Intellectual Discourse, 1994 Vol 2, No 2, 145-166

The Failure of Muslim Reformation: "Jadidism" in EasternEurope, 1699-1922

Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski*

Abstract: Theadvent of Westerninfluence has led to a numberof responsesin the ,one of thembeing an attemptto "reform" Islam-Jadidism. This study examinesthe influenceof such movementsfrom the early eighteenth century to the first quarter of the twentieth century, in easternEuropean countries,particularly relatingto Polish,Crimean, Turkish and TatarMuslims . It is shownthat all suchattempts resulted in cultural decay,and lossof identiry andpower.

Modernist Muslim intelligentsiahave long been fascinatedand bewil- dered by the industrial, scientific, and military successof the European civilization. Some of them have acceptedliberalism, others libertinism and the hedonisticphilosophy of carpe diem. Most of them believe in cleansingIslam of of what they called "traditionalismand conservative customs," so that the Muslims can become a part of of the modern world. Yet the contemporaryphenomenon of revivalismin the Muslim world on one hand, and the growing power of antiliberal and anti- capitalist new National Socialistmovements (Neo-Nazism) in the post- modernist West on the other, is a total rejection of the outdated ideologiesof nineteenthcentury Muslim reformism andantiquated leftist third-worldism of the 1960s. Today, we are headingtoward a global clash of living civilizations, which will dwarf the nineteenthcentury "EasternQuestion" in Europe. This study is deliberately Eurocentric, becausethe achievementsof eighteenth and nineteenth century Europe have de facto exceeded anything createdby the other non-Europeancultures during this period.

*Ataullah BogdanKopanski is AssociateProfessor, Department of History and Civilization, International Islamic University Malaysia. ,'JADIDISM,' t|461 IN EASTERNEUROPE

The study aims to exhibit the whole range of Muslim modernist experiences,which endedin the Great Failure of the Muslim Reform- ation and ignited the current "Muslim Rage" expressedin the cyclic Counter-Reformation

The Dream and Defeat From the PeaceTreaty of Karlowitz signedin 1699,the Habsburgsof Atstria becamea major power in CentralEurope. The Osmanli elite's Lale-devri or "Tulipmania" indicatedan advancedcultural decadenceand a symptom of ghaflah (inner weakness,loss of consciousness).The Serbs, Greeks, and Orthodox Bulgariansrose up in the Balkans, animatedby the Spanishand Austro-Hungarianinvasions of the Islamic realm in Europe. The Russians launched an ethnic and religious cleansingin the northeasternCrimean Khanate. In Lll7, the Austrians attackedand won the first "holy war" againstthe Turks. The anti-Islamic crusader, Prince Eugenede Savoy (1663-1736),became the supreme commander of the irnperial army and flag-bearer of the Habsburgs' supremacy. He defeatedthe Turkish Muslim armies and conquered Belgrade.The Sublime Porte in Istanbulwas forced to sign another "peacetreaty" in Passarowitz(1718). The former "Great Turk" was renamedthe "Sick Man of Europe." Gradually, the Habsburg Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungarypushed the OsmanliTurks out of Danube and the Balkans. In the eighteenthand nineteenthcentury, the weakened"Sick Man" from Istanbulwas still strongenough to confusethe political plansof the Holy Alliance of the Christianpower brokers.The SublimePorte never acceptedthe partition of ,but the Turks were forced to acceptthe Russianannexation of the Crimean Khanatein 1774. Osmanli openedits borders and gaveasylum to any Polish anti-Russianinsurgent who sought it. The "Great Emigration" was the Polish responseto the failure of the anti-RussianNovember Uprising in 1831. Most of the intellectualand politicalelite of Polandfled abroad,some 10,000in all, among them Muslim guerrillas from and newly-converted Polish Muslim insurgents.About 50 famous Polish officers accepted Islamand joined the Osmanliarmy.r The greatestPolish poet, , died in , where thousandsof Polish freedom-fightersdreamt about " Legion of Freedom." "Abd al-Qadir, the Muslim hero of the anti-Frenchjihad in Algeria, inspired the Polish Christianpoet, Cyprian Camil Norwid. Norman Davies correctly describedthe historical connectionsand destiny of Iurelr-scruetDrscouRsp Ir47l

Turks and : WheneverPoland was hard pressedby the Habsburgs,or by the MuscoviteRussians, the Poleswould ferventlypray for a Turkish campaignin theBalkans or on theBlack Sea coast. From theBattle of Mohdcsin 1526ro rheTreary of Adrianopolein 1829,the Ottomans providedthe only regular counterbalance to Poland's more immediate easternneighbors, and increasinglythe only hope of relief. By the eighteencentury, during the RussianProtectorate in Poland,the Turkish mechanismhad assumeda fixed pattern.So long as the Russianarmies were engagedon the Turkishfront, they couldnot descendin forceon Poland.Russo-Turkish Wars provided the only intervalswhen the Polish reformerscould act. War cloudsover Constantinoplespelt fair weatherfor reformin .2

In 1836, elevenPolish officers of the Russianarmy defectedto Imam Ali Shamyl's mujahidin, who wagedgazavat andjihad against Russians.3 The Polish and Lithuanian Muslims were deeply involved in the revolutionaryevents which shapedthe new order in Old Europe. In April 1844,the Polish Tatar andmuhajir, Ahmed Tevfik Bey (formerly Teofil Pulaski) left Istanbul in a secret mission to Russian-occupiedCrimea, rvhere he tried unsuccessfullyto organize the anti-Russian Muslim movementamongst the local CrimeanTatars. He hadgood relationswith the Crimean Khan Mirza Agay and the governorof Turkish Dobrudja, HasanBey. In Constanca,, Ahmed Tevfik-Pulaski organizeda small unit of Muslim Tatar mujdhidin from Tulcha, Babadek and Hirshova, but the anti-lslamic conspiracyof Paris-based"Power" and "Agency" (fanaticalCatholic and Freemasonicgroups of Polish immi- grants financed and organizedby Prince Adam Czartoryski and Baron Zamoyski) rejected the plan of the Polish Muslims and ignored their patriotic zeal. After the fall of the Polish-Lithuanianstate in 1795, the Russian CzarinaCatherine II "guaranteed"full religiousfreedom to the Muslims of former Poland and Lithuania. Shewas the sameczarina who master- minded the annexationof the Muslim Crimea, and guaranteedsimilar "freedom" for the Crimean . They all neededthe famous Tatar Muslim cavalry. In Prussia,King FrederickII the Greatformed the Muslim regiment of Bosnianand Turkish mercenaries.A PolishMuslim soldier of fortune, Ali Mustafa Korycki, organized the Tatar squadronsin the Prussian army. In 1795, FrederickWilliam II nominateda former Polish colonel, Mirza Tuhan-Baranowski,as the chief commanderof the Tatar resiments ''JADIDISM'' [148] IN EASTERNETTROPP in Prussia. After the invasion of Prussiaand Russia by the victorious armies of NapoleonBonaparte, another Polish Muslim colonel, Mustafa Achmatowicz, receivedpermission to recruit the LithuanianMuslims for French troops. The Polish lv{uslim cavalry in Napoleon's army fought the Russiansand Austrians in many battles. On March 5, 1814, the Russiantroops of Prince Gagarin were defeatedby the Muslim sabresin the battle of BoyranBac.a After Bonaparte'sdefeat, the Polish Muslim squadronsreturned to Russian-occupiedPoland. Many Muslim and Poles were involved in the anti-RussianNovember Uprising of 1831and the January Uprising of 1863. The victorious Russiansdeported them to Siberia. After general amnesty in 1878, Muslim survivors of katorga (hard labour), including Ali Buczacki, Amurat Achmatowicz, Adam Tuhan- Baranowski, and Mustafa Kryczynski, returned to their homes in the Tatar towns and villages of Lithuania. Numerous Muslim veterans of anti-Russianresistance emigrated to Turkey. Economicprosperity of the Muslim Tatars in Lithuania and growing political chaos in Turkey stopped this hijrah at the end of the 19thcentury. After the partition of the misruled Polish kingdom, the Muslims of Poland and Lithuania became Russiansubjects. Muslims of , Llkraine, mostly Lipka Tatars and Cheremisesemigrated to and Moldavia. Only ruined or abandonedmosques stand as witnessesto the Islamic past of southern Ukraine. In 1763, a Turkish envoy to Prussia, Resmi Efendi, travelled acrossPoland, Lithuania and Podolia, where he visited the formerly Turkish-controlledfortress of Kamieniets Podolski (held by the Muslim forces between t672-1699). He was emotionally movedby the sight of a ruined minaret with an Islamic date of constructionand a Qur'anic quotationand prayed for the "return of these placesto Islam, so that the word of Truth may resoundfrom this minaret."5

Collaboration and Resistance In 1790, Mansur Bey led Circassian(North Caucasian)Muslims in jihad againstRussians and GrebenskyeCossacks. A former Jesuitmissionary from , Italy, Mansur Bey had embracedlslam in Daghestan.He died in the Russianprison at SolovetzkyeIsland in the White Sea. The jihad startedin northernCaucasia in the late eighteenthcentury continued tlll 1925.It was directedby the powerful Murids of the Naqshbandi and Qadiri tarlqahs. In 1785, Imam Mansur Ushurma from Chechnya annihilateda Russianarmy-the worst defeatever inflicted on the troops lNtpLLpctuar-DrscouRsp tL4el of Catherine II. The heroic shaykh was captured by the Russiansin Anapa in 1791 and he died in Schlusselburgprison three years later. Shaykh Muhammad Efendi of Yaraglar in Daghestanwas the second Naqshbandimurshid or leader, who wagedjihad againstthe Russians. He was the teacherof Ghazi Muhammadand Shamyl. Forty years after Mansur's jihad began, a legendary Third Imam of Daghestan, Ali Shamyl the Avar, declared gazavat or Holy War againstthe Russian czars. He was the successorof the martyred Ghazi Mullah Muhammad (the first Imam) and Hamzad Beg (the second Imam). Imam Shamyl, known as "The Lion of Avaria" was a member of the powerful Naqshbandi tarlqah. He died in 1871 in Medina. His successor,the famous Haji Murat, continued the anti-Russianjihad in Ingushetia, Chechnya and Daghestan. In 1850, Haji Murat and his followers penetratedeastern and overranseveral Russian garrisons in the northern Caucasus.During the anti-colonial revolution, the Muslim Caucasiansmade a vigorous effort to expel the Russiansand to establish an Islamicstate.6 The Islamic revolution led by Imam Shamyl lastedfor 35 years. The feudal landlords of Caucasiawere not happy under the sharT,ah law which curtailedtheir brutal powers.In 1859the legendaryImam Shamyl was betrayedby the feudal Muslim landlords and was capturedby the Russians.

Under the Yoke After the partition of Poland and Lithuania, the Muslims were placed under the religious authority of the Russo-SlberianMuftiyal at Simferopol (old Crimean town of Akmecet). They were not forced to renounce Islam, but were cleverly secularizedby the Russianstate. At the end of the 19thcentury, the Polish Tatarswere assimilatedand absorbedby the statebureaucracy of the RussianEmpire. Before World War I, about 20 Lithuanianand Polish Tatar generalsserved in the Russianarrny. There were about300 Polish Tatar colonelsand majors. The Russiangovern- ment tried to separatethe Muslim Tatar Polesfrom their ethno-religious roots in Tatarstan,and to destroytheir lingual culture of Poland.But the carrot of Russificationdid not isolate them from the Muslims of the RussianEmpire, Turkey, Arabia, and Lithuania. They were still Muslim Tatars and Polish patriots who identified themselveswith the plight of Muslim Tatars in Kazan. Many Polish Tatars joined pan-Islamic movements,and some of them declaredthemselves Islahi (modernists) of Imam Bubinskyfrom the Marjani madrasahof Kazan. "Bubism" was [150] ''JADIDISM''IN EASTERNEUNOPE a controversialissue among the majority of Polish Muslims, who in spite of secularizationwere ardentfollowers of Ahl al-Sunnahwa-al-Jamfr'ah. The majority of Muslims of Poland and Lithuaniabelonged to secret societiesbased on blood ties and Sufi tariqahs. The so called achretne pobratymstwo(Polish-Tatar term for secretbrotherhood) protected Polish Muslims from undesirable penetration. The secret achretni brothers introduceda new adeptto their "circle" by ritualisticsprinkling of water on bared sabresor long knives and an oath on the Qur'an' After anti-Russian revolts and uprisings organized by the Polish narionalistsin 1831, 1846, 1848,and 1863, manyPolish patriotstook refuge in Turkey. Some others settled down in the Muslim lands in French-occupied Algeria, in Turkey, and in Ciscaucasian Baku. Numerous Polish officers and soldiers embracedIslam. Among them were also dishonest persons, who acceptedIslam to get political or material advantages.Polish Christian refugeescreated an exclusively Roman Catholic ghetto in the village Adamopol (today's Polonoskoy) near Istanbul. The refugees,who had apparentlyconverted to Islam, preferredgenetic degeneration over marriagesto the Muslim Turks. But honestPolish converts to Islam sincerely and enthusiasticallyobserved the Shari,ah. General Murad Pasha(J. Bem) died in the fortress of the Syrian city of Aleppo. He continuedto believe to the last moment of his heroic life that only the Muslims would to liberate Poland from the Russianyoke.7 Another Polish emigrant to France,Tadeusz Gasztowtt, wrote in his book Islam in Polan, that the Muslim Turks, , and are natural political allies of of the Polish national revival.s In the 19th century, many Poles believed in the words of the legendary mystic called vernyhora, who had a vision of liberated poland. This historical hope that a powerful Muslim Turkey would destroy Russianimperialism was a very positive sign of geopolitical re- orientationin the westernizedPolish mind. During this period, the Muslim Tatar populationof Lithuanian and ByelorussianPodlasiewas completely Polonized. The Muslim Tatarslost their Turkic language and capability to read Arabic. only the better educatedand pious families preserved Arabic-written Harutils. The Jan Tarak Mirza Qur'an was known from the Polish translationmade by Buczacki in 1858. The Buczackifamily were well-known custodiansof woodenmosquesin Studzianka,Lebiedziew, and Malaszewicze. In 1915, thesemosques were burneddown during a fiercebattle between Germans and Russians.The mosquein the Lithuanian town of Neman was also destroyed.In 1913, the Lithuanian Tatar Ali (Aleksander)Ilyasewicz INTELLECTUALDISCoURSE t1s1l visited the holy cities of Makkah and Medina. He describedhis Hajj and thejourney to Istanbuland Damascusvia Crimean Kerch and Kefe in his private diary. As was saidearlier, the Lithuanianand Polish Tatar Muslims enjoyed unusual freedomof worship in the Russianempire of the 19th century. But their brothersand sisters in Kazan, Crimea, and ldel-Yaik suffered brutal de-Islarnizationand discrimination.In 1874, the Russiangovern- ment weakenedthe economicposition of Islam in the whole Tatarstanby brutal confiscationof awqaf, the sourceof incomeof Islamicassemblies. More than two thirds of Tatar Crimean property was expropriatedby greedy Russianchynovniks (bureaucrats). Muslims were excludedfrom academicand legal professions.Despite many acts of political, cultural, and religious discrimination, the Tatar Muslims were still one of the richest people of the . The Russian Orthodox church attempted to Christianize the Tatar Muslims of Kazan, Volga, and Bashqortostan(Bashkiria). They failedcompletely. In a stunningcounter- reaction, the Muslim du'hh from Kazan converted a large number of ChristianizedChuvashs (a Turkic-speakingethnic group of the central Volga region)to Islam. In better times in the , the Tatar Muslims had absorbedin their communitiesthe Greekand Italian ChristianCrimeans, which is the reasonfor the distinctly Hellenic type of face among the .According to reportsof Europeantravellers, thousands of Muslim Crimeansare descendantsof the indigenousGeneoese and Venetian colonists.After the proclamationof religious liberty in 1905, the Crimean Tatarswho were discriminatedagainst were able to spread Islam amongtheir RussianChristian neighbors.

Islamization of Kyrgyzstan One of the most dramaticmoments in the missionaryhistory of Islam in the RussianEmpire was a mass conversionof the shamanisticKyrgyz tribes by Tatar mullahs, who preachedIslam to them in the 18thcentury as agentsof the czaristregime. The Kyrgyz khansaccepted Russian rule about 1731, and for the next hundredand twenty years, all diplomatic correspondencebetween the khans of Kyrgyzstan and the czars of St. Petersburgwas written in the Turkic-Tatarlanguage. The Kyrgyz and the Tatars of Kazan, Crimea, and Lithuania are racial brothersdivided by history and political shifts on the map of Eurasia. The ignorantRussian government unwillingly helped in the process of Islamization of Kyrgyzstanand Kazakhstan.e The Russiansbelieved that all Turco-Tatar [rs2] "JeotoIsu" IN EesrgRN EuRoPe peoplesof central Asia wereMuslims; however,in the 18thcentury, the vast majority of Kara Kyrgyz and Ak Kyrgyz nomadic clans were shamanists(the Kazakh were formerly called Kara [Black] Kyrgyz and the Kyrgyz themselveswere called Ak [White] Kyrgyz). At the time of the annexationof their lands to the Russianempire only a very small number of Kazakh khans had any knowledgeof Islam, and even they were confusedby the activity of Ismailite preachersfrom the northern areasof . There was not a single mosquein the Kyrgyz Steppeof Kazakhstanbefore the mission of the Tatar mullahs from Kazan. The Russians,assuming the Kyrgyz to be Muslims, gavethem large sumsof money for building ,and the Russian-paidTatar mullahs were sent io teach the young Kyrgyz about the tenets of Islam. This is probably the only historicalevidence of a Christiangovernment coopera- iing in the spreadof Islam in conqueredAsia. Later, after the successful da,wah of the Tatar mullahs supportedby the Russian regime, other Muslim missions, not dependingon the goodwill of any government, establishedtheir own centresin the Kazakh Steppesand convertedthe whole Kazakh and Kyrgyz population to Islam' After the conquestof Kazan,Astrakhan, and the Siberiankhanates by Czar Ivan the Terrible, the RussianOrthodox church forcibly baptized a large number of non-Muslim and some Muslim inhabitants of the u""upi"d territory. The forcibly ChristianizedTatars were known as Kriasheny (Russian for baptized). Kriashenye Tatary, victims of Archbishop Guryi and Bishop varsonafyi, came to be known as starokreshchennye(old baptized);the majority of them quickly reverted to Islam, for after the deathof their Christian oppressors,the Russian priests and monks did not understandthe Turkic languageof the local Tatars and soon neglectedthem. They were very upsetby the discovery that the so-callednew ChristianTatars "shamelesslykeep many horrible Tatar customs,and neitherhold nor want to know the Christian faith'"r0 After a fiasco of a spiritual crusa{e, Christian terror usually followed' The Russianczars ordered to "pacify, imprison,put in irons' and thereby discourageand frighten from the Tatar faith thosewho, though baptized, do not obey the admonitionsof the bishop." In 1744 aLone,418mosques were demolishedand manyTatars became pseudo-Christians for the sake of their personalsecurity, rather than conviction.The secondgeneration or of forcibly Christianized Tatars were known as novokreshchennye "new bapiized" Tatars. But despitethe efforts to give them a Christian education,the Tatar victims of Christianizationremained very superficial in their new religion and at the end of the 19thcentury severalthousand many again returned to Islam. Nevertheless,in 1926, there were still INTELLECTUALDISCOURSE t 1s3l

Kriasheny(about two to three per cent of the total numberof Tatars). In the 18th century, the Russianczars and clergymenmade a new effort to Christianize the non-Muslim tribes and "lapsed" (Russified) Muslims. In 1788, CzarinaCatherine II ordered that all new "Christian Tatars" must sign a written promise to "completly forsake their pagan errors,and avoid all contactswith non-Christians."uIn 1872,a Russian Christian agent wrote that "a large number of evident apostasies coincideswith the beginningof measuresto confirm the converts in the christian faith."12 In 1882,the Tatarpeasants from the village of ApozoV were sentencedto prison after their rejection of the RussianOrthodox Church's teachings.The Russianpenal code was usedagainst those who abandoned Orthodox Christianity, and against the Muslim preachers who converted Christians to Islam. The Muslim missionaries were deported to Siberian camps of hard labor for 10 years. They were deprived of all civil rights. In spite of such actions, these so-called "baptized Tatars" were Ctrristians only on paper of the Russian missionaries.As a matterof fact, Christianterror andpersecution created Muslim martyrs and strengthenedthe Islamic faith amongnew Muslims of northeasternRussia.t3 The capital of ldel-Yaik Tatarstan,Kazan was the center of Islamic da'wah activity. A large numberof Islamic pamphletswere printed in Kazan every year. Tatars who, in an act of desperation,had allowed themselvesto be baptizedby Christianmonks and priestswere brought back to lslam by the gentle persuasionof conservative"mullahs" or Islamic sages.The high numberof re-conversionsto Islam amongthe so- called "baptizedTatars" shockedand alarmed the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church. But they lost their crusade,especially after the edict of religiousliberty was issuedin 1905,after the first workers' revolution in Russiaand the crushingdefeat of the Russiannavy in the war against Japan. Between 1906 and 1910, as many as 53,000 Christians became Muslims in the region of the Volga basin. The perceptionthat the level of morality in Muslim societieswas higher, was probably one of the main factorscontributing to the re-Islamizationof the whole of Tatarstan and Bashqortostan(Bashkiria). An angry Russianwriter wrote: "In many Christian villages, men go away in winter to work as tailors in the Muslim towns. There, they are convertedto Islam, and they return to their villagesas fanatics,bringing with them pan-lslamicideology which influences their homes." The Muslim Tatars of European Russia successfullyintroduced Islam to the Udmurt (Votiaks) and the Mari (Cheremiss), two Finnic Peoples of the central Volga region. The ',JADIDISM'' [154] IN EASTERNEUROPE formerly christian Mari (cheremises)adopted the Muslim way of life and dress.In addition, 25 per cent of Christian Chuvashaccepted Islam in the first decade of the 20th century. In 1745, the Muslim da'wah workers from Bukhara convertedto Islam, the Baraba,a Siberian Tatar tribe living betweenthe Irtysh and Ob rivers-ra It is hard to detecthow many Polish or LithuanianTatars participated in da,wah activities, but someof them engagedin activitiesof intensive Islamization.Polish Muslim Tatarswere involved in plansof restoration of a "Spiritual " and they were outragedby the systematic destructionof the Islamic culture of Crimea. According to an historical account of Leon Kryczynski (a Polish Muslim historian), there were 1556mosques and 5139 imamsin Crimeain 1805,but in 1914, only 729 mosques and 942 imams survived the Russian colonization of the Crimea. Polish Muslim Tatar officers and administratorsserved in every corner of the vast Russian empire. In 1905, several Polish and Lithuanian Muslim intellectuals took part in the First All-Muslim Conventionof Russia, organizedin Nizhnii Novgorod. There, Muslim delegatesfrom the Crimea, the Caucasus,the Volga basin, Turkistan, Lithuania, and Siberia created the All-Russian Muslim Union. The second convention of ARMU (January, 1906) divided the Muslim population of Russia into 16 regions. The Polish Lithuanian Muslims were locatedin the "LithuanianMuslim Region." The Belarusiancapital' , was elected as the center of Muslim intellectual life in this region. During the Third Convention of All-Russian Muslim Union organized in Nizhnii Novgorod, in September of 1906, the Polish Lithuanian Muslims were representedby a Polish Muslim, Mustafa Dawidowicz, who was the mayor of the crimean city of Bakhchisaray. MustafaDawidowicz was electedto the Central Committeeof the newly formed Muslim National Party (MNP), which was a political force 6f all Muslims in the Russianempire. The MNP was an exponentof radical pan-IslamicideologY. There is no doubt that the MNP was penetratedby the powerful secret services of the Okhrana. Some Polish Tatarsjoined the Polish socialist-nationalistunderground (PPS-FR) and its terrorist cells. But the Tatar intelligentsiaof the Russianempire was fragmentedand politically divided like the khans of the medievalGolden Horde.

Surrenderand BetraYal The political stress,peculiar cultural situation and "colonisability" of the "Jadids" were describedby the Algerian Muslim writer Malik Bennabi INreI-IecrUAL DISCOURSE tlssl in his Vocationde I'Islam: The modernistengages himself in the life of his countryonly on the politicalplane. For him the primaryquestion is not the regeneration of the Muslim world, but of pulling it out of its present "embarrassment"....The modernist movement does not in fact reflect anyprecise doctrine: it is as indefinitein its meansas in its ends.Its onlyprecise path is thatwhich leads the "Musulman"to be a clientor imitator,without originality, of an aiiencivilization that more readily opensthe doors of its shop than of its schools... the modernist movementis not orientedtoward acts and means but towardsfashions, tastes,and wants.rs

Almost everywherein the ChristianizedMuslim world, the Muslim "radicals"and "reformers," who advocated"resistance" against European imperialism, also advocatedgreater Europeanization of the Muslim way of life, and this "occidentosis"survived both the passingof colonial empiresand the fragmentationof the world economy.16The balancesheet of cultural influence is overwhelminglyone-sided. The Muslim world during this period occasionallycontributed to Europe,but it was nothing comparable to the contribution and effect which Christian or post- ChristianEurope had on the Muslim world.17 Among the notable radicals,we may note: OsmanAkchokrakly (d. 1936), a radical Crimean secularistand Tatar historian; Musa Jarullah Bigi (1875-1949),a Tatar jadid who believed that Islam is a kind of "religious communism"; Ismail Bey Gaspraly,also known as Gasprinski (1851-1914),the founder of the modernist mouthpiecenewspaper Terjuman(the Interpreter);Abdtirrashid Ibragimov (d. 1944), a follower of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani; Galimjan lbragimov (1887-1938); Muhammad Ayaz Iskhaki (1878-1954),the orgapizerof the anarchist group Tangchylar;Gafur Krilahmetov(1881-1918), the founder of a short-lived "Muslim" anarchistcircle Berlek (Unity); Mir Said Galiev (1880-1939),who had "a dream" about an Asian "Muslim" Communist Commonwealth;Shihabeddin Marjani (1818-1899),who advocated the westernization of the Muslim world and individual "UilhAd" of the shari'ah; Hanafi Muzaffar (Hanafi Kuibysher); Mulla Nur Vahitov (1885-1918)who foundedthe Muslim SocialistCommittee af Kazan; Husein Yamashev (1882-1912), the first Tatar Marxist- Bolshevik and "father of Tatar atheism";and Ahmed Zeki Validov (Zeki Velidi Togan, 1890-1969),a Bashqort Tatar historian and son of an imam from an aristocraticfeudal family. After the mass unrest of 1905, the czarist regime democratizedthe t1s6l "JADIDISM"tN EasrgnN EuRoPe political life of the Russianempire. All sectionsof society, and all ethnic, national and religious parties, were given the freedom of expression.The revolutionarysocialist and communist groups organized themselvesinto a powerful force. The Tatar modernists and Jadids formed several "Muslim" movementsand parliamentaryrepresentations of the Muslims in the Duma (the first multinationalimperial assernbly)' Unfortunately, the traditional(Qadimist) forces of Islam, ulema, imams and mullahs ignored the window of opportunitycreated by the weakened czarists. They preferred the position and prestige of being silent custodiansof the Islamic lifestyle. In the 1910's, it was left to the modernistsand socialist-oriented Tatar nationalists(pan-Turkists and pan- Islamists) to decide the political fortune and misfortune of the Muslim massesin Russia. Notable amongstsuch parties and groupswas, Berlek (unity), a Tatar revolutionary party foundedin Kazan in the spring of 1906. Inspired by non-Muslim Russian Social Democrats and anarchists,its programme was very chaotic. The party editedtwo newspapets,Azat (Free) andAzat the imam of Khalyk lFree People).Mullah Mudarris Abdullah Apanay, Kazanmosque,was the presidentof Berlek, but two Tatar communists, Hiiseyn Yamashev and Gafur Kulahmetov, decided its ideology. The "Red mullahs," Hadi Atlasy (imam of Bogulma), Abdullah Najmuddin (imam of Sibirsk), and Kalimulla Hasanov(a Mudarris of ufa) created ihe Muslim lobby in the Duma, calledDumchylar. But they were militant islahists, strongly influenced by the ideology of Russian populists (Trudovniki). Erk (will) was a anotherMuslim socialistmovement, which appeared in i919 in Bashqortostanand Tashkent.ln 1921,its name was changed to Turkistan SocialistarTudesi which was changedonce more, in 1926, of them to Turkistan Socialist Erk Firkasy. Under Stalinist rule most power, and were forced to emigrate,some joined the Sovietapparatus of the rest were eliminatedby the NKVD' In 1905, the radical Tatar intellectuals created Islah Komitesi (committee of Reforms). They organizedviolent riots in madrasahsof "conservative" k"run, Ufa, Orenburg,and Troitsk; andbrutally attacked no party Muslim teachers and imams. There was no programme and "action" Islam' discipline; the left-wing jadids were united by against joined the The most prominent liberals in the "Islahi" movement Bolsheviksafter Lenin's putschof 1917' usulm an' I t ttfaq al -M us li m7n (MusI im U nio n), also know n as Rusiy a M Muslim tarynyngntTaqy was createdin 1906. at the secondAll-Russian INrer-lscruaL DrscouRse [157]

Congressin St. Petersburg.The party was open to all Muslims of the Russianempire, but in practice it was dominatedby Volga-ldel Tatars, Crimeans and Azeris. Rich Muslim landlords favoured the "moderate" pan-Islamism of the RMI. The Central Committee was compose of thirteen wealthy Muslim Tatars who in 1908, in the face of Stolypin's policy againstnon-Russians, decided to disband the RMI. Some of its activists switchedto the leftist bloc, some emigratedto Turkey, and the majority abandonedpolitical life. Ittihad ve Taraqqi (Union and Progress)was a secretunderground circle foundedin Moscow in 1928by someso-called Muslim "national communist"activists. Led by SultanGaliev (KazanTatar), Zeki Validov (Bashqort), Najmuddin Khojaev (Uzbek) and Ahmed Baytursun (Kazakh), the objectivesof lttihad ve Taraqqi were to: (1) penetratethe Communist party and the Soviet regime; (2) control educationin the Muslim republics; (3) establishregular contacts between anti-Russian organizationsand gradually destroy the Slavic domination; (4) found a pan-Turanicsecular state; and (5) bring aboutthe federationof Tatarstan and Turkistan with Kemalist Turkey. The Milli Firqa or National Party of the Crimean "Jadids" was founded in July 1917. It had two factions: the lefrwing Social Revolutionariesof Ali Bodaninski(killed in 1920) preached"socialist pan-Turkism," and Halil Chapchakchy's Bolshevik Tatars taught "Muslim communism."During the bloody civil war in Crimea, Milli Firqa constantlyswitched sides from one to the other. After October 1920, when Crimea was finally conqueredby the Red Army, the leftist "Jadidsjoined the RussianCommunist party of Lenin and Stalin. The Milli Firqa activist Veli Ibrahimov was appointed president of the Communist party of Crimea. The "Muslim modernists"and Tatar "Jadids" betrayedIslam, and all of them lost their sense of solidarity with the world-wide Islamic Ummah. They paid a high price for professingmodernism. They were eliminated one by one, with historical regularity dictated by their Bolshevikguides.

A Modernist State The modernistSultan Abdtilmecid I's reformation of i839-1861, oalled the Tanzimal, was initiated by someTurkish diplomats. They opened the caliphateto Christian Europeaninfluence like never before. Most of this influence was French and English, and infiltrated through educational institutionsestablished by the Protestantmissionaries. The Muslim boys [1s8] "JAorotsM"tN Ea.srgnNEURoPE from rich Turkish families were sent to schoolsin Paris and London. They joined the carefully selectedyoung Arabs, Albaniansand Tatars all of whom were brain washedin specialschools of the West and beganto pick up political ideas of their masters.They were also introduced to secretioig"r of the latter-dayTemplars and St. John's Order. French and English became the languagesof the "educatedclass" in Cairo, Beirut, Salonika, and Istanbul- Soon, large European communities mushroomedin Alexandria, Istanbul,and Beirut. Jadidsskillfully heaped the blamefor every thing on the "despoticsultan. " Thesegrievances and manipulatedsentiments led to the formation of subversiveunderground movementsand revolts. In i877, a great uprising of ChechenMuslims in northernCaucasus was crushedby the Russians.The modernistTurks did not help them. A few who beganto urge the reform of the Caliphate' the unity of ttt" Muslim world and decolonization,organized a pan- Islamic movement. The modernistswere better organizedand quickly adoptedpan-Islamic phraseology to deceivethe Muslim masses. In 1908, one of the greatestTurkish , Abdiilhamid II, was deposedby a Young Turk coup and replaced by a dictatorship. The ,uit^n, who traOrefused to sell Palestineto the Zionist Europeansettlers, becamea prisoner in his own palace.He tried desperatelyto re-Islamize the shrinking power of the osmanli caliphate. However,the conspirators foiled his efforts. American EvangelicalChristian missionaries played a crucial role in the logistic support of the new regime. They produced hundreds of Turkish modernists in their American collegesfor girls and boys. As confessedby an American Christian propagandist,Talcott Williams, in an addressin , New York, on October15, 1908: ... manyinfluences have turned the heartsof menin that Empire' but' ifweaskourselveswhatthegoverningandfinalfactoriswhich broughtabout the first revolution (in Turkey)... we do ill if we forget that ior eighty yearsthe Americanmissionaries have beenlaying the foundationsand preaching the doctrinewhich makesfree government possible.rE

The authorof History of the World, J. M. Robertscorrectly described ''free the government'' installedby the Young Turks, when he wrote: When we look back at them, the Young Turks seem more comprehensiblethantheywereatthetime.Essentially,theyfaced problemsfaced later by manymodernizers in non-Europeancountries andtheirviolentmethodshavebeenemulatedbymanysincefrom necessityor imaginednecessity. They threwthemselves into reform of INrpr-r-Ecrual DrscouRsp tlsel

everybranch of government(importing many European advisers). But they took power in the middle of a shatteringsuccession of humiliationsin foreign affairs which weakenedtheir appealand led themto rely on force.... Undersuch strain, it wassoon apparent that the harmony among the peoplesof a reformed empire on which liberalismhadrelied was a chimera....The young Turkswere driven back more and more upon the assertionof one nationalismamong many,that of theOttomans. This, of course,led to resentmentamong the peoples.The result was once more massacre,tyrannv and assassination.le

After the Young Turk revolt, Austria-Hungaryannexed Bosnia and Hercegovina, populatedby Slavic Muslims. Weak annexed Rumelia, populatedby the Slavic Muslim Pomaksand RumelianTurks. The Muslims of Crete were expelled from the island when it was annexedby Greece.The Italiarrscrushed the Turkish army led by Kemal Pashaand Enver Pashain Tripolitania, Libya. The same forces of destruction worked on the Arab part of the Caliphate, where old French influenceamong the Christian Maronites from the mountains was strengthened by American missionaries, which led to the foundation of Christian schools and collegesto which Arab Muslim and Christianboys and girls camefrom all over the Arab world. Secret societiesof "Young Arabs" and open groups of liberal writers were formed among Arab exiles in paris and Cairo. Shockingparallels existed between the Osmanlimulti-ethnic caliphate of the 1900's and the Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth of the 1770's. Both were destroyedby gradual partitions; both had inner circles of traitors and sellouts:Targovica in Polandand Salonika in Turkey. Both were recreated,after World War I, as small stateswith rebelliousethnic minorities.

The First World War World War I or the First Great Civil War of Europe was ignited by the "Balkan fuse." During the two chaotic Balkan Wars between 1912 and 1913, the Turks were defeatedand removedfrom southernEurope by a newly created Serbian state. Aggressive and fanatical nationalistic Christian Serbsdreamt about Serboslaviaor the Greater .Behind the pan-Slavic nationalistsof Serbia stood the Russian Empire, the traditional protectorof Christian Slavdom.Serbia despoiled the Turkish [160] "JADIDIsM"IN EASTERNEunoPg modernist regimeof most of what was left of its Europeanterritory and of then embroiled herself in war against her former allies. Conflict the interest within the Balkan League over the spoils of war against Turks ignited a new war between christian Bulgaria and Serbia. Turks" Romania, , Greece, and ironically the "Young the supported serbia, which confusedthe situation completely. After SeconOBalkan War of June 1913,Bulgaria lost Macedoniato the Serbs, had and Dobrudja to the Romanians. But Austria-Hungary, which incorporatedtheMuslim-dominated Bosnia and Hercegovinasince 1908' preventedvictorious Serbianpan-Slavists from reaching the coastof the the rule Adriatic sea. becamean autonomousmonarchy under by the of Prince wilhelm zu wied (who was later outmaneuvred and Albanian "Jadid," Esad Pasha).The furious Serbsdeclared Bosnia Russia Hercegovina a part of Yugoslavia(land of the Southern slavs). ,uppoit"d the Serbian claims. A prosperousand militarrzed Germany with unO.r the rule of the PrussianHohenzollern dynasty sympathized the Muslims of Turkey and Morocco, which in turn infuriated English and French colonialists. In June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, Serbianterrorist and member of the .free-masonic lodge "Young Bosnia," gunned down the Austrian of Archduke. FerdinandHabsburg and his wife in Sarajevo,the capital Muslim Bosnia.It was a well plannedprovocation, which ignited a chain of reaction. The outragedAustrians declaredwar on Serbia on the 28th July.TheGermanssupportedtheAustrians.RussiasupportedSerbia.On Russia ttre ottr of AuguSt,Austria-Hungary declardd war againstRussia. was supportedby England and France.Germany attacked Francethrough when Belgium, whoseneutrality was guaranteedby the British Empire. war on the Russianarmies moved againstAustria, the Germansdeclared of war Russia. On August 4, the British goverffnent was in a state (Germany and against Germany. Turkey joined the central Powers joined .{ustria-Hungary). Japan took the side of Allies. Bulgaria Romania Germany and .q.ustrL-Hungary in September-1915' but another supported the Allies and joined the Russians.Greece became joined the Allies in 1915, in return for ^Britishp,o-nriti,t' statein L9:r7.|ta]ly and Frenchpromises of Austrianterritory. The Russiansand the and al' British-led Arab naiionalists attackedthe Turks in the Caucasus Shnm (). MustimsoldiersfromtheFrenchcolonyofSenegalfoughtthe regiments Germans in the trenches of northern Europe. The Muslim Turks from India led by the Christian British colonelskilled the Muslim under in Basra. The Muslim Arabs killed the Muslim Turks in the Hijaz lrurellgctuRr- Dtscounsg t1611

the guidanceof the British Zionist Colonel Lawrence "of Arabia. " The Algerian Muslims in the Frenchcolonial army fought tlte Germans,who led the Muslim Turks againstthe British and Australian invaders of Gallipoli. The Polish and LithuanianMuslims in the Russianarmy fought the Muslim Turks in the Caucasus.The Muslim Turks and Kurds fought the Muslim Tatars in the Russianarmy. The Muslim BosnianSlavs and Albaniansstruggled againstthe Muslim Tatars draftedby the Russians. The Muslims fought for the EuropeanChristians in Europe and Asia. And of course, as usual, the Christian Europeansfought against each other, with the huge killing power of modern weapons.Magazine rifles, machineguns, super cannons,submarines, planes, mines, gas, and tanks revolutionizedwarfare on an unprecedentedscale. By the end of 1915, the French army alone lost 300,000men dead, but in 1916, the seven- month battle of Verdun addedanother 315,000 to this total. In the same battle the Germanslost 280,000young men. In the battle of the Somme, they lost almosta half million soldierskilled by the British and American gunfire. That battle cosr the British 420,000 casualties.In the first day of that battle the British and Americans suffered 60,000 casualties. Millions of Russiansperished in senseless"human waves" decimatedby the German machine-guns.Nobody counted the dead and wounded Muslims. The Russian empire was destroyed by the war. The powerful Romanovdynasty lost power. The czar was replacedby the provisional governmentof Prince Lvov, andlater the regimeof AlexanderKerensky. But in October 19i7, Lenin's Bolsheviksseized power in a coup d'6tat called the "October Revolution." Lenin was supportedby the German General Ludendorf with whom he promised a peacetreaty. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, in March 1918, the Communist-controlled Russiaaccepted severe losses of territory. The OctoberBolshevik putsch and the American entry into the war in l9I7 markeda historical break betweenthe two erasof Europeanhistory. The Allies were infuriated by the Bolshevik defection and supportedthe old regime of the czars. In 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy was dissolved by the combined effects of Slavic nationalism (Czechs, , Poles, , and Croats) and war calamities.When the British, French, and American forces beganto move forward, the Jewish, Liberal, and Social Democratpoliticians in Germany ignited a Bolshevik-stylecoup. The German Emperor Wilhelm Hohenzollern abdicated. The rhird imperial houseof Europe hadfallen. The Weimar politicianssurrendered Germanyto the Allies. Germanv,which had beenthe economicpower- houseof Europe, was severelypunished and disarmed.Its economywas lr62l "JADIDISM"IN EesrgnN EURoPE seizedand destroyedby victorious British, Frenchand American troops. Ironically, it was not Germanywhich had startedworld war I. Several new independentcountries rose up from ashesof the Old Order: the Serbian-dominatedKingdom of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lztvra, Estonia, Finland, Lithuania, and Poland. Ten million European men had died on the battlefields of world war I. Typhus killed million of Muslims and Christians in southern Europe alone. Fifteen million men were maimed, blinded by phosgene gas, and crippled. The Treaty of Versaillessigned in June 1919did not end the hostility betweenEuropean nations; on the contrary, the arroganceof victorious the gap betweenthem- The -British,powers and the sting of injusticedeepened French and Americans proclaimed that the Germans were responsiblefor the outbreakof war. The huge economicreparations and teriitorial losses angeredthe Germans,who were not defeatedon the battlefield. Germany lost Alsaceand Lorraine to France,and the Upper Silesia (Ober Schtesier)and Posento Poland. In Eastern Europe the national minorities were incorporatedinto nationsto which they felt no allegiance.A third of Poland'spopulation (Ukrainians,Germans, Jews and Byelorussians)did not speak Polish. A third of Czechoslovakia consisted of Polish, Russian, ukrainian, Magyar (Hungarian), and German minorities. Germans and Slovaks were particularly unhappy under the rule of pro-Soviet Czechs.The Muslim Slavs (Bosniansand Hercegovinians)were discriminatedagainst by the Christian Serbsin the "Kingiom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians" (SHS), later called Yugoslaviaor "The Land of SouthernSlavs." The "Greater Romania" receivedMagyar-populated Transylvania. The greatestlosers were the non-EuropeanMuslim Turks and Arabs led by westernizedstooges of the Allies. Mandateswere given to the victorious Christian crusaders from France and England by the American-sponsoredLeague of Nations to administerthe Arab lands. The map of tn" Arab Middle Eastwas drawn by the British and French generals.The Egyptian army was comlnandedby an English generaland ihe real ruler of the country was the British Agent and Consul General' Kemal Pasha's Turkish Nationalist Government recognized the new borders and the Bolshevik regimesof Soviet Azerbayjan, Georgia and Armenia. They acceptedthe soviet rule over Bukhara,Khiva, and all of Turkistan, [n return, Lenin recognizedhis government.The British, French, Greeks, and Italians had all agreed on their sharesof the booty in Turkey. They rejectedthe Russianclaim to and the Straits. ihe powerless Sultan Muhammed VI acceptedpartition of the lNreLtectueL DrscouRsg [163]

caliphate. Asian Turkey was divided into British, French, Greek and Italian spheresof influence. on August 10, 1920, the Turkish govern- ment signedthe humiliating Peacetreaty of sdvres (which was later not ratified by the Turkish Meclis). Istanbul and the straits were ,,interrra- tionalized" or occupied by the British fleet. Greece received eastern Thrace and Gallipoli, the Aegean islands and the coast around Izrnir (Smyrna). Syria and cilicia went to France. , Transjordan and Palestine were handed over to Britain, which also assumed the protectorateover the whole of the Arabian peninsula (Aden, yemen, oman, and Kuwait). The Italians receivedDodecanese and Adalia. The strength of the Turkish army was fixed at a maximum of 50,000 men. Six years later, British and Frenchcrusaders signed the Treatyof Mosul. The Iraqi Petroleumcompany wasdivided between the British(52.5%), Americans (21.25%), and French (Zl.Z5%) oil companies. The Armenian oilman c. S. Gulbenkianreceived a 5% commissionfor his servicesas mediator. rn 1920, the supreme Allied war council gave a mandateto the Greek Prime Minister venizelos (leaderof the movementEnosis, "unity of all Greeks")to restore "law and order" in Anatolia. Greek rroops seized Bursa and Edirne, which ignited a massuprising of the Muslim Turks. Jihad was declaredby the imams and hocas in every Anatolian village and town. Kemal Pasha'stroops retreatedwhen the Greek army attacked Eskigehir, but in the summer of 1922. the exhaustedand demoralized Greeks were defeatedand expelled from Turkey. France withdrew its own troops. The British navy left the Straits.on November 1, 1922, SultanMuhammed v[ was declareda traitor and his office was abolished.The western powers were forced to abolish their own plan of the total partition of rurkey. Turkey received a smail pieceof Europe back in EasternThrace. No war reparationswere demanded,but 430,000 Turks were deported from Europe. rn 1923, Kemal pasha became president of the nationalist elite of power. rn L924, he abolishedthe caliphateand bannedthe shari"ahlaw, which causeda massuprising of Muslim Turks and Kurds. Kemal, impressedby Stalin's method of dealing with religious opponents,massacred hundreds of thousafldsof Kurdish and rurkish Muslims led by the charismatic leader and anti- Russian war hero BediuzzamanSaid Nursi (d. 1960). In 192g, all referencesrelating to lslam were removedfrom the constitution.Reading and writing in Arabic was punished by imprisonment; copies of the Qur'an and preciousArabic and Persianmanuscripts were collectedand burned; many famous mosques were vandalized or converted into museums;and sufi orders were declaredillegal. Hundredsof ulema were [164] "Jeomtsu"tN ERsrenNEunoPn executed because they taught the Qur'dn. Law was secularized among the lines of the Napoleonic code. Criminal law was borrowed from ltaly. The Muslim calendar was forbidden. In 1935, Friday was replaced by Sunday as the day of rest. "Atatiirk" died in 1938. "The sad fact about Kemal Atattrk, " wrote Jansen: is not merely that he was a very shallow reformer, but that he has been proven an unsuccessfulreformer. The main reason for his failure is that he did not know his people. He refusedto acknowledge that the Turks always have been and for the foreseeable future will remain very devout Muslims.... The vast massof the Turks " ' simply turned their back on Ataturk's anti-Islamic reforms and took their religion underground into mysticism ot tasawwuf, and into what was left of the closed brotherhood of the tariqas ... Nakshbandis, Qadiris and Mevlevis had all maintainedlimited activity underground despitepolice harassmenr....In spiteof the evidentfailure sincethe beginningof the Kemalist revolt, western writers on Turkey remained obstinately cheerful and the biographies of Atatork ale still hagio-graphies. The reason for this Western favoritism is not far to seek. Atatnrk gave the West that sincerestfrom of flattery-imitation'"20

Conclusions ln Eastern Europe, the signs of cultural decay were manifestedby the emergenceof a new type of Muslim rationalists-survivalists obsessed with ihe alleged stagnationof religious mind. At the root of their view was a chimera-national liberation of the Muslims without the re- Islamization of their states. In 1877, T. Erskine May wrote in his Democracyin Europe, that "an imitation of Europeancustoms including the perilous art of torrowing has been lately affected;but in the hands of dastern rulers, the civilization of the West is unfruitful, and instead "2r of restoring a tottering state, appearsto threatenit with speedier ruin. Politically and ideologically,the modernistexperiment was the worst of all scenarios.Old patternsof ethnic solidarityand bureaucracieswere stronger than "westernization,"and police statesof one form Or another became the main canal of social reform. Without political and religious freedom, modernism becamea serviceablewhip of tyranny in the hands of westernizeddesPots.

Notes 1. K. Dopierala, Emigracia polska w TurcjixIX i )a wieku(Lublin: Polonia, INtpLLBctuel DrscouRse ll6sl

1988), 160, 305-332; M. X. K. O. Czajkowski, Kozaczyznaw Turcji (paris, 18 87). M. Sadyk-Pashaczajkowski, M oje wsp omni eni a o wojni e 1g54 (warsaw, 1962). Z. Milkowski, Udzial polakow w wojnie wschodniej, Ig53-1556(paris, 1858). A. Lewak, Dzieje emigracji potskiej w Turcji, t83I-1928 (warsaw, 1935). A. S. choloniewski, "polacy w Turcji i krajach porureckich,"przegrad Emigracyjny 1892, no. 8: 73. S. Karwowski, potacy w Turcji,Ig4g-lg5l (Poznan,1913). J. S. Latka, potacywTurcji (Lublin, t9g0). 2- N. Davies, Heart of Europe: A short History of potand (oxford: oxford UniversityPress, 1986), 346-347. 3. K. Dopierala,Emigracja Polska, Tj-112. 4. P. Borawski, Tatarcyw dawnej RzeczypospotireT(warsaw, 19g6), 252-25g. 5. Resmi Efendi Azmi, sefaretname-i 1205 senesinde prusya Kirali lkinci Fredrik Guillaum'in Nezdine Memur otan Ahmed fumi Efendin'drr (Istanbul, 1303 AH), 27-36; alsohis Berlin Seforetnamesi(Istanbul, 1303 AH). 6. M. Hamid, Imam shamil: The First Muslim Guerrilla Leader (Lahore: Islamic Publications Ltd, 1979); Z. Akhmadov, VzaimootnoshenyaNarod.ov Checheno-Ingushetiis Rossiyeiv 18 vyeke(Groznii: Kniga, 1991), l_15. 7. K. Morawski, Jozef .Bem(Warsaw, 1964),73-74; E. Kozlowski, General Jozef Bem (Warsaw, 1958).

8. T. Gasztowtt,La Pologne et l'Islam (paris, 1907); Also his, Tursuie et Pologne(Paris, 1913).

9. T. w. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam (Lahore: Muhammad Ashraf, lg7g), 249.

10. See v. Bobrovnikoff, "Moslems in Russia," The Moslem world ll (l9l 1); D. Mackenzie, Russia(London, 1871.),l:240-245. 12. Ibid. 13. Arnold, Preachingof Islam.252-255. 14. Radlov,Ans Sibeien, (Leipzig 1884),1: 241. 15. M. Bennabi, Islam in History and society (Islambad: Islamic Research Institure,1988), 35. 16. J- Al Ahmad, occidentosis: A plague From the wesl (Berkeley: Mizan Press,1984).

17. A. Hussain, western conJlict with Islam: survey of the Anti-Islamic Tradition (lricester: Volcano Books, 1990). 18. C. M. Chester(Rear Admird, US Nu.'y), "The young Turk," National Geographic,23(Jn. l9l2),1:47; g. Mardin, The Genesisof young Ottoman Thought (Princeton, 1938); E. E. Ramsaur, The young Turl

20. G. H. Jansen,ed., Militantlslcru (New York: Harperand Row, 19'19),ll4- 119. 21. T . E. May, Democracyin Europe(London, 1877)' 29 '