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The Role of Small Private Game Reserves in Leopard Panthera Pardus and Other Carnivore Conservation in South Africa

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The role of small private game reserves in leopard Panthera pardus and other carnivore conservation in South Africa Tara J. Pirie Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of The University of Reading for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Biological Sciences November 2016 Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my supervisors Professor Mark Fellowes and Dr Becky Thomas, without whom this thesis would not have been possible. I am sincerely grateful for their continued belief in the research and my ability and have appreciated all their guidance and support. I especially would like to thank Mark for accepting this project. I would like to acknowledge Will & Carol Fox, Alan, Lynsey & Ronnie Watson who invited me to join Ingwe Leopard Research and then aided and encouraged me to utilize the data for the PhD thesis. I would like to thank Andrew Harland for all his help and support for the research and bringing it to the attention of the University. I am very grateful to the directors of the Protecting African Wildlife Conservation Trust (PAWct) and On Track Safaris for their financial support and to the landowners and participants in the research for their acceptance of the research and assistance. I would also like to thank all the Ingwe Camera Club members; without their generosity this research would not have been possible to conduct and all the Ingwe Leopard Research volunteers and staff of Thaba Tholo Wilderness Reserve who helped to collect data and sort through countless images. To Becky Freeman, Joy Berry-Baker and my South African family for preventing me going bush crazy in Africa and to Sam, Ana and Hugh, and all my friends for preventing me from going office crazy in the UK! Lastly I wish to dedicate this thesis to my family, Roy & Fran Pirie, Donna & Matthew Denton who have whole heartedly supported me through every high and low over this journey and to the late Ronnie Watson who believed in preserving leopards for the future! 1 The following people must be acknowledged for their practical assistance during the following chapters of this thesis: Chapter 2: Sarah Allman, Alexander Arnold, Sian Green, Kieran Meehan and Rebecca Mott provided assistance with the collection of data as part of their third year dissertations, and Peter Morely who provided assistance with the collection of data as a volunteer for Ingwe Leopard Research. This chapter is published as: Pirie, T. J., Thomas, R. L., & Fellowes, M. D. E. (2016a). Limitations to recordinglarger mammalian predators in savannah using camera traps and spoor. Wildlife Biology, 22: 3-21. Each author contributed to writing the manuscript. Chapter 3: Erin Emery, Michael Fielding, Sarah Patrick, Suzanna Platts, Kayleigh Reid provided assistance with the collection of data as part of their third year dissertations. Gabi Cottam, Donna Phillips, Dylan Covaras, Justine Dickson and Tabitha Stokes who made significant contributions to data collection as a volunteer for Ingwe Leopard Research. This chapter is under review: Pirie, T. J., Thomas, R. L., & Fellowes, M. D. E. Fencing differentially affects domestic, introduced and wild South African mammals. Submitted to the Journal of Wildlife Management. Each author contributed to writing the manuscript. Chapter 4: Stephanie Higgins, Ellie Higgs, Georgie Davey, Carys Palmer who provided assistance with the collection of data as part of their third year dissertations. Sara Kearns, Laura Collins, Jacquelyn Kerr, Becca Croucher, Fred Rainsford, Natasha Tay, Laura Perry, Colin Tucker, Jack Taylor, Pierre-Louis Robertson, Sylvain Nasse, Mark Jarratt, Jordan Di Cicco, Jessica Magee, Isobel Green Moore, Julia Luxemburger, Alana, Chiara Dragonetti, Kirsten Begbie, Pete Morley, Alec Simpson, Becky Freeman, Caralyn Banham, Chelsea Kegel, Dawn Way de Klerk, Gill and Steve Grubb, Sarah, Simone Blagg, Sandra Tiemann, Donna Phillips, Gabi Cottam, Shirely Chan and Suelina Quan who all helped to check camera traps and process data as volunteers for the Ingwe Leopard Research. Alex Braczkowski and Clay Wilton gave extremely helpful advice on the secr program. Chapter 5: Justine Dickson, Marietjie Language and Jason Smith who assisted with conducting the surveys and translation. PAWct and Will & Carol Fox who financed the 2010 surveys. This chapter is under review: Pirie, T. J., Thomas, R. L., & Fellowes, M. D. E. Increasing game prices may affect landowners’ attitudes towards leopards (Panthera pardus) and other carnivores in South Africa. Submitted to PeerJ. Each author contributed to writing the manuscript. 2 Chapter 6: This chapter has been published: Pirie, T. J., Thomas, R. L., & Fellowes, M. D. E. (2016b). Erythristic morphs of the leopard Panthera pardus in South Africa. Bothalia: African Biodiversity and Conservation, 46: a2034. Each author contributed to writing the manuscript. Declaration of original authorship: I confirm that this is my own work and the use of all materials from other sources has been properly and fully acknowledged. Tara J. Pirie. University of Reading. November 2016. 3 Contents Acknowledgements ........………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………1 List of figures………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..7 List of tables…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………..….….10 Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………13 Introduction: The impact of humans on leopards and other carnivores 1.1. Global threats to carnivores .....................................................................................................……..15 1.2. Main factors for carnivore decline ............................................................................................. …..15 1.3. Conflict and persecution ............................................................................................................. ….16 1.4. Removal methods........................................................................................................................ ….17 1.5. Prevention methods……………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………..…….17 1.6. Compensation ............................................................................................................................... ..18 1.7. Consequences of removal ............................................................................................................... 18 1.8. Ecological factors limiting carnivore distribution…………………………………………………………………………18 1.9. South Africa ................................................................................................................................. ….19 1.10. Fencing issues…………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………….…..20 1.11. Apex predators ........................................................................................................................... …21 1.12. Leopard ecology .......................................................................................................................... ..22 1.13. Other predators ........................................................................................................... ……………..…25 1.14. Methods for studying carnivores………………………………………………………………………………………………26 1.15. Study site .................................................................................................................................... …27 Aims and objectives ..................................................................................................................................... …28 Chapter 2 ...................................................................................................................................................... …29 Limitations to recording larger mammalian predators in savannah using camera traps and spoor 2.1. Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ …30 2.2. Introduction.................................................................................................................................. …31 2.3. Methods ....................................................................................................................................... …33 2.4. Results .......................................................................................................................................... …37 2.5. Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... …41 Chapter 3 ....................................................................................................................................................... ..45 Fencing differentially affects domestic, introduced and wild South African mammals 3.1. Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 46 3.2. Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 47 3.3. Methods .......................................................................................................................................... 48 3.4. Results ............................................................................................................................................. 53 3.5. Discussion .......................................................................................................................................
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