PATTERNS OF TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF SPONGE ASSEMBLAGES Jade Berman A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Science 2012 ii ABSTRACT iii iv The primary goals of this thesis were to understand the spatial and temporal pattern of sponge assemblage variation over a variety of scales and investigate suitable monitoring methods for sponge assemblages. Sponges are an ecologically significant group in benthic marine communities, which are often ignored in current monitoring schemes. In chapter two the sponge biodiversity of New Zealand waters to 200m was examined using Taxonomic Distinctness measures initially to test if genera data could be used as a proxy for species level data in New Zealand waters. It was found that over 50% of the variation in genera biodiversity could be explained by location and depth around New Zealand. The study helped pinpoint where there were gaps in the New Zealand dataset, in particular for the West Coast of the South Island and also areas such as the Wellington South Coast, which had higher than expected values for Average and Variation Taxonomic distinctness measures, which as important areas where sponges should be monitored to make sure the high levels of biodiversity are protected. Taxonomic distinctness measures are useful for initially assessing how the biodiversity is distributed, especially when using a data set with uneven sampling effort, as it is robust to spatial and temporal bias in the majority of cases. However, there was an outlier to the genera data correlating well with the variation in species data in the case of a site dominated by Haliclona sp (Lyttelton Harbour). In chapters three and four the spatial and temporal variability of sponge assemblages of the Wellington South Coast were explored creating both a species list for the area and an understanding of how the sponge assemblage varies over time and space. There were significant differences in the sponges assemblages in similar habitat types over a scale of a few hundred metres. In addition, although all the sponge assemblages changed seasonally, the changes at each sampling site responded in a slightly different way most likely due to spatiotemporal variation in environmental conditions. A similar seasonal pattern was also observed in chapter five for sponge assemblages at Skomer Marine Reserve and this pattern was also clear when using morphological monitoring methods. This means that once a site has been mapped for biodiversity it is possible for some habitats to use morphological monitoring to identify if the sponge assemblage is changing v significantly saving time and money. The results from Indonesia (chapter six) showed that although the sponge assemblages were changing significantly in the actual species present and their abundances, the proportion of diversity within each spatial level (quadrat, site and region) remained consistent when sampled at the same time each year throughout the five year study. In species rich assemblages there are a variety of life strategies that can respond differently to shifts in environmental conditions and contribute to ecological functioning in various ways. Various monitoring methods have been tested using sponge assemblages over various spatial and temporal scales in this thesis. Spatial, temporal and the interaction of spatial and temporal factors were all important for identifying significant assemblage differences at all of the sites. Further studies integrating the interaction of spatial and temporal factors into understanding monitoring data sets are vital to understand the patterns of assemblage variability and therefore incorporate into habitat management plans. vi ALTERNATIVE ABSTRACT DECIPHERING SPONGES THROUGH TIME AND SPACE … Sponges are not as you may suppose, A funny kind of plant. They are in fact cool animals, Like bats kiwis or ants. So why do I into the deep sea plunge, Taking on my PhD studying the almighty sponge? Well you find them all over the world from Taupo hot pools, To Antarctic quarters, All over the tropics and Wellingtons waters. (which are not tropical I’d like to add…) They have many functional roles Such as filtering the sea, Gluing coral reefs together And making medicines for you and me. Yet sponges are often ignored or described as one entity In monitoring schemes designed to keep our seas healthily So my task is to understand sponge assemblage variability What are the normal patterns and what’s their unpredictability So far I have found out, The world all around us is vast and complex There are seasonal patterns but the scales often perplex There are some patterns over different temporal scales But micro environmental conditions cause spatial factors to prevail. Significant differences can be seen over the scale of a few metres Even when at first glance they look like good repeaters And replicate sites with the same macro conditions vii Can vary considerably in species compositions The scale of natural variability is important to note And the residual flexibility of the assemblage to promote As the sponges often undergo large annual fluctuations Which then return eventually to similar combinations It is possible even for non scientific divers To see significant differences Through morphological change drivers So sponges can be incorporated into monitoring schemes Which through morphological methods Can spot trouble before they disappear into dreams In fact their resilience may lead to a good job for me As sponges outlive climate extremes and take over the sea. J. Berman (submitted for the 2010 “Three minute thesis competition”) viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Over the time I have been in New Zealand I have met, worked with, and become friends with a wide range of people. Although this thesis has my name on the cover, I would not have been able to write these final words without the emotional and physical support that came in many forms from numerous people and the organizations they work for. Firstly I want to thank my family, and in particular my parents Gi and Barbara Berman for letting me be a boomerang kid and come back for three months intensive writing at the family home, taking over the computer and providing me with emotional and edible support. I would also like to thank my supervisor James Bell who has always been amazingly quick to review my work and patiently listened to my many ideas and try and keep me steered along the steady track towards completion of this thesis. He is an inspiration with his ability to manage so many students and yet still publish many papers of his own at the same time. I would not have been able to start my PhD let alone finish without funding, therefore I am grateful for: my New Zealand Educated International Doctoral Scholarship, Victoria University Wellington Science Faculty Research grants for attending the International Sponge Conference 2010 and INTERCOL 2010 plus funds to work at the Queensland Museum, in Brisbane. Victoria University also provided me with a submission scholarship and the Postgraduate Students Association also provided me with a grant towards attending the International Sponge Conference. British Ecological Society also provided me funding towards both my International conferences. New Zealand Marine Sciences Society provided me with awards at their conferences for the best Poster (2008) and the best oral presentation on Conservation in New Zealand (2010). Department of Conservation (Helen Kettles) provided the permit to work in Taputeranga Marine Reserve (docDM-336985) and also Callum and team at ix Paraninihi and the White Island DOC Survey team for allowing me to join you. I could not have written my first data chapter on New Zealand sponge patterns without the help of Michelle Kelly who kindly allowed me access to the NIWA sponge database and checked my identifications, Franzino Smith who helped me develop my ideas for this huge chapter, and let me have access to his pictures and database, as well as taking me along to White Island to carry out surveys to add to national sponge knowledge. The PRIMER and PERMANOVA course with Bob Clarke and Marty Anderson provided me with the inspiration to write this chapter and also made all the other chapters within this thesis possible. Tim Jones and Phil Neubauer both helped me stay on the statistical straight and narrow in order to interpret and present my data in the most suitable manner. Many people have helped me in the field including for Wellington: Alejandra Perea-Blázquez, Alejandro Perez Matus, Anna Smith, Mat Kertez, Nick Ward, Pelayo Salinas de Leon, Phil Neubauer, Steve Lindfield, Tyler Eddy, William Arlidge, Tamsen Byfield, Bioblitz Divers, Phil Neubauer. For Skomer; through the Countryside Council for Wales; Mark Burton, Philip Newman, Rob Gibbs, Kate Lock, F. Bunker and J. Jones. For Indonesia; Lucy Sprung, Sonia Rowley, Abi Powell, Heather Murray, Steve Lindfield, Pelayo Salinas de Leon and Operation Wallacea for letting me work on site. Once I brought back samples to the lab I had lots of help to process them from Alejandra Perea-Blázquez, Ingrid Knapp, Abi Powell, and Susanna Govella. Once I had the samples processed and I had identified them, I then received lots of help from John Hooper and Trish Sutcliffe at the Queensland Museum to match my samples from Indonesia with their huge samples database where possible. Many thanks to the all staff at the SBS, including ‘Snout’ who made diving possible, John who kept the lab ticking over, Patricia who helps keep me an active student, Sandra and Mary without whom SBS would not function and Paul who gives me money whenever I approach with timesheets or grant requests. x Thanks to Claire Pascoe and Zoe Studd for helping me to balance running the Experiencing Marine Reserves Programme around my PhD and I certainly could not have run the programme at all without the help of many people from the lab, housemates and friends who didn’t know quite what to expect.