North Africa (Fleischmann et al., 2007). Basidia clavat and produce elliptical basidiosporas, each up to 6.5 microns with two layers of wall. Basidiocarp shows evidence of gradual growth and is placed in the waiting family of Ganodermataceae, a predominantly tropical group of fungi that are characterized by basidiospores with double (called ganodermatoid) walls. The presence of tunnels containing fecal pellets in the basidiocarpa indicates that this fungus was visited by fungi. Figure 3.74. Ganodermites is a libidocus, longitudinal thick area (polished surface) through basidiocarp, showing the hymenophoral layers (H) (miocene). Bar 2 cm (Courtesy of BSPG.) Basidiomycetes also form various symbiotic associations with other organisms, including many families of moderate forest trees, such as Fagaceae and Pinaceae. Distinctive among them are ectomy, which is estimated to occur ∼10% of plants. Ectomycorrhizae are characterized by intercellular gif, which often form aggregation, called the clean, around the tip of the root. In addition, the fungal association can also cause changes in root morphology, making the roots shorter, wider and more branched. The oldest evidence of ectomy to date is the average Eocene (50 ma) Princeton traits of the Allenby Formation, British Columbia, an unusual site in which many whole plants are permeralized by silica (LePage et al., 1997). Ectomycorrhizal Pinus roots from this site contain a dense aggregation of small septate gifs that extend into the bark of the roots and represent the Hartig network. This discovery is another example of long-standing symbiotic relationships in a certain group of seed plants. It is not clear why most living ectomy is covered with wood rather than herbaceous plant-based hosts. Perhaps the structure and organization of roots, such as soil, microbial community or some other combination of biotic and abiotic factors favored ectomorrise of fungi over endomicorrial form in some hosts. A striking example of the diversity of fossil basidiomycetes is a fossil sample assigned to Gasteromycetes, a group that contains puffballs and some of the Earth's stars. Geastrum tepexensis (FIG. 3.75) is a compressed late eocene basidiocarp (called peridium in this group) about 2.5 cm in diameter from the Coacingo Formation in Puebla, Mexico (Magall'n-Puebla and Cevallos-Ferriz, 1993). Endoperidium (inner layer of peridius) is round and is characterized by a small ostiole; ornamented spores ≤ 7 microns in diameter were also found in the structure. Although the morphological features of the fossils make it difficult to place in the modern genus, this discovery makes to expand the geographical distribution of Lycoperdales in the tropics during cenozoic. Expanding the range further back into the Cretaceous is the Geastroidea lobata, a compressed earth star from Mongolia (Krasilov and Makulbekov, 2003). Figure 3.75. Geastrum tepexensis shows a central endoperidium surrounded by triangular segments of exoperidium (cenozoic). Bar 7.5 mm. (Courtesy S.R.S. Sevallos-Ferris.) Nicholas. Money, in Mushrooms (Third Edition), 2016Most Basidiomycota use the process of discharge ballistospore (ballistospory), which is powered by the rapid movement of a drop of liquid over the surface of spores (Figure 3.16). This mechanism is responsible for launching basidiosporas from gills, spikes, and tube surfaces of mushroom-forming fungi, as well as features in life cycles of basidiomycete yeast and phytopathogenic rust and smut. Widespread ballisticsporium and similarity of the mechanism throughout the filum indicate that it had the same origin in the ancestral group. Ballisticscones have an asymmetrical shape, with an outstanding bulge at their base, called the hilar app, next to contact with a pointed stem or stergy. A few seconds before discharge, the liquid begins to condense on the surface of the spores in two places: (i) in the form of a noticeable drop on the appendix of the hilar (the so-called Buller drop) and ii) on the adjacent surface of spores (the so-called adaxial drop). After initiation, the Buller drop expands for a few seconds, then the spores and drops stick out of the sterigma. The discharge occurs when the Buller drop reaches a critical diameter and contacts and merges with an adaxial drop on the adjacent spore surface. When the Buller drop moves, the mass is redistributed from the hilar app towards the free end of the spores. This gives impetus to the controversy, and the controversy pops out of his sterigma. Fluid movement is caused by a decrease in free energy (surface tension) when two drops of fuse, so we call the mechanism as the surface tension of the catapult. Figure 3.16. The mechanism of ballisticspor discharge. Source: Mark Fisher, Mount St. Joseph University, Cincinnati. The liquid, which accumulates on the application hilar (buller's drop), and on the adjacent surface spores (adaxial drop), occurs due to the condensation of water from the surrounding air. Condensation follows the release of mannitol and other osmotically active compounds to the surface of spores, which cause a localized decrease in water chemical activity (or water potential) and vapor pressure. It is unclear how osmolites are brought to the surface of spores in sufficient concentration to act as nuclei for water condensation, but microscopic studies suggest that these compounds can be packaged as discrete organella in the cytoplasm of maturing spores. Basidiomycete yeast, Itersonilia bewildered, causes petal decay of chrysanthemums, and causes a devastating disease called black strip on edible burdock (Arctium lappa). It forms large ballisticspores in pure culture and has been used for biomechanical studies of discharge mechanism for many years. Running the spores too fast for conventional video analysis, but was captured using ultra-high-speed video cameras. The average initial speed of the dispute is 0.7 m from 1, which is slow in relation to the explosive discharge of Ascospor. In terms of acceleration, however, this is an impressive start: the movement of the Buller drop and the separation of the spores from the sterigma ends in less than 10 s, implying an acceleration of 10,000 g (Figure 3.17). A variety of other basidiomycetes have been studied using high-speed video and the maximum launch speed is approaching 2 m per second. This is interesting in light of K. T. Ingold's maxim that basidia is a spore-gun of exact range. The ballistospore discharge mechanism is capable of moving spores at distances of no more than 1-2 mm. The maximum range for Itersonilia is estimated 1.2 mm, but many spores are driven at distances of only a few tenths of a millimeter. This should be enough to clear the boundary layer on the surface of the host plant. The boundary layer varies from 0.1 to 9.0 mm in thickness depending on wind speed. If the fungus is located so that its spores will fall freely from the surface of the plant after discharge, the boundary layer is not a problem. Controversy loss can be significant for the colony on the top surface of the petal, however, because they will fall back to the plant after a short flight. Similar considerations apply to other ball-controversial yeast, jelly, rust and smut. For fungi-forming species, a limited range of discharge mechanism should be tightly controlled to ensure release into the surrounding air. Spores, formed on the gills, for example, must be propelled at a limited distance, so that they do not hit the opposite gill. Distance control discharge is a complex issue that involves changes in spore morphology that affect the size of Buller's fall (Figure 3.18). These variations have been studied in many types of Basidiomycota using high-speed video. Figure 3.17. Basidiospore is shown in consecutive high-speed video images shot at 100,000 frames per second. A drop of liquid at the base of the spores in the first frame merges with liquid on the adjacent surface of the spore in the second frame, causing the spores to jump into the air with an acceleration of 10,000 g.Source:Pringle, A., et al., 2005. Captured ballistics run. Mycologia 97, 866-871.Figure 3.18. The model disputed trajectories for seven types of basidiomycetes based on measurements of spore size and launch speed and using the Stokes viscous resistance model. To visualize, the spores were launched horizontally from arbitrary heights. The position of the dispute is at intervals of 50 s, marked by points. The horizontal range change projected from the measured change in launch rate (± standard error; Table 1) for each species is represented by a shaded area around each trajectory. Initials of species: G.j.-v., Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae; T.S., Tili Kari; SS, Sporobolomyces salmon; A.a., Auricularia auricula; P.S., Polyporus squamosus; A.t., Armillaria tabescens, and C.p., Clavicorona pyxidata. Source: Stolze-Rybczynski, J. L., et al. Adaptation of the mechanism of singling out spores in Basidiomikot. PLoS ONE 4(1): e4163. Models of the impact of viscous drag on spores of different sizes show good agreement between the launch rate measured from the video data and the range of the mechanism. For example, the Itersonilia spores will travel almost 0.4 mm at an initial speed of 0.7 m per second. The rapid acceleration of stationary spores into the air is an impressive feat of microengineering, but it is important to recognize that the movement is also an example of an impressive slowdown: as soon as the spores are discharged, the viscosity of the air begins to drag it to a halt. At any lower initial speeds, the microscopic particle will not progress at all in the air. The direction of the launch has very little effect on the distance that the controversy has propelled. In other words, the same initial speed will shoot the spores up or down at the same distance. The effect of gravity is imperceptible until the spores are slowed down by the viscosity of the air. For a dispute that is filmed horizontally, a typical flight path can be aptly described as 'Wile E. Coyote Trajectory', recalling the tragic dog shown in Warner Brothers cartoons. This trajectory is crucial for the effectiveness of the mechanism in fungi, the spores of which are movable from the surface of the gills, spikes and tubes. The calculations show that the hypothetical relationship between the movement of the drop and the selection of spores makes sense vigorously: minuscule droplets of liquid certainly have sufficient energy (in the form of surface free energy or surface tension) to separate the spores at the appropriate distance. Secondly, it is clear from the mathematical models that any change in the size of spores and falls will have dramatic consequences for the speed of launch and the distance of discharge. For the constant size of the spore, an increase in the drop radius of the Buller will tend to catapult the spores over a longer distance. Similarly, any reduction in the fall will reduce launch speed and range. Calculations show that the relative size of spores and the fall are key variables. The hydrophobic nature of the surface spores surrounding the hilar app causes the condensation of water in this place to remain discrete until the moment of discharge. Because a buller's drop is formed at the end of the hilar application, longer appendises will usually support large drops because the drop must expand further before it settles and runs across the adjacent spores surface. This is one example of microscopic morphological parts that can control the dynamics of the launch process. Remarkable differences in morphology spores among Basidiomycota may reflect the speed control of discharge and distance caused by the evolution of different forms of the fetal body. Experiments in the wind tunnel show that the mushroom shapes can increase the release of spores by interrupting the air flow, reducing the air speed directly under the lid so as to protect the falling spores from the wind back to the gills. The evaporation of water from fungi has additional effects on scattering. The evaporative cooling of spores tissues is measured by thermoparas, and it is believed that this drop in temperature contributes to the condensation of water on the surface of spores. Evaporation of water from mushrooms has the added effect of creating local models stream that can sweep the controversy controversy from the fruit body. The dependence of the ballistospore discharge mechanism in condensation limits the discharge of spores into a humid environment. The discharge of ballistic stages of pathogenic yeast, rust and smut can only occur in high humidity conditions. Mushroom mushrooms have a certain degree of control over the humidity of the air between the gills, but even these organisms are limited to moist habitat and fruit after precipitation. One fungus, discovered in Oregon, produces underwater fruit bodies in rivers and supports air pockets between gills in the form of trapped bubbles. Ballistospore discharge continues as usual and spores accumulate in rafts at the bottom of the gill and drift downstream into the water currents. The mechanism of catapult surface tension is not found in other fungi, but a similar form of fluid movement discharges the spores of protostelide mucus of the schizoplasmodium mold cavostelioides and related species. Nicholas. Money, in Mushrooms (Third Edition), 2016Like Basidiomycota, is impossible to detail a single life cycle that applies to all species in Ascomycota. The peretetic accomquette, Neurospora crassa, is used to illustrate the life cycle here, and some of the variations in other species are discussed when sub-phila is introduced (Figure 1.14). Neurospora Ascospora contain haploid nuclei that are replicated by mitosis when spores germinate and spread in a developing colony. The colony expands due to hypatous expansion and re- branching, as well as the shape of the septum between multinucleate compartments. N. crassa is a heterothalic species with two types of mating called MAT A and MAT a. All the nuclei in the colony derived from the same ascospor have the same type of mating; colony is a gomocariotic. Sexual reproduction requires the formation of heterocarione, which contains the nuclei of both types of mating. Unlike basidiomycetes, ascomicetes do not form a vast heterocariotic colony or dicarion. In Neurospor, a short-lived heterocarion is formed in the developing asscom. Colonies produce airborne microcoses (also called spermatia) that act like gametes, and these fuse with gif is called trihogines that project out developing ascomata. Young asa is called a protoperit. The fusion between microconidium and trihogin of the opposite type of mating produces heterocariotic or ascogenic gif. Various mating processes in other accomics include (i) the fusion of swollen male and female goethangia and (ii) the fusion of undifferentiate gif. As the peretia of Neurospora develops, the ascogenic gif forms hook-shaped tips called crozier. A pair of nuclei at the end of the crozier is divided into mitosis and the formation of a septum isolates two of the resulting four nuclei, one of each type of mating, in a crooked crozier. This cell form an acoustics. Its pair of nuclei fuse and then split by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. In N. crassa, each of these nuclei is divided into mitosis, and each of the eight cores is packaged in a separate ascospor. The second mitochondrial division occurs in each developing Ascospor, so that it is equipped with an identical pair of nuclei. Additional divisions can occur in such a way that ascospor becomes multi-core. After the formation of the asca, the ascogenic gif can form additional croziers and generate a cluster of asci in the fruit body. The nuclear events taking place in Crozier are comparable to the events in the young Basidiomikota basidiomikota. (The process of arguing in both groups involves the differentiation of cells containing pairs of nuclei, which is a characteristic that unites these filaly in the sub-inkdom of The Savage.) The subsequent development of the spores is very different in a pair of the largest fila in the Kingdom of Mushrooms and, at present, there is no evidence of evolutionary homology between crozier and basidia. There are many variations between the process of ascosporogenesa in Ascomycota, but in all cases the nuclei along with parts of the cytoplasm are separated within the ascus and packed into separate cell walls. In most species, this is achieved by forming a cylinder of two membranes inside the ascus cytoplasm. This double membrane is located inside the plasma membrane, which sticks out the inner surface of the ascus cell wall and is called the ascospore-delimiting membrane. Ascospor-delimitation membrane folds and fuses around developing spores, and their cell walls are deposited in a sandwich formed by this structure. The cytoplasm that remains around the spores is called an epiplasm. It develops a mujalgain consistency in some species and, in others, forms water liquid. Epiplasma is expelled with spores during the discharge process (chapter 3).I. Brondz, in the Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (Second Edition), 2014 The basic classification of basidiomycetes in the filum Basidiomycota is as follows (Basidiomycetes are coextensive in Basidiomycota) :D Yeast, Mushrooms Division (Subfil): AgaricomycotinaClass: AgaricomycetesSubclass: AgaricomycetidaeOrder: Agaricales consists of 32 families, more than 400 genebirths of genus Agaricus (composed of about 200 species) Type species Agaricus campestrisSubdivision (Subphyla) : AgaricomycotinaClass: DacrymycetesOrder: DacrymycetalesSemen: Dacrymycetaceae (composed of 101 species)Type of genus DamymycesGenus: Calocera consists of 15 species OfType species Clavaria viscocosaGenus: Cerinomyces consists of 12 species of Species Cerinomyces pallidusGenus: Cerinosterus monotypic Type Cerinosterus luteoalbusGenus: DacrymyType Dacryonaema monotypicType species Dacryonaema rufumGenus: Dacryopinax consists of 15 species OfType Dacryopinax elegansGenus: Dacryoscyphus monotypicType species Dacryoscyphicphus chrysochilusGenus: Ditiola consists of 10 species OfTMapicataGenus: Gu periniepsis. AlpinaSpes: G. buccinaSpecia: G. estonicaSpes: G. oresbiaSpes: G. ovisporaSpains: G. pedunculataSpes: G. suecicaSubdivision (Subfil): AgaricomycotinaClass: Tremellomycetes consists of 3 orders, 11 families, 50 genera and 377 speciesAction: CystofilobasidialesFamily: Cystofilobasidiaceaa (comprised of 8 genea and 20 species) of the genus CystiloiloidialesFamily: Cystofilobasidiaceacea (comprised of 8 geneas and 20 species) of the genus Cystilovisofidbasid : CystofilobasidiumGenus: GuehomycesGenus: ItersoniliaGenus: MrakiaGenus: PhaffiaGenus: TausoniaGenus: UdeniomycesGenus: XanthophyllomycesOrder: FilobasidialesFamily: FilobasidiaceaeGenus: FilobasidiumType capsuligenumСпеции: Ф. uniguttulatumOrder: Тремеллалес состоит из 8 семейств, около 300 видовСемья: Карциномицетацефамия: CuniculitremaceaeGenus: CuniculitremaGenus: FellomycesGenus: KockovaellaGenus: SterigmatosporidiumСемья: Phragmoxenidiaceae монотипическийГенус: PhragmoxenidiumСмия: Rhynchogastremataceae monotypicGenus: RhynchogastremaFamily: СэрobasidiaceaeGenus: SirobasidiumGenus: XenolachneFamily: TetragoniomycetaceaeFamily: Tremellaceae (состоит из 18 родов и около 250 видов) Тип рода TremellaGenus: AuriculibullerGenus: BiatoropsisGenus: BulleraType вид Bullera AlbaGenus: Bulleribasidium monotypicType вид Bulleribasidium oberjochenseGenus : Bulleromyces monotypicType kind Bulleromyces albusGenus: CryptococcusType Species Cryptococcus neoformansGenus: Dictyototremella monotypicalType species Dictyotremella novoguineensisGenus: Diochegia consists of 13 species Type Dizeoszegia hungarica Holtermannia consists of seven species OfType Holtermannia pinguisGenus: Hormomyces consists of three speciesTypeType Species Hormomyces aurantiacusGenus: Kwoniella monotypicType Species Kwoniella mangrovensisGenus: Neotremella monotyTypepic kind of Neotremella : Sirotrema consists of three species : S. parvulaSpecies: S. translucensGenus: Tremella consists of more than 100 speciesType Tremella mesentericaGenus: Trimorphomyces monotypicType species Trimorphomyces papilionaceusGenus: Tsuchiyaea monotyTypepic Type Tsuchiyaea wingfieldiiFamily: TrichosporonaceaeGenus: Trichosporon consists of 41 speciesType view Trichosporon beigeliiGenus: AsterotremellaSpecies: Asterotremella musciSpecies: A. LongaSpes: A. albidaSpecies: A. humicolaSpesions: A. pseudolongaGenus: CryptotrichosporonSpes: Cryptotrichosporon anacardiiGenus: PhylloptaSpecies: biparasiticaDivision: BasidiomycotaPucciniomycotina (composed of a diverse group of high mushrooms such as rust, yeast, smut and jelly mushrooms)Subfile: PucciniomycotinaClass: Agaricostilbocemytes consists of 2 orders, 3 families, 10 genera, and 47 speciesSubclass: AgaricostilbomystidaeOrder: AgaricostilbalesSemen: AgaricostilbaceaeType genus Agaricostilbpecies Agaricostilbum hyenephasFamily: KondoaceaeFamily: Chiono sphaeraceaeType genus ChionosphaeraSpecies: Chionosphaera cuniculicolaSpec C. apobasidialisFamily: MycogloeaTaxa of agaricostilbomycetidae incertae sedisGenus: BensingtoniaGenus: KondoaGenus: Kurtzmanomycespes: K. tardusSpecies : K. nectaireiGenus: MycogloeaGenus: SporobolomycesSpecies: Sporobolomyces xanthusSpecies : S. lactophilusGenus: SterigmatomycesGenus: SpiculogloeaGenus: SigogloeaAAAOst order: SpiculostilbalesClass: Atractiellomycetes consists of 3 families, 10 families and 34 speciesUn order: AtractiellalesFamily: AtractogloeaceaeType Species Atractogloea stillataFamily: MycogelidiaceaeType Mycogelidium sinenseFamily: Phleogenaceae (composed of 6 genera and 30 species)Type genus PhleogenaGenus: AtractiellaType species Atractiella brunaudianaSpecies:A. brunaudianaSpecies: A. columbianaSpes: A. delectansSpes: A. macrosporaSpes: A. muscigenaSpes: A. solaniGenus: Basidiopycnides monotypic Type of Basidiopycnides albertensisGenus : BasidiopycnisType species Basidiopycnis hyalinaGenus : Helicogloea consists of 20 speciesType Species Helicogloea lagerheimiiSpecies: Helicogloea albaSpecies: H. angustisporaSpecies: H. farinaceaSpecies: H. globisporaSpecies: H. indicaSpecies: H. lagerheimiiSpecies: H. musaisporaSpecies: H. subardosiacaSpecies: H. variabilisSpecies: H. vestitaGenus: Phleogena monotypicType kind Phleogena fagineaGenus: Proceropycnis monotyTypepic kind Proceropycnis pinicolaClassola: Classiculomytes Classicula monotypicGenus: Jaculispora monotypicClass: CryptomycolacomycetesOrder: CryptomycocolacalesGenus: Colacosiphon monotypicGenus: Cryptomycocolax monotypicclass: CystobasidiomycetesOrder: CystobasidialesOrder : ErythrobasidialesOrder: NaohidealesGenera incertae sedis: Cyrenella - SakaguchiaClass: MicrobotryomycetesSource:HeterogastridialesMey : HeterogastridiaceaeGenus: ColacogloeaGenus: HeterogastridiumGenus: Hyalop ycnisGenus: KrieglsteineraOrder: KriegerialesUnducor: Leucosidiporales Families: LeucosporidiaceaeType genus LeucosporidiumGenus: LeucosporidiellaSpecies: Leucosporidiella creatinivoraSpecies: L. muscorumSpecies: L. YakuticaGenus: LeucosporidiumPections: Leucosporidium AntarcticumSpes: L. fasciculatumSpeses: L. falliiSpes: L. golubeviiSpeses: L. scottiiGenus: Mastigobasidium monotypicSpecies: Mastbasigoidium intermediumOrder: consists of 2 families, 9 genera, and 114 speciesFamily: MicrobotryaceaeFamily: UstilentylomataceaeOrder: SporidiobolalesSemen: Sporidiobolaceae genus SporidiobolusGenus: AessosporonGenus: RogersiomycesGenus: SporidibolusGenera incertae Rhodotorula, SporobolomycesClass: Mixiomycetes consists of one order: Mixiales consists of one familySester: Mixiaceae (composed of one kind)Genus: Mixia monotypicType Mixia osmundaeClass: PucciniomycetesOrder: HelicobasidialesFamily: HelicobasidiaceaGenus: Helicobasidium consists of more than 20 speciesU Order: PachnocybalesSemen: PachnocybaceaeType genus PachnocybeOrder : PlatygloealesSamila: PlatygloeaceaeType genus PlatygloeaOrderder : PuccinialesSeam: ChaconiaceaeType genus ChaconiaGenus: AchroteliumGenus: AplopsoraGenus: BotryorhizaGenus: CeraceopsoraGenus: ChaconiaGenus: GoplanaGenus: MaravaliaGenus: OliveaGenus: TelomapeamiFly: ColeosporiaceaeType genus ColeosporiumGenus: CeropsoraGenus: ChrysomyxaGenus: ColeosporiumGenus: DiaphanopellisGenus: GallowayaGenus: StilbechrysomyxaFamily: Cronartiaceae genus CronartiumGenus: CronartiumGenus: EndocronartiumGenus: PeridermiumFamily: Melampsoracee monotypicGenus: Melampsora consists of more than 90 speciesFamily: Mikronegeriaceae genus MikronegeriaGenus: BlastosporaGenus: ChrysocelisGenus MikronegeriaGenus: PetersoniaFamily: Phakopsoraceae (composed of 18 genera and more than 200 species)Type of genus PhakopsoraFamily : Phragmidiaceae (composed of 14 genera and more than 160 species)Type of genus PhragmidiumFamily : PileolariaceaeType of the genus PileolariaGenus: AtelocaudaGenus: PileolariaGenus: SkierkaGenus: UromycladiumFamily: Pucciniaceae (composed of 20 genera and more than 4900 species)ucciniaFamily: Pucciniosiraceae (composed of 10 genera and about 60 species)Type of genus PucciniosiraFamily: Pucciniastracea (composed of 11 genera and about 160 species)Type of genus PucciniastrumFamily: Raveneliaceae (composed of 26 genera and more than 320 species)Type of genus RaveneliaFamily : Sphaerophragmiaceagenus: TriphragmiumFamily: Uropyxidaceae (composed of 15 genera and about 150 species)Type of genus UropyxisFamily : mitosporic PuccinialesFamily: Pucciniales incertae sedisOrder: SeptobasidialesFamily: SeptobasidiaceaceaeGenus: SeptobasidiumSpecies: Septobasidium bogorienseSpecies: S. pilosumSpecies: S. pseudopedicellatumSpesions: S. theaeDivision: BasidiomycotaUstilaginomycotina (head mushrooms)Division (Subphylum): UstilaginomycotinaClass: EntorrhizomycetesOrder: EntorrhizalesFamily: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: EntorrhizaceaeGenus: En TalbotiomycesClass: Ustilaginomycetes Order: UrocystalesGenus: UrocystisGenus: UstacystisGenus: DoassansiopsisOrder: UstilaginalesFamiLy: Anthth CintractiellaceaeFamily: ClintamraceaeSamia: GeminaginaceaeFamily: MelanopsichiaceaeGenus: ExoteliosporaGenus: YelsemiaFamily: UleiellaceaeFamily: UstilaginaceaeFamiY: WebsdaneaceaaeClass: ExobasidiomycetesUnme: CeraceosoralesFamily: CeraceosoraceaeGenus: CerosoacerusOrder: DoassansialesFamily: DoassansiaceaEFamily: MelaniellaceaeFamily: RhamphosporaceaeOrder: EntylomatalesSsy: EntylomataceaeGenus: EntylomaGenus: EntylomellaOrder: ExobasidialesFamily: BrachybasidiaceaeGenus: BrachybasidiumGenus: DicellocesGenus Kor DianaGenus: ProliferobasidiumFamily: CryptobasaceaeGenus: BotryoconisGenus: ClinoconidiumGenus: ConiodictyumGenus: CryptobasidiumGenus: DrepanoconisFamily: ExobasidiaceaaeGenus: AustrobasidGeniumUs: Endoba SidiumGenus ExobasidiumGenus: LaurobasidiumGenus: MuribasidiosporaScia: GraphiolaceaeGenus: GraphiolaGenus: StylinaOrder: GeorgefischerialesFamily: EballistraceaeFamily: GeorgefischeriaceaEFamily: GjaumieraceaeMemya: TilletiariaceaeThe Order: MalassezialesThe Order: MicrostromalesMey: Cuambalariaqueeemia: VolvocisporiaceaeOrder: TilletialesSeum: TilletiaceaeDivision: BasidiomycotaClass: WallemiomycetesSource:WallemialesFamily: WallemiaceaeGenus: WallemiaClass: EntorrhizomycetesSion: MalassezialesFamily: MalasseziaceaeGenus: MalasseziaBRENDA E. CALLAN, LORI M. CARRIS, In the biodiversity of fungi, 2004Rust mushrooms (class Urediniomycetes, Phylum Basidiomycota) make up the largest and most common group of necessarily biotrophic fungi on vascular plants. The name rust is descriptive - often one or more stages of spores of rusty orange until brownish due to the color of the spores arising en masse from the pustule to the host. Most rust pustules measure a few millimeters or less in diameter (Figure 7.1), although rust associated with stem cankers in trees can shatter more than a meter in adjacent areas. FIGURE 7.1. A sheet of rust. Small circles are rusty pustules from which disputes will arise. Rusty mushrooms cannot grow in nature and thus are only found in environments suitable for their hosts. Their relationship with the owners on whom they are fully dependent and with whom they cooperate is highly specialized (Laundon 1973; Savile 1976). Although rust infections are generally not fatal to plants, they can severely limit the growth and ability to bear fruit. Wheat rust (Puccinia graminis), rust coffee (Hemileia vastatrix) and white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) are examples of notoriously harmful, economically important rust (Agrios 1988). An estimated 168 rust genera and about 7,000 species, more than half of which are in the genus Puccinia, are now being adopted (Hawksworth et al. 1995). According to Hirattsuki and Sato (1982:2), most species in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, Australia and New York have been well catalogued, but many new species have been well catalogued, but many new species have been and species still expected to be found found tropical and subtropical regions such as South America, Africa and southeast Asia. Farr and his colleagues (1989) listed 53 rust births from North America and about 925 different associations of host mushrooms (exclusively subspecies and rust varieties). Of these records of host-mushroom, 47% for puccinia species, and 18% (168) from subtropical to tropical settlements. South American records (J'rstad 1956, 1959), although not as modern or extensive as in North America, include 23 rust births and 218 host-fun associations; again, about half (57%) of those who said they would like to have a records for the species of Puccinia. While subtropical and tropical records from Farr and his colleagues are added to this total, including duplicates, rust records from tropical America still account for only about one-third of North American records. Many of the rust genera is known to occur in South America, however, are exclusively tropical (e.g. most Raveneliaceae), and according to Oberwinkler (1993), several rust with unique characteristics and different taxonomic features are known from warmer regions. It is likely that the low number of rust records from the tropics reflects insufficient research. Buritich and Hennen (1983) recently harvested 100 species of rust, 20% of which were new taxa, in 40 hectares of tract in neotropics. About a third of plant species in the area had their own rust species. Intensive studies are likely to show that the diversity of rust species in the tropics is higher than in temperate regions. Potential hosts come from a wide range of vascular plant families, including ferns, gymnosperms, monocots, and dicots. No rusts have been reported from mosses or liverworts, but associated small births of heterobasidiomycetes, such as Iola, Platycarpa, and Ptechetelium, are parasites of mosses and ferns (Oberwinkler and Bandoni 1984; Oberwinkler 1993). The last two genes are limited to the tropics and require further study. Rusty mushrooms are highly specialized parasites with several unique features. One species can produce up to five morphologically and cytologically different spore-producing structures (spermagonia, aecia, uridinia, telium and basidium) at successive stages of reproduction. Different types of spores are usually produced at different times, although sometimes they can be found simultaneously on the same host. Other types of rust require several seasons and two unrelated species of host plants, often in different families or orders, to complete their life cycle. In the latter case, the spores stage produced on one host can only infect another (alternative) host. A certain stage of rust spores will often have a narrow range of hosts and may be limited to one or two types of congeneral Species with reduced life cycle (microcyclic rust) are more common in cold temperate and subarctic regions, regions, the short season is a good choice for rust, which can survive forever on the telial host (Savile 1972, 1976). Unlike other plant pathogens, rust is usually infected with healthy, actively growing plants, so if infections are small and limited to certain parts of plants, such as foliage, they can be difficult to detect. Perennial, systemic infections can cause deformities such as witch brooms, cankers, or bile. Plants with severe rust infections may appear slow, chlorotic (yellow) or otherwise discolored (severe urn spores can turn the affected part of the plant into orange). Rust argues on leaves, shoots, fruits and wood stems. In temperate regions, aecial stages tend to be most common in spring, with uredinial states developing mid-season. Thus, both new and old infected tissues should be collected in the event that the spores of the stages of early and late infections are different. This is especially important in rust, which produces all five stages of spores on one host. Telia develop in the fall, usually overwintering in the dead tissues of the host. To further confuse this issue, the microcyclic rust body mimics the habit of parental macrocyclic forms and occurs on the host plants of the latter's non-racial stage (see Cummins and Hiratsuka 1983 for a more complete explanation with examples). In tropical regions, teliospores can develop and immediately sprout at any time a year. Thick walls of spores and pigmentation of walls, which often determine the features of moderate rust, are much less common. If distinctive spermagonia, paraphysics, or urediniospores are present in the collected material, rust can be difficult to identify (Savile 1980). Identification of rust species often begins with the identification of the host, so along with rust should collect healthy, uninfected foliage of the host and reproductive structures. There are many regional indices and taxonomic rust monographs. Many of them are listed in Hiratzuk and Sato (1982:35-36). North American species were treated by Arthur (1934) and Cummins (1962, 1971, 1978); Cilliers (1974), which monographed a Western-Canadian rust tree; and Leon Gallegos and Cummins (1981) and Yarstad (1956, 1959), which are monographs of Mexican and South American rust, respectively. Doidge (1939), Eboh (1986), Gjaerum (1986, and papers cited in this) surveyed African rust. Guemann (1959) and Wilson and Henderson (1966) published treatments for European rust, as well as Kuprevich and Tranzschel' (1957) and Savulescu (1953) monographs of species originating in and around the former Soviet Union. Cummins (1950) and Ito (1950) index Chinese and Japanese species, respectively. Charikleia Stefanaki, in microbiome and metabolome in diagnosis, therapy Other strategic uses, 2019B obesity of the two main phila, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, were not significantly different between obesity and non-obesity subjects. Subjects. the minor violet of Sigomikota was significantly underrepresented in fecal samples of obese subjects. Family biodiversity was much lower, and the trend towards increased biodiversity at other levels was also found in non- binding individuals. Several studies anticipate an increase in the diversity of mycobiome in IBD. Cause-and-effect relationship can be established if antimicrobial treatment, focused on certain fungal groups, will lead to either aggravation or cure. On the other hand, if the treatment of the disease were to simultaneously lead to the modulation of mycobioma, it would seem more likely that mycobiom is now dependent on the condition of the disease. [55]. how to disable adblock on google chrome android

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