Peromyscus Burrowing: a Model System for Behavioral Evolution
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Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 61 (2017) 107–114 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology j ournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/semcdb Review Peromyscus burrowing: A model system for behavioral evolution ∗ Caroline K. Hu, Hopi E. Hoekstra Departments of Organismic & Evolutionary Biology and Molecular & Cellular Biology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA a r a t i b s c l e i n f o t r a c t Article history: A major challenge to understanding the genetic basis of complex behavioral evolution is the quantification Received 11 July 2016 of complex behaviors themselves. Deer mice of the genus Peromyscus vary in their burrowing behavior, Received in revised form 1 August 2016 which leaves behind a physical trace that is easily preserved and measured. Moreover, natural burrow- Accepted 1 August 2016 ing behaviors are recapitulated in the lab, and there is a strong heritable component. Here we discuss Available online 2 August 2016 potential mechanisms driving variation in burrows with an emphasis on two sister species: P. manic- ulatus, which digs a simple, short burrow, and P. polionotus, which digs a long burrow with a complex Keywords: architecture. A forward-genetic cross between these two species identified several genomic regions asso- Animal architecture Behavior ciated with burrow traits, suggesting this complex behavior has evolved in a modular fashion. Because burrow differences are most likely due to differences in behavioral circuits, Peromyscus burrowing offers Behavioral genetics Burrowing an exciting opportunity to link genetic variation between natural populations to evolutionary changes Deer mice in neural circuits. Extended phenotype © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Contents 1. Introduction . 107 2. Burrow diversity in Peromyscus . 108 3. Mechanisms underlying burrowing variation . 110 3.1. Substrate . 110 3.2. Morphology . 110 3.3. Physiology. .110 3.4. Digging behavior . 110 4. Neurobiological basis of burrowing behavior . 111 5. Genetic architecture of burrow evolution. .111 6. Conclusions . 112 Acknowledgements . 112 References . 112 1. Introduction traits, Peromyscus also show a striking diversity of behaviors. Yet, The North American continent is a patchwork of various habi- how complex behaviors are encoded and evolve is still largely tats – ranging from rainforest to prairie to desert – and throughout unknown. these varied landscapes are deer mice of the genus Peromyscus. Multiple features of Peromyscus biology are conducive to Since the early 1900’s, natural historians have documented how addressing these longstanding questions. First, Peromyscus are Peromyscus mice have diversified to successfully inhabit almost tractable in the laboratory, which enables their use for the study all major habitat types across this continent. While there exists of ecologically relevant behaviors in a controlled setting [1,2]. tremendous variation in many morphological and physiological Examples of the behavioral diversity within and between many Per- omyscus species that have been studied in the lab include predator response [3], social dominance hierarchy formation [4], aggression ∗ and parental behavior [5], nest site selection [6], and burrowing Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H.E. Hoekstra). behavior. Second, many of these species-specific behaviors persist http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.08.001 1084-9521/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 108 C.K. Hu, H.E. Hoekstra / Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 61 (2017) 107–114 across generations in lab-reared animals, suggesting that there is The most conspicuous burrower of the Peromyscus genus is the a measurable, heritable component to this variation in behavior. oldfield mouse, P. polionotus. This species resides in the southeast- Finally, emerging genomic and transcriptomic resources in Per- ern United States, specifically Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina and omyscus (e.g. [7–10]), combined with existing resources in closely northern Florida and exclusively in open fields and sand dunes. related laboratory models (i.e. Mus and Rattus), as well as the abil- In these sparsely vegetated habitats, mice are exposed to preda- ity to perform crosses between behaviorally divergent populations tors — primarily owls, herons and hawks, carnivores and snakes or species, empower the use of Peromyscus for behavioral-genetic — and thus, burrows are an important retreat and escape [29], studies. Complementary to identifying the genetic basis of behavior arguably more so than for mice living in heavily vegetated, hetero- in traditionally inbred mouse models, the use of outbred Per- geneous environments. At a practical level, in these open habitats, omyscus populations can shed light onto the genetic architecture of the exposed entrances of active burrows — sometimes identifiable complex behaviors and how they are shaped by natural selection. by a plume of freshly excavated of substrate — facilitated study by One of the main challenges to dissecting the genetic and neu- naturalists (Fig. 1C) [30–33]. robiological basis of behavioral variation, in any organism, is the The complex yet stereotyped architecture of the P. polionotus ability to measure the behavior of interest. In comparison to many burrow was first described by Howell in 1921 as part of a faunal sur- morphological traits, behaviors are often highly variable and can be vey of Alabama [34]. Their burrow shape then was described more influenced strongly by internal stimuli (e.g. hormonal status) and extensively by Sumner in 1929 [32], and later quantitative mea- the external environment (e.g. social, developmental and abiotic surements of burrow dimensions were provided by Hayne [31] and context) [11]. Furthermore, the measurement of behavior is often Smith [35]. These naturalists described burrows from throughout P. dependent on subjective decisions by human observers, which polionotus’ range — both mainland populations (e.g. P. p. subgriseus) can be difficult to standardize [12]. Advances in high-throughput and island populations (e.g. P. p. leucocephalus) — as consisting of behavioral phenotyping in mice promise to alleviate some of the an oft-plugged, downward sloping entrance tunnel, a nest cham- problem via automation (e.g. [13,14]); nonetheless it remains chal- ber, and a second upward-sloping “escape tunnel” that approaches, lenging to identify and quantify biologically relevant components but does not penetrate, the ground surface (Fig. 1A). These three of complex behaviors. One solution, however, is to take advan- burrow components are typically arranged along a plane, with a tage of the idea of an “extended phenotype” [15]. Richard Dawkins total length between 150 and 250 cm. And, when the burrow is described an extended phenotype as an animal artifact − that is, the disturbed, P. polionotus will erupt through the escape tunnel. This morphological product of a heritable behavior − such as the nest of stereotyped burrow architecture and escape response have further swallows, the dam of beavers, or a spider’s web. Another example facilitated capture and study by naturalists, such as Sumner, who of an extended phenotype is the burrow produced by fossorial or colorfully described catching P. polionotus by inserting a “switch” semi-fossorial mammals, including Peromyscus, casts of which can into burrows and Rand and Host [36], who reported “By cover- be measured like a morphological trait but it is inherently a product ing the ground with cheese cloth where the escape tunnel was of behavior. expected to open, all the inhabitants of the burrow could be easily Burrowing − the excavation of habitable space − is widespread captured.” When Weber and colleagues went to the field, nearly a across animals, and is a prominent behavior of some Peromyscus century after Howell’s first descriptions of the P. polionotus burrow, species. Burrows may play an important role in the ecosystem the burrow architecture, its dimensions, and the mouse’s escape through movement of organic and abiotic substrates, shifting geo- behavior were found intact throughout the species range [23]. chemical conditions, and providing shelter for commensal species Because most other Peromyscus species live in more vegetated [16–18]. Burrows are energetically costly to create [19], but can environments, their wild burrows are more difficult to find and benefit animals by protecting against predation, buffering environ- therefore, their morphology has not been well described. P. poliono- mental fluctuations in temperature and humidity, and providing tus recapitulates its wild burrow structure in the laboratory setting them a place to store resources [20]. Specializations for burrow- [42,95], suggesting that a similar approach could be used to investi- ing in mammals have been traced back to the Jurassic [21], and gate the natural burrowing behaviors of its more elusive congeners. approximately half of extant terrestrial mammal genera have mem- For example, the burrow architecture of its sister species, P. man- bers that burrow [22]. This behavior has continued to diversify iculatus, is relatively simple (Fig. 1A). P. maniculatus is the most in extant groups. In particular, Peromyscus mice have undergone widely-distributed Peromyscus species and is generally found in recent innovations in burrowing behavior resulting in a range of areas of dense vegetative cover such as forests (e.g.