Marcin Rebes

Tolerance versus - Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski

Thinking about tolerance on the one hand carries the burden of the­ oretical pondering based on an accepted abstract idea, and on the other hand - an experience of a specific person. The pe­ riod adopted both such principles. Tolerance was an idea for huma­ nists, whilst for the people of the time it was becoming an experien­ ce observed in the world. The development of tolerance usually took place in times of conflict and crisis; it was also such in this case. As a humanist, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski assumes that the individu­ al is reasonable and free, giving an example of the liberty and inde­ pendence of thinking and actions of a human being. Humanism re­ surrected the internal and external activity in man, and a tendency for opting for that, which is worldly and remains in the range of his perception. This idea found favourable conditions also in the form of social changes in the Republic of . The social tensions, esta­ blished on the grounds of a conflict between the nobility and towns­ folk, led to the elimination of the latter group from social life. For example, the General sejm in Piotrków in 1496 deprived the towns­ folk the possibility of getting rich on trade1, contributing to the fall

1 The sejm exempts the nobility from having to pay commercial tax on im­ port and export of agricultural products, and at successive sessions, decides on 48 Marcin Rebes of the cities. People who were well-educated and characterised by great creativity left the cities and returned to the farms, attempting to gain nobleness there. Not only the unequal taxes, but also the lack of possibility to buy land and holding higher positions in the Church caused these two states to clash. Frycz Modrzewski was born in 1503 in the family of the Wolborz mayor, who possessed a noble title, although in a sense, holding this position and the outlooks of the father rather gave away middle-class inclinations of Frycz. Modrzewski, however, leaves the home which connects both middle-class and noble traditions. A similar social stratification to the one seen in Poland, also existed in other parts of the continent. In the south of Europe, in Italy, a social conflict, on the grounds of which the movement called humanism came into being, concerned possessors of latifundia and the middle-class. In Poland, another social group next to the middle-class that was excluded in important socio-political disputes was the peasantry. Frycz will refer to them in his tract on manslaughter2* . He wants the law to oblige in an equal way for a peasant, as well as a noble. All in all, he is concerned with the law based on equality of citi­ zens. This idea was very bold for those times and two centuries ahead of introducing the first constitution in Europe, which the Polish citi­ zen received in 1791. Modrzewski did not propose the abolishment of introducing a prohibition for townsfolk to buy land. Here, they referred to patriotic reasons, as the nobility guarded the motherland, helping her should a war break out. 2 Modrzewski wrote four speeches on this subject, among which his first was titled: Łaski, czyli pierwsza mowa o karze za mężobójstwo [Lascius, or on the pen­ alty for manslaughter!. Later, he also wrote: Do senatu, szlachty i narodu polskiego - druga mowa o karze za mężobójstwo [To the Senate, nobility and the Polish nation - the second speech on the penalty for manslaughter], Do arcybiskupów, biskupów i kapłanów kościołów - trzecia mowa o karze za mężobójstwo [To archbishops, bish­ ops and priests of churches - the third speech on the penalty for manslaughter] and Do narodu i ludu polskiego skarga na wzgardzenie prawa o mężobójstwo - czwarta mowa o karze za mężobójstwo [To the nation and Polish people, a complaint for scorning the law on manslaughter - the fourth speech on the penalty for manslaughter]. Tolerance versus humanism... 49 divisions in the country or equalising the states, but only legal equal­ ity. This idea, which gives citizen equal rights is a certain cultural and political breakthrough and initiates a movement in favour of a civil country. There is no purpose in seeking the term tolerance in Fryczs legacy, as this term may have a negative connotation for him con­ nected with the noble state, which was marked by excessive freedom and moral liberty. In the case of Modrzewski, however, tolerance has a moral overtone based on the faith in mans common sense and his freedom. In reference to the second definition, by no means can free­ dom, understood in the renaissance sense as the freedom of the in­ dividual building a country on social contract be accepted. Fryczs thinking, however, remains a milestone on the road to democracy and a civil country based on law. He is definitely an outstanding rep­ resentative of the renaissance, for he concentrates on the value of the individual, especially its mind power and ethical-moral principles. He dismisses the outlook, that man’s qualities are the result of his be­ longing to the noble state, but the morality coded in the mind.

The Republic versus social and cultural reforms

Apart from the social conflict experiences observed in the early pe­ riod of the writers life, there are others to be added, such as the re­ formation and trend called humanism coming into existence. Mo- drzewskis particularly strong commitment to political, social and religious matters can be observed after his return from his studies abroad, dated to be the year of 1541. Shortly before his arrival in Po­ land, however, some important events take place connected with the attempt to reform the law through King Sigismund I the Old. This concerns the dismissal of the act in the matter of manslaughter pas­ sed by the sejm in 1494. The king wanted to abolish it in 1538, sub­ mitting it to a debate in the sejm; however, due to the opposition of the nobility, nothing came of the reform. When he returned to the country, Modrzewski writes his speeches taking up the problem of 50 Marcin Rebes legal equality, addressed to the senate and nobility, bishops and cler­ gymen, as well as to the Polish nation respectively. He publishes his first speech in the case of the punishment for a murder by a noble and peasant in 1543, that is two years after his return. Among others, he writes:

It is truly pathetic to entrust a changeable and fluid judgement of fate, what should result from common sense. Why then, does the law, against which both the rich and the poor sin, stipulate a punish­ ment that the rich and poor cannot suffer in an equal degree3. Modrzewski postulates, that in both cases, murder is wrong, for which the same punishment should be inflicted. A lack of an adequate punishment for a noble encourages him to solve conflicts in the same manner, taking the life of a peasant. Striving for equal rights of all people in Lascius, or on the penalty for manslaughter, shows a wider spectrum of what the authors tolerance is about. The meaning and character of tolerance itself were subject to great change over the years in history. In order to be able to talk about tolerance in the modern meaning, first one had to work on certain atti­ tudes in society and dispose of beliefs about the dominating role on one state at the cost of another. In this process, one cannot omit such cultural achievements like the freedom of man and observance of the law, which equally protects and lays responsibility upon every human being. The modern understanding of tolerance from the perspective of dialogue is based on personal relations, as well as respect towards so­ cial groups, including ethnic or national. In order to do this, cultural and social preparation was needed, emphasising the freedom and rea­ son of the individual, regardless of origin. Tolerating attitudes and an appurtenance to a specific group increases from the respect of man and seeking for a worthy adversary in him, disregarding his opinions.

3 A.F. Modrzewski, Łaski, czyli pierwsza mowa o karze za mężobójstwo, [w:] Mowy, thim. E. Jędrkiewicz, wstęp Ł. Kurdybacha, Warszawa 1954, s. 63 n„ Dzieła wszystkie, t. 2. Tolerance versus humanism... 51

Frycz Modrzewski mentions equality from the perspective of origin. He dismisses the standpoint, in which the respect of a human being and his rights is practised on other circumstances. The arguments that he uses in his defence are of moral character.

Restraint and dialogue

Next to his speeches on the matter of manslaughter, Modrzewski is the author of yet another very well-known work: O poprawie Rzeczy­ pospolitej [On the improvement of the Republic]. As he did in the first work, here, he also lays out the rightness of his arguments, basing on common sense and reason. This tract consists of five books with the following titles, respectively: O obyczajach [On customs], O pra­ wach [On laws], O wojnie [On war], O Kościele [On the Church] and O szkole [On school]4. The first three were published in 1551, the two remaining did not receive imprimatur and that is why they were pla­ ced on an index of forbidden books. When it comes to tolerance in this context, there are two impor­ tant spheres involved, that is “educating and bringing up the nation and a necessity of summoning a synod”, as well as “admitting other layers besides nobility to take part in social and political life”. The first aims at shaping the human beings attitude, which controls its negative incentives, going by a restrained but open mind. Therefore, restraint is needed. Due to this, tolerance is seen as restraint. Other, equally important features next to this distinguished one come into play, for example, “dialogue between religions”. As far as Modrzews­ ki s discussion of “restraint” in the books On customs and On school are concerned, in a sense, “dialogue” does not appear before the vol­ ume devoted to the Church. The author of On the improvement of the Republic is a realist and is aware, that returning to the unity of the Church is not possible, but wishes to discard the language of

4 The first three books were published in 1551, the following in 1554 and 1559. 52 Marcin Rebes aggression, in order to be able to enter into an essential discussion about bringing points of view closer together. Although the terms of dialogue do not have expressis verbis in Modrzewskis works, its presence can still be seen through the an­ gle of relations between the Catholic Church and various protestant Churches, as well as the division of power in the Republic. Modrze­ wskis postulates constitute the proposition of religious and socio­ national dialogue. Tolerance is manifested through engaging in dis­ cussion over divisions in order to build unity. An example of such discussion is the summoning of a synod, which will embrace not only persons of the catholic faith, but also protestants; however, Modrze­ wski is still a long way from the modern understanding of dialogue. In the days of and counterreformation, he is a precursor of open discussion, which aim is to bring closer the opinions that un­ til then threw accusations at each other. The beginning of tolerance is bringing up citizens, which relies on gaining knowledge and restrain­ ing anger and negative feelings. Modrzewski assumes that the lack of knowledge causes conflicts, also towards the division in the Church. The author of On the improvement of the Republic postulates the eradication of a tendency for anger, being the cause for starting up any wars, also on the basis of religion. This Polish learned man, living in the period of the Polish reformation, clearly opposes to reach his right­ ness using force or violence. In this, he draws attention to not only un­ derstanding a given thing, but also to morality. The source of conflict is both the lack of knowledge, as well as controlling impetuosity. That, which gives appropriate proportions and subjects sensuality to reason, is morality. “They should shape this desire, suppressing its impetuos­ ity and agitation, bringing them to moderation and subjugating reason with law and power, namely, so that neither love nor hate, hope nor fear, nor any other feeling exceed the limits of honesty”5.

5 A.F. Modrzewski, O obyczajach, [w:] O poprawie Rzeczypospolitej, tłum. E. Jędrkiewicz, wstęp Ł. Kurdybacha, Warszawa 1953, s. 105, Dzieła wszyst­ kie, t. 1. Tolerance versus humanism... 53

In the volume On customs, he insists on restraining from anger, which disturbs relations towards morality and interpersonal rela­ tions. It is proper when it does not yield to the feelings of anger. In the context of the cited fragment, todays understanding of tolerance is consolidated on the rejection of impetuosity and agitation for the power of reason. Tolerance is the relation towards people and the world giving the right of way to reason. Ethics, customs go togeth­ er with freedom and the tolerance of the human being. In order to be guided by reason, preparation is needed, which education and knowledge grant us. On the level of On customs, one can find toler­ ance in reason and restraint from agitation and anger. In this, the positive aspect of mans freedom and reason is assumed; therefore, the idea of humanism is uncovered. Agitation must be substituted with a reasonable nature and the freedom of the mind. Therefore, morals provide us with the possibility of tolerance, which is inter­ preted as restraint and the possibility of dialogue. From the perspective of the idea of religious tolerance, the fourth volume is particularly important - On the Church. In it Modrzewski ponders over the possibility of summoning a synod, which would be able to find compromise between the Catholic Church and the re­ formed Church. The controversy appearing around the conflict for the primacy of on Church over the other, and also the break-up of Christianity becoming more and more distinct, did not touch the theoretical di­ vagations as much as, in Modrzewski’s case, they resulted from his own experiences. For a long time, the writer found himself under the patronage of the Łaski family, which later reformed to Protestantism. These relations were not solely based on financial support, but in time, they transformed in a friendship between the Łaski family and Modrzewski. At the beginning we wrote that tolerance has the fea­ ture of an idea and individual experience. Going in this direction, we can state that religious tolerance is a certain project, but also a neces­ sity resulting from the drama of the human being. A confirmation of this thesis is the life and works of Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski. 54 Marcin Rebes

Religious tolerance

After graduating from the in Cracow, Modrzew­ ski got a job from bishop Łaski, which gained him valuable experience. He also participated in synods and sejms, as well as courts, which allo­ wed him to become acquainted with the worries and problems of socie­ ty at various social stratums. The bishops nephew, Jan Łaski, supported Frycz financially and spiritually. Thanks to his help and commitment, the writer could continue further education in Wittenberg. During his residence there, Modrzewski lived in Philipp Melanchthons home and in time became the mediator between Melanchthon and Łaski. Another event is connected with the latter, namely, the fact of pre­ senting Desiderius of Rotterdam (Gerrit Gerritszoon) with a li­ brary for life. Łaski first bought the whole library and then after the death of Erasmus, was to ask Modrzewski, to bring it to Poland (in 1536). After some time, Łaski reformed from Catholicism to Protestantism and left the country, organising a protestant Church in Germany and England. Modrzewski, remaining in close relations with Jan Łaski, remained loyal to the Catholic doctrine. Similarly to Erasmus of Rotterdam, Frycz Mo­ drzewski made every effort to reconcile the warring sides of the politi­ cal-religious conflict - Catholicism and Protestantism. Towards the end of his life, he also took up mediation between the Calvins and Arians.

The reformation and counterreformation

From 1548, when King Sigmundus Augustus came to the throne, a new era began, which favoured the development of the reformation movement in Poland. The great majority of the senators and mem­ bers of parliament opted for reformation. In Poland, the tendency to make oneself independent from the authority of Rome prevailed. This situation contributed to building the national Church. “Partly due to the English and German religious relations and the general Tolerance versus humanism... 55 tendency for separating from secularised Rome, the matter of the national Church is developing in Poland”6. Under the influence of senators and members of parliament, king Sigmundus Augustus promised the assembly of the national council, which was to be accepted by the Holy See. This idea came about dur­ ing the sejm sessions in 1550 and 1552, but the king did not meet these obligations due to the opposition of the bishops. Earlier conflicts be­ tween the king and the bishops silenced after the provincial synod in 1554. The king agreed to the proposition of summoning a provincial synod in the year 1555, on which protestant representatives were to be present, and the nuncio was to preside over it. This idea was interrupt­ ed by the death of Pope Julius III. After this time, the problem of reli­ gion in Poland strengthened. Also a number of bishops were inclined to establish a national Church. The propositions included in the tract On the improvement of the Republic have some valour that is not only intellectual, but also - in reference to the specific historical time and to the problem, which was very topical at that time - practical. To a significant degree, Modrzewski contributed to enacting the project of summoning the council, together with 24 articles of faith, which connected elements of various religions in it. The project, how­ ever, did not mean a break with the Roman Church. In 1556, the sejm of the Republic sent Stanislaw Maciejewski to Rome, demanding the realisation of postulates by Pope Paul VI. They demanded the intro­ duction of national languages to the liturgy, communion in two forms, the abolishment of celibacy, and acceptance for assembling an ecu­ menical council. The Pope agreed only to the last postulate, but the council was to take place not as proposed, in one of the cities of empire, but in Rome itself. The sejm suggested that protestants take part in the council. The pope rejected this proposition. In August 1555, the Polish bishops rejected the sejm’s postulates and also sent messengers to the Holy See - with a request to accept an presided by

6 Historia Kościoła, H. T ii c h 1 e and C. A. B o u m a n, translation: J. Piesie- wi cz, Warszawa 1986, vol. 3, p. 362 56 Marcin Rebes a nuncio. They also proposed a return to the , which was earlier interrupted. The person, who opposed the decision of the sejm and the bishops, was Stanislaw Hozjusz. His opinions were very radical against both groups. Bishops Drohojewski and Uchański, who supported the proposition of the sejm, were not representatives of an extreme standpoint towards reformation. Their approach was middle- of-the-road and formed around Fryczs proposition. The thinker pro­ posed a compromising reform of the Church, which on the one hand is common, but on the other - national. Modrzewski is an exponent of the idea of religious tolerance in the sphere of the Christian world. He claims that no one can be forced to profess to a faith. The free will of the human being is the impossible to bear condition of professing and opting for a side of any faith. Czeslaw Milosz in Historia literatury polskiej [The history of ] quotes Frycz: “The profession of faith, forced by violence, is untrue and it neither appeals to God, nor can any work done against the will of man be regarded as good”7. Milosz claims that Modrzewski, mediating in the matter of bringing the views of Protestantism and Catholicism closer together, omitted larger and larger doctrinal separation of both Churches. He was unaware of the theological difference between these circles. Here, it seems that the standpoint of the poet is greatly exaggerated. Fryczs idea of the council is that it can help in the mutual union of the warring sides. In reference to that plan, he calls upon the texts that were written at the beginning of the shaping of Christianity, such as the Acts of the Apostles or Letters of St Paul. Modrzewski calls the mean­ ing of the term “general council” and “ecumenical council” to atten­ tion. In both cases, it is about expanding the council outside the clergy. The councils should have representatives of varying social and religious groups and representatives of various scholarly fields. In this sense, should the necessity of dialogue over divisions not be talked about?

7 C. Miłosz, Historia literatury polskiej do roku 1939, translation M. Tar­ nowska, Kraków 1994, p. 60. Tolerance versus humanism... 57

“For it is visible and stated, that among the secular, one can find many educated in numerous fields and more fluent even in than many bishops; it cannot, therefore, go without it being great­ ly harmful for the Church, if the possibility to express an opinion or settle cases of dispute is granted to bishops, but taken away from others”’. Modrzewski cares that participation in the council is made possible for as many people as possible. If the council is to be bind­ ing, it should be the work of a variety of people; it cannot limit the knowledge about the Church and God only to the clergy. At this time, the Church falls into a serious crisis, which lies in the stronger and stronger separation of science from faith. This stratification will have serious consequences in the form of dualism lasting right up to the XX century. The first such disunity occurred during the renaissance period, when a current in science and art, called humanism, began. In Modrzewskis work, one can notice a serious accusation towards bishops and the clergy, who not only did not at the time belong to the best educated group, but their level of education was simply far from expectations. The Council of Trent, which introduces the necessity of establishing seminaries, also raises this argument. In this scope, toler­ ance manifests itself as a necessity of removing all animosity and pri­ vate interests in summoning a council, which aim is a clear-headed view at the problem of division. Confrontation without dialogue is substituted by mutual reference and working out a common stand­ point. Modrzewski is not only an advocate of religious tolerance, but also legal equality, which can be seen in his opinion on equalling the punishment for manslaughter for both the nobility and the poor peasant in the tract Ad Serenissimum et Inclytum Regetn Poloniae Si- gismundum Augustum Lascius sive de poena homicidii from 1543. “Let, then, this be the aim of the Republic, that all her citizens can live well and happily, that is (as Cicero explains), honestly and justly, that all grow in dignity and goodness, that all live a peaceful and quiet life, that all can protect and keep their property, that all are safe from

A.F. Modrzewski, O Kościele, [w:] O poprawie Rzeczypospolitej, s. 379. 58 Marcin Rebes harm and murder in the strongest way possible. Because it is protec­ tion from this, that has been sought in cities and the Republics”9. In his tracts, Modrzewski refers to Erasmus of Rotterdam, as well as Jan Ludwik Vives. His tracts place emphasis on the connection of intel­ lectual education with moral upbringing. Moral nature flows from the shaping of conscience and gained intellectual knowledge. At ap­ proximately the same time, Machiavelli published his works; how­ ever, with the significant difference, that for him, the primary aim is a strong nation, even at the cost of applying bad means. Modrzewski, however, follows the moral and intellectual strengthening of citizens, for in this case, it is not the strong nation, but a well-brought up and educated citizen. In the mentioned volume On the Church, Modrzewskis opinions agree with the Irenicism of Erasmus of Rotterdam. The writer calls upon Erasmus and his legacy. Similarly to the Dutch thinker, the au­ thor of On the improvement of the Republic, criticises the hypocrisy and dissoluteness of customs. Erasmus does this in his principal work titles Pochwała głupoty [The praise of stupidity]. In carrying out ar­ gumentation for the improvement of customs and educating an intel­ lectual society, both call upon the classics of literature, such as: Aris­ totle, Cicero, Livy, Seneca, and Church Fathers: Ambrose, Origen and Augustine. Gerrit Gerritszoon acknowledged that upbringing should have other foundations, besides severe treatment. It should be based on the happiness and enjoyment of the child. This learned proposes education consolidated on the knowledge of classical languages and supplementary subjects, such as history, geography and mathematics. The criticism of Erasmus of Rotterdam above all embraces snobbism and religiousness without piety observed among the clergy. Frycz Modrzewski takes up the similar problem in his works. Both are ahead of their time in their opinions, which oppose the ideas of hereditary monarchy and those leading to establishing citi­ zen virtue in man.

’ A.F. Modrzewski, O obyczajach, s. 98. Tolerance versus humanism... 59

The similarity of views of Erasmus of Rotterdam and Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski is also characterised by a pacifistic approach and Irenicism. Entering a war is the last resort and can be justified only when it results from self-defence. Wars are classified as just (defen­ sive) and unjust (plundering). This division is not only an indica­ tion that every political action should be based on morality, but also a specific nature of the nation, which realises these values, is neces­ sary. For this, education connected with upbringing is essential.

Summary

These two main works by Modrzewski that we mentioned: On the improvement of the Republic and Lascius, or on the penalty for man­ slaughter, make up a certain opinion in the case of tolerance in the times of social and cultural changes in the XVI century in Poland. To summarise, tolerance in Frycz embraces: legal equality of all social groups, raising the importance of the human mind and the freedom of the individual resulting from it, religious tolerance based on the summoning of the synod and determining opinions - dialogue be­ tween religions, as well as the education of citizens. Called by many as the father of Polish democracy, Modrzewski stands as a guard in the reforms leading to respecting the laws and freedom of man, and establishing a law, that would respect these values. The most signifi­ cant contribution in the development in tolerance is the attempt at summoning the synod and to bring peace to the country.

Bibliography

P. S. Allen, Opus epistolarum Desiderii Erasmi Roterodami, t. I-XII, Oxford 1906-1958. Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski i problemy kultury polskiego Odrodzenia, red. T. Bieńkowski, Wrocław 1974. 60 Marcin Rebes

H. Bornkamm, Erasmus und Luther, [w:] idem, Das Jahrhundert der Refor­ mation, Göttingen 1961, s. 36-55. A. F. Modrzewski, Dzieła Wszystkie, PIW Warszawa: A. E Modrzewski, O poprawie Rzeczypospolitej, tłum. E. Jędrkiewicz, wstęp Ł. Kurdybacha, PIW, Warszawa 1953, Dzieła wszystkie, 1.1. A. F. Modrzewski, Mowy, tłum. E. Jędrkiewicz, wstęp Ł. Kurdybacha, PIW, Warszawa 1954, Dzieła wszystkie, t. 2. A. F. Modrzewski, O Kościele księga druga, tłum. I. Lichońska, H. Krępska, wstęp Ł. Kurdybacha, PIW, Warszawa 1957, Dzieła wszystkie, t. 3. A. F. Modrzewski, Sylwy, tłum. L. Joachinowicz, wstęp Ł. Kurdybacha, PIW, Warszawa 1959, Dzieła wszystkie, t. 5. A. Frycz Modrzewski, Wybór pism, oprać. W. Voise, tłum. E. Jędykiewicz et al., Wrocław 1977. Μ. Hoffman, Erkenntnis und Verwirklichung der wahren Theologie nach Er­ azm, Tübingen 1972. S. Kot, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Nakładem Krakowskiej Spółki Wydaw­ niczej, drukarnia W. L. Anczyca i Spółki, wydanie 2 popr., Kraków 1923. Luther, Erasmus and the Reformation, ed. J. C. Olin, J. D. Smart, R. E. Mc- Nally, New York 1969. S. Piwko, Frycza Modrzewskiego program reformy państwa i Kościoła, Warszawa 1979. J. D. Tracy, The Politics of Erasmus. A Pacifist Intelectual and His Political Milieu, Toronto 1978. W. Voise, Frycza Modrzewskiego nauka o państwie i prawie. Warszawa 1956. F. Modrzewski, O Poprawie Rzeczypospolitej, [in:J Filozofia i myśl społeczna XVI wieku, red. Lech Szczucki, PWN, Warszawa 1978

Translated by Przemysław and Jagoda Lembicz Tolerance versus humanism... 61

Tolerancja a humanizm - Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski

Renesans jest szczególnym okresem kultury europejskiej. Powstający wów­ czas humanizm koncentrował się na człowieku jako istocie rozumnej, a An­ drzej Frycz Modrzewski jest jednym z przedstawicieli tego nurtu. Artykuł ma na celu ukazanie tego pisarza na tle epoki oraz wskazanie problemu tole­ rancji religijnej jako kluczowego dla epoki odrodzenia. Wzajemna niechęć, jak również walka o prymat prowadziły do konfliktów religijnych między powstającymi wówczas odłamami protestanckimi a Kościołem katolickim. Modrzewski proponuje zwołanie synodu, który położyłby kres obopól­ nym oskarżeniom i wrogości. Uczestniczyliby w nim katoliccy i protestanc­ cy teolodzy oraz ludzie nauki. Publicysta próbuje nawiązać dialog między stronami, których wrogość do siebie często wyrasta z ambicjonalnych prze­ słanek. Jego zamiarem jest nie tyle powrót do wcześniejszego stanu, jeszcze sprzed reformacji, ile umiejętność otwartej rozmowy opartej na argumen­ tach. Obok tolerancji religijnej Frycz jest zwolennikiem równości prawa tak dla szlachty, jak i dla chłopów oraz powszechnego dostępu do wiedzy. Na swój sposób wyprzedza on epokę - tolerancja ma dla niego związek z wy­ chowaniem i kształceniem, a także gwarancją prawa dla wszystkich grup społecznych. Ma ona zatem wymiar nie tylko religijny, ale i społeczny.