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Ecology and Population Status and the Impact of Trophy Hunting of the Leopard Panthera Pardus (LINNAEUS, 1758) in the Luambe

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Ecology and Population Status and the Impact of Trophy Hunting of the Leopard Panthera Pardus (LINNAEUS, 1758) in the Luambe Ecology and population status and the impact of trophy hunting of the leopard Panthera pardus (LINNAEUS, 1758) in the Luambe National Park and surrounding Game Management Areas in Zambia By Rena-Rebecca Ray Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Sciene (Dr. rer. nat.) in Zoology of the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn Bonn, August 2011 Erklärung Hiermit erkläre ich, dass ich diese Dissertation persönlich, selbständig und unter Offenlegung der erhaltenen Hilfen angefertigt habe und, dass diese Arbeit noch nicht anderweitig als Dissertation eingereicht wurde. Stellen der Arbeit, die anderen Werken dem Wortlaut oder Sinn entnommen wurden, sind unter Angabe der Quellen als Entlehnung kenntlich gemacht. Rena-Rebecca Ray Bonn, August 2011 This dissertation was supported by: Alexander Koenig Stiftung Luawata conservation Ecology and population status and the impact of trophy hunting of the leopard Panthera pardus (LINNAEUS, 1758) in the Luambe National Park and surrounding Game Management Areas in Zambia Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades (Dr. rer. nat.) an der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn Vorgelegt von Rena-Rebecca Ray aus Düsseldorf Bonn, August 2011 Angefertigt mit Genehmigung der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Böhme 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Horst Bleckmann Tag der Promotion: 30.11.2011 Erscheinungsjahr: 2011 Table of contents Table of contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... I Zusammenfassung ..................................................................................................................... III Acknowledgement...................................................................................................................... V Table of figures ........................................................................................................................ VIII List of tables .............................................................................................................................. XI List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. XII 1 General Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 The conservation status of leopards in Zambia and concern of this study .................... 1 1.2 The primary objectives of this study ............................................................................... 3 1.3 The Leopard - background .............................................................................................. 5 1.3.1 Description and taxonomy .................................................................................... 5 1.3.2 Distribution ........................................................................................................... 7 1.3.3 Life history ............................................................................................................. 9 1.3.4 Reproduction....................................................................................................... 10 1.3.5 Trophy hunting .................................................................................................... 10 1.4. The study area ............................................................................................................... 11 1.4.1 Zambia and its Geography .................................................................................. 11 1.4.2 The Luangwa Valley............................................................................................. 13 1.4.3 The Game Management Areas ........................................................................... 15 1.4.4 The Luambe National Park and the bordering GMA-Chanjuzi ........................... 16 1.4.5 Fauna ................................................................................................................... 19 1.4.7 Vegetation ........................................................................................................... 20 2 Population estimate of the leopard (Panthera pardus) in Luambe National Park and a bordering Game Management Area in the Luangwa Valley of Zambia ....................... 21 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 21 2.1.1 Study area ........................................................................................................... 22 2.2 Methods ........................................................................................................................ 22 2.2.1 Camera trapping ................................................................................................. 22 2.2.2 Identification of single individuals ...................................................................... 26 2.2.3 Analyses of population estimates ....................................................................... 27 2.2.4 Calculating relative abundance indices of prey species and species of inter- specific competition ............................................................................................ 28 2.2.5 Statistical methods .............................................................................................. 29 Table of contents 2.3 Results ........................................................................................................................... 30 2.3.1 Camera trapping and identification of individual leopards ................................ 30 2.3.2 Relative abundance indices (RAI) ........................................................................ 35 2.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 38 2.4.1 Estimate of leopard population abundance and density by camera trapping ... 38 2.4.2 Relative Abundance Indices (RAI) and inter-specific competition ..................... 41 2.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 44 3 Home ranges, activity patterns and habitat preferences of leopards in an undisturbed area (Luambe National Park) and a disturbed area (Game Management Area) in the Luangwa Valley in Zambia ........................................................................................ 45 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 45 3.1.1 Study area ........................................................................................................... 46 3.2 Methods ........................................................................................................................ 51 3.2.1 Baiting and collaring of the leopards .................................................................. 51 3.2.2 Locations through VHF tracking .......................................................................... 53 3.2.3 Home ranges ....................................................................................................... 55 3.2.4 Activity pattern ................................................................................................... 56 3.2.5 Analysis of habitat use ........................................................................................ 57 3.2.5.1 Comparison of habitat availability and habitat use .............................. 58 3.2.6 Statistical methods .............................................................................................. 58 3.3 Results ........................................................................................................................... 59 3.3.1 Baiting and information collected during collaring procedure........................... 59 3.3.2 Home ranges ....................................................................................................... 60 3.3.3 Home ranges in and outside the National Park .................................................. 62 3.3.4 Tendencies of certain factors in relation to home range size ............................ 65 3.3.5 Activity pattern ................................................................................................... 66 3.3.5.1 Comparison of mobility and immobility ............................................... 67 3.3.5.2 Activity pattern in the course of the day .............................................. 68 3.3.6 Habitat composition of the different leopard home ranges .............................. 72 3.3.7 Habitat availability versus habitat use ................................................................ 76 3.3.8 Habitat preferences according to JACOBS (1974) ................................................. 80 3.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 84 3.4.1 Baiting and information collected during collaring procedure........................... 84 3.4.2 Home ranges in and outside the National Park .................................................. 85 3.4.3 Factors in relation to home range size ............................................................... 87 3.4.4 Activity pattern
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