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Across the Great Water: Religion and Diaspora in the Black Atlantic

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Across the Great Water: Religion and Diaspora in the Black Atlantic ACROSS THE GREAT WATER: RELIGION AND DIASPORA IN THE BLACK ATLANTIC By JOHN WILLIAM CATRON A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2008 1 2008 John William Catron 2 To the two people who inspired me and kept the faith: my mother, Patricia, and my wife, Tracey. 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No one writes a doctoral dissertation by themselves, and I am no exception. Without the help and encouragement of academic advisors, the staffs of historical archives, family members, fellow graduate students, and friends, this project would never have been started, much less completed. I am grateful to the Moravian Archives in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, for providing me access to its extensive holdings of eighteenth-century Atlantic-world Afro-Moravian culture, to which a majority of this work can be attributed. The chief archivist in Bethlehem, Paul Peucker, was particularly helpful, as was his knowledgeable assistant, Lanie Graf. Former Moravian archivist, Vernon Nelson, also provided valuable insights into early Moravian history and suggested further venues for research. The staff of the Archives and of Moravian College made it possible for me, as well, to spend several weeks in Bethlehem which gave me a chance, in my off hours, to explore the region where many of the historical characters in this study lived and worked, adding immeasurably to my understanding of this subject. I am also indebted to the staffs of the Georgia Historical Society, the South Carolina Historical Association, the South Caroliniana Library, Moravian House-London, the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London, Lambeth Palace, Regents Park College-Oxford University, the Latin American Collection at the University of Florida, and Interlibrary Loan for allowing me access to their collections and services. At the University of Florida, Jon Sensbach encouraged my interest in early American history while gently guiding me into several fruitful areas of study. Jon’s work with early Afro- Moravians and his Atlantic-world perspectives deepened my own interest in trans-oceanic religious movements and the cross-cultural connections that made them possible. David Geggus and Jeffrey Needell’s seminars on slavery and Brazilian history are also responsible for broadening my understanding of early American history to include the Caribbean and Latin 4 America. David Hackett and Anna Peterson deepened my appreciation of the importance of religion in the historical development of the Americas. I am also thankful for the many excellent fellow graduate students who, over hundreds of hours of discussions in the cramped graduate student lounge and at history seminars, provided a wealth of information from a wide range disciplines and gave me much thoughtful criticism. As this project progressed, I received several grants and awards that helped to make it possible. The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences and the History Department at the University of Florida provided several generous grants that allowed me to travel to archives in Britain and to deliver papers in North Carolina and Georgia that became part of this work. The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences also provided me with a dissertation fellowship that gave me valuable time to write. I am especially grateful to the History Department’s faculty committee that chose one of my dissertation chapters as the winner of the Proctor Award for the best work on Southern history by a graduate student. My greatest debt of gratitude is to my family. My mother, Patricia Brodersen; and my late father, John David Catron, inspired in me a love and appreciation for the past and imbued a lasting curiosity about human foibles and triumphs. My mother also performed the yeowoman’s duty of editing, and is therefore responsible for much of what is good about the literary style and clarity of this work. As life-long friends, my sisters Cecilia and Carol and my brother David have given continued and enthusiastic support. Finally, my wife Tracey and daughters Amanda and Heidi deserve more thanks than I can give for enduring my long hours of study and the extended periods I have spent away from them on research trips. Though this academic work may be somewhat of a conceit, I hope that it will make them all proud. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................4 LIST OF TABLES...........................................................................................................................8 ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................9 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................11 2 CHRISTIANITY IN ATLANTIC AFRICA BEFORE 1800 .................................................28 The Role of Atlantic Creoles ..................................................................................................30 Obstacles to Acceptance of Christianity.................................................................................37 Mixed-Race Unions and African Influences ..........................................................................40 Political Influences .................................................................................................................48 Western Penetration of West Africa.......................................................................................55 Competition from Islam..........................................................................................................62 West Central Africa: Kongo and Angola...............................................................................68 Afro-Protestant Missionaries..................................................................................................73 Overlooked Role of Africa’s Christians .................................................................................78 3 THE FAVORITE OF HEAVEN: ANTIGUA AND THE GROWTH OF AFRO- CHRISTIANITY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ........................................................81 Mungo Park and the Slave Trade............................................................................................83 Antigua: The Center of Afro-Caribbean Protestantism.........................................................88 The Search for Religious Options...........................................................................................91 Early Efforts to Evangelize Afro-Caribbeans.........................................................................99 New Efforts in the Eighteenth Century ................................................................................105 Favorable Conditions for Missions in Antigua.....................................................................109 The Church and Black Leadership .......................................................................................118 The Great Awakening in The Afro-Caribbean .....................................................................121 Ethnic Consciousness and Conversion .................................................................................132 Afro-Moravians in Antigua ..................................................................................................138 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................149 6 4 ANTIGUAN DIASPORA: THE SPREAD OF AFRO-CARIBBEAN PROTESTANTISM IN THE AMERICAS..........................................................................152 Afro-Caribbean Mobility......................................................................................................153 Mobility, Religion, and Slavery............................................................................................163 Dilemmas Faced by Missionaries.........................................................................................172 Black and Brown “Helpers” .................................................................................................178 Education for Afro-Antiguans ..............................................................................................183 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................185 5 AFRO-ATLANTIC CHRISTIANITY IN THE NORTH.....................................................188 Religion and Equality in Bethlehem.....................................................................................198 Slavery and Freedom in Bethlehem......................................................................................213 Work and Upward Mobility for Black Northerners .............................................................222 Missionaries in North America.............................................................................................225 Afro-Moravian Evangelicals ................................................................................................231 6 EVANGELICAL NETWORKS IN THE GREATER CARIBBEAN .................................243 The SPG in the Greater Caribbean .......................................................................................246 Evangelicals in the Greater
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