FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 1
ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI
SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
MASTER’S DEGREE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING
MA Dissertation
Measuring foreign language learning aptitude of intellectually gifted students with a
newly devised test
Marianthi Serafeim
Supervisor: Dr. Thomai Alexiou, Associate Professor
THESSALONIKI 2020 FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ...... 6
ABSTRACT ...... 7
INTRODUCTION ...... 9
CHAPTER 1: Literature Review of Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language
Learning Aptitude ...... 12
1.1. Second and Foreign language acquisition ...... 12
1.1.1. Second Language Acquisition ...... 12
1.1.2. Foreign Language Learning ...... 17
1.1.3. Second language acquisition theories ...... 18
1.1.4. Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition ...... 20
1.2. Foreign Language Learning Aptitude ...... 23
1.2.1. Shaping Foreign Language Learning Aptitude ...... 23
1.2.2. Foreign Language Aptitude and Intelligence ...... 24
1.2.3. Foreign Language Aptitude and L1 ...... 24
1.2.4. Aptitude in the second language acquisition context ...... 26
1.2.5. Later considerations on foreign language learning aptitude ...... 28
1.2.6. Foreign Language Learning Aptitude Tests ...... 32 FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 3
CHAPTER 2: INTELLECTUALLY GIFTED STUDENTS ...... …..40
2.1 Intellectual Giftedness ...... 40
2.2. Intellectually gifted students ...... 42
2.3. Programs for the talented and gifted students: CTY Greece ...... 43
2.4. Intellectually gifted students and foreign language aptitude ...... 44
2.5. Intelelctually gifted students and gender differences ...... 47
CHAPTER 3: Methodology ...... ….51
3.1. Aims, Research Context and Research Questions ...... 51
3.2. Participants ...... 52
3.3. Research Tools ...... 54
3.4. Data Collection ...... 57
CHAPTER 4: Results and Discussion ...... 59
4.1. Is the proposed measurement of aptitude a reliable instrument of measuring foreign
language learning aptitude? Are all the parts of the test reliable? ...... 59
4.2. What is the correlation, if any, between the variables of the study (Students’ and
parents’ background, Foreign Language Learning aptitude, Proficiency in the English
Language, and CTY SCAT Test scores)? ...... 61
4.3. Does gender have an effect on foreign language aptitude of high ability students? Is
there a gender effect on the different parts of the tool? ...... 65
4.4. Does age have an effect on foreign language aptitude of high ability students? ...... 67 FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 4
4.5. Do the participants’ CTY scores predict their level of foreign language learning
aptitude? Is there any effect of exposure to English and foreign language aptitude to
intellectually gifted students? ...... 68
4.6. Interesting Findings ...... 71
4.6.1. The foreign language aptitude level of intellectually high ability students ...... 71
4.6.2. The effect of gender on the participants’ performance in the XLEX vocabulary size
test 72
4.6.3. The effect of L1 on the foreign language aptitude of intellectually high ability
students. 73
CHAPTER 5: Limitations of the study and Recommendations ...... 76
5.1. Limitations of the study ...... 76
5.2. Recommendations ...... 77
CHAPTER 6: Conclusion ...... 79
REFERENCES ...... 83
APPENDIX I ...... 106
APPENDIX II ...... 131
APPENDIX III ...... 136
APPENDIX V: Correlation Matrix ...... 137
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 5
LIST OF TABLES
1. Participants………………………………………………………………………………..... 53
2. Adaptation of the devised parts……………………………………………………………..56
3. Reliability Analysis for Game on Cognitive Abilities – Aptitude Test (α = .87)………...…58
4. Correlation Analyses between CTY scores and IGLAT……………………………………60
5. Correlation Analyses between XLEX and IGLAT………………………………………….61
6. Correlation Analyses between gender, IGLAT and XLEX. ……………………………….61
7. Correlation Analyses between IGLAT and demographics. ………………………………..62
8. The effect of gender on IGLAT total scores. ………………………………………………64
9. The effect of gender on “Artificial Language Game”. …………………………………..…64
10. Descriptive statistics regarding the age of the participants and IGLAT…………………..66
11. Predicting the total IGLAT score. …………………………………………………………67
12. Predicting the “Paired Associates” scores. ………………………………………………..68
13. Predicting the “Symbol Associations” scores. ………………………………………...…..68
14. Results of stepwise regression……………………………………………………………..68
15. Participants’ scores in the IGLAT Test. …………………………………………………..70
16. The effect of gender on XLEX scores. ……………………………………………………71
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 6
Acknowledgements
I would like to wholeheartedly thank some people who have helped me tremendously in completing this paper. First of all, my supervisor and mentor, Dr. Thomai Alexiou. Without her support and guidance, this would have been an unimaginable task. Dr. Alexiou, thank you for believing in me. I would also like to thank my loving parents, Elsa and Giannis as well as my aunt and uncle, Fani and John, who have shaped who I am today. Thank you for teaching me how to love, and to never give up on my dreams. You are my greatest treasure. I also wish to thank
George, for the long distance calls and his continuous support. No words can describe how thankful I am to you. Finally, many thanks to all my friends, Marialena especially, who bore with me and supported me throughout my journey until here. I love you all deeply.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 7
ABSTRACT
Foreign language learning aptitude predicts the rate at which a person may successfully master a foreign language (Carrol, 1973). Despite the extensive research on young learners’ aptitude (Alexiou, 2005) and gifted university students (Dai & Renzulli, 2008; Feldhunsen &
Moon, 1992), as yet no studies have included school aged gifted students.
The aim of the current study is to assess the level of foreign language learning aptitude of intellectually high ability students through the use of a devised measurement tool. 120 students
(50 males, 70 females), aged between 12 and 17 years old, attending Centre for Talented Youth
(CTY) Greece participated in this study. CTY Greece students are regarded as intellectually gifted, based on scores from two tests developed and scored by the Johns Hopkins University
Center for Talented Youth: The School and College Ability Test (SCAT) and the Spatial Test
Battery (STB) which measure verbal, quantitative and visual-spatial reasoning respectively.
The participants were administered the test consisting of five parts, each measuring specific cognitive skills related to foreign language learning aptitude. Two EFL vocabulary size test s- Pic-Lex (Alexiou, 2019) and XLEX (Meara & Milton, 2003) were also administered. The test was computer based and lasted approximately 20 to 25 minutes. The reliability analysis indicated that all instruments of measurement were reliable (α = .87).
Results showed that gifted students obtained high scores in the EFL vocabulary size tests, indicating a very good command of the English language. Moreover, the majority of gifted students performed very well in the cognitive tasks, indicating medium to high language aptitude level. Gender differences also emerged from these results. Findings of the current study may FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 8 offer important insights to English language teachers; therefore, implications for educational practices will be discussed.
Keywords: foreign language learning aptitude, intellectual giftedness, intellectually high ability students, aptitude measurement
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 9
INTRODUCTION
One of the major paradoxes in the context of second language acquisition that some learners appear to be more successful than others and whether there are any factors affecting learners’ achievement in mastering a second language. Throughout the years, many researchers, scholars and teachers have attempted several approaches and methodologies in an effort to discover how learners can reach the ultimate level of second language achievement. After so many years of research though, the question still remains unanswered, as no universally agreed conclusions have been drawn regarding the determinant elements of second language accomplishment. Inevitably then, individual differences are to shed light upon this mystery.
Individual differences are a compilation of traits, motivation, learning styles, learning strategies and aptitude. Research has indicated that one of the most strongly correlated individual difference parameter in second language proficiency is the variable of aptitude. Apart from aptitude, other variables, such as motivation, have been studied for school aged intellectually high ability students. The concept of foreign language learning aptitude has received occasional attention from the researchers, but has been almost exclusively examined among adult learners.
This could be explained due to the fact that some teachers and educators might feel uncomfortable “differentiating” learners in any kind of way, especially when it comes to teaching.
It is well known that language mastery is not a mere outcome of the teaching procedure nor the teachers’ efforts to transfer knowledge to the learners. In fact, it is true that all learners have the ability to learn a second language, only at a different rate and with a different ease. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 10
Henceforth, equally generalizing the success for all learners would fail to account for other parameters involved in second language acquisition.
Recent research has investigated the nature of foreign language learning aptitude and the concept of aptitude has been reconsidered. Previous researchers viewed aptitude as an inherent characteristic, a “trait” or a fixed ability that a person might or might not possess. Later considerations though have added to that perception, underlining that language aptitude is linked with cognition and it is not fixed. Foreign language aptitude is believed to comprise more of cognitive abilities, rather than abilities which are language specific. Hence, since cognitive skills develop throughout a person’s life, aptitude is susceptible to change and thus, it can be trained.
Researching aptitude however, still poses some questions, with regard to testing and aptitude measurements. Very well-known aptitude measurement tools have been used for many years across many populations. Yet, not extensive research has been carried out addressing school aged intellectually high ability students.
The main aim of this study is to devise an aptitude test that will possibly enable predictions for future learning and teaching students aged between twelve and seventeen years – old, who have been characterized as intellectually gifted. Thus, a newly devised, computer based aptitude test is to be administered to the specific sample, in an attempt to draw conclusions about intellectually high ability students’ aptitude. It is evidently expected that the participants of the study will perform well on the aptitude testing and the newly devised test, as well as all its components, will prove to be reliable.
More detailed, in the first chapter of the literature review, an examination of second and foreign language acquisition as a research field and its theories will be followed. Additionally, FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 11 individual differences will be also discussed, focusing mainly on foreign language learning aptitude. Furthermore, foreign language learning aptitude will be explored, moving from previous considerations to the new ones, delving into the connection of aptitude and intelligence and the first language and the role of aptitude in the second language acquisition context. In addition, different existing aptitude measurements will be presented. In the second chapter, the concept of intellectual giftedness will be analysed, along with a presentation of some characteristics and traits of intellectually gifted students. Moreover, some programs addressing these students will be provided. Finally, in the last part of the second chapter, a presentation of previous studies concerning intellectually high ability students and aptitude will be performed. What is more, the lack of research in intellectually gifted students and their language aptitude will be stressed, and consequently the rationale of the particular study will be demonstrated.
Later on, the adopted methodology, along with the results and the discussion of those will be introduced in chapters three and four respectively. Limitations of the particular study and suggestions for future research will also be provided in the fifth chapter of this paper. In the final chapter, a summary of the findings and implications for educational practises will be suggested, in order to highlight the significance of the particular study.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 12
CHAPTER 1: Literature Review of Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language
Learning Aptitude
1.1. Second and Foreign language acquisition
1.1.1. Second Language Acquisition
It is obvious that knowing a second language well signifies that an individual possesses
information similar to that of a native speaker of a language. As Doughty and Long (2003) have
stated, the breadth of second language acquisition (SLA) is immense. Second language
acquisition circumscribes basic and applied work on the loss and acquisition of a second or third
language, etc. as well as dialects by both children and adults in a naturalistically learning
environment (Ellis, 1994; Gass & Selinker, 2001; Gregg, 1994; Jordens & Lalleman, 1988;
Klein, 1986; Larsen-Freeman, 1991; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Ritchie & Bhatia, 1996;
Towell & Hawkins, 1994). The authors above add that other factors are the support of formal
instruction of individuals or groups, in the settings of foreign or second language and lingua
franca, as well (Ellis, 1994; Gass & Selinker, 2001; Gregg, 1994; Jordens & Lalleman, 1988;
Klein, 1986; Larsen-Freeman, 1991; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Ritchie & Bhatia, 1996;
Towell & Hawkins, 1994).
As Gass and Selinker (2008) have stated, second language acquisition is in approximation a young field. Although it is hard to declare the “beginning” date, the specific field has developed and expanded substantially during the past forty-five years (Gass & Selinker, 2008). The fields of language teaching and learning have gained great attention before then, but the core knowledge around the subject of second language acquisition has seen a big increase in interest since then
(Gass & Selinker, 2008). FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 13
Second language acquisition per se is “the study of how second languages are learned”
(Gass & Selinker, 2008, p. 1). Specifically, Gass and Selinker (2008) describe it as the study of how a non – primary language, beyond the native one, which is acquired. They particularly examine it in association with how learners are able to develop a brand new language system with restricted exposure to a second language (L2) (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Occasionally, L2, the commonly used term for second language, also refers to the learning of a third or a forth language, or any language learned after the native language (L1), has been acquired (Gass &
Selinker, 2008). Regarding the acquisition, Gass and Selinker (2008) particularly mention that it can take place either in a classroom environment or in a more “natural” way, through exposure to the language in different situations.
Second language acquisition is not only concerned with the study of what is actually learned in a second language (Gass & Selinker, 2008). It also deals with what is not learned, aiming to examine the fact that most second language learners are not capable of achieving the same level of knowledge and proficiency in a second language, unlike their native language(Gass
& Selinker, 2008). Gass and Selinker (2008) actually stress that only a minority of learners seem to accomplish a native – like proficiency level in more than one language. Furthermore, acquiring a second language involves the examination of the hypotheses whether learners come up with the rules of a second language consciously or subconsciously (Gass & Selinker, 2008).
There is a variety of fields in which researchers with graduate training enter second language acquisition, inclusive of anthropology, psychology, communication, linguistics, applied linguistics, foreign language education and, to a great extent, SLA per se (Doughty & Long,
2003). It is reasonable that they enter the field baring themselves a wide assortment of both theoretical and methodological allegiances (Doughty & Long, 2003). An incessant increase has FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 14 been observed regarding the choice of data collection procedures and analyses employed in the
1980s and 1990s, while some of these practices were preliminary for many second language acquisition researchers (Birdsong, 1989; Chaudron, 2003; Doughty & Long, 2000; Faerch &
Kasper, 1987; Sorace, 1996; Tarone, Gass, & Cohen, 1994). Changes have additionally been observed in the ways through which second language acquisition is measured (Bachman &
Cohen, 1998; Norris & Ortega, 2000). Nonetheless, longitudinal studies of children are distressingly rare (Huebner, 1983a, 1983b; F. Klein, 1981; Sato, 1990; Watson-Gegeo, 1992) as well as adult studies (Iwashita, 2001; Liceras, Maxwell, Laguardia, Fernandez, Fernandez, &
Diaz, 1997; Schmidt, 1983). In fact, the prevailing majority of studies in second language acquisition are cross – sectional, bearing crucial resulting limitations on the conclusions that could be drawn on some of these eminent issues (Doughty & Long, 2003). Therefore, there is a lack in research, which does not allow us to draw solid conclusions, especially when considering young learners. It is due to their constant cognitive development that more in depth research should take place with these groups.
It is widely acknowledged among researchers that second language acquisition is placed in a social context, inevitably, and it is also accepted that it can be influenced by that specific context both in a micro and in a macro level (Doughty & Long, 2003). Nevertheless, Doughty and Long (2003) also recognized that language learning is eventually a matter of change in a person’s internal mental state, like any other type of learning. Hence, second language acquisition research is gradually perceived to belong in the branch of cognitive science (Doughty & Long,
2003).
Since second languages increase in importance, second language acquisition, either naturalistic, instructed or both, has become an even more vital activity for a great majority of FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 15 individuals (Doughty & Long, 2003). For instance, as Doughty and Long (2003) highlight, there are 300 to 400 people whose native language is English, vastly outnumbered by the 1 to 2 billion people for whom English is an official second language.
The past few years, increasing numbers of children attending numerous kinds of additive bilingual, bidialectal or immersion programs have been reported (Fishman, 2001; Huebner &
Davis, 1999; Philipson, 2000; Sato, 1989; Warner, 2001). These programs aim at promoting first language maintenance along with second language acquisition or cultural revitalization, providing a positive development to the alarming pace at which language death continues throughout the world (Fishman, 2001; Huebner & Davis, 1999; Philipson, 2000; Sato, 1989;
Warner, 2001).
Second language acquisition though does not only refer to common experiences among children around the world (Doughty & Long, 2003). In fact, increasingly more adults are voluntarily becoming second language learners or learners of a dialect, due to higher education or international travelling (Doughty & Long, 2003). Consequently, worthy of grievous study is any experience that affects so many individuals, specifically because success or failure may fundamentally affect life chances (Doughty & Long, 2003). Withal, Doughty and Long (2003) raise the issue that the apparent social importance of second language acquisition should not be the sole reason to draw researchers’ interest, as for many it is not the primary reason or it does not constitute a reason at all. Most importantly, the two authors believe that “[a]s a widespread, highly complex, uniquely human, cognitive process, language learning of all kinds merits careful study for what it can reveal about the nature of the human mind and intelligence” (Doughty &
Long, 2003, p. 6). This way, researchers are primarily carrying out what might be termed “basic FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 16 research” in second language acquisition, regardless of its social utility or potential applications
(Doughty & Long, 2003).
To address this issue, theories of linguistic development typically assume that children have the endowment of an innate system guiding and supplementing their interaction with experience, widely known as the “acquisition device” (Doughty & Long, 2003). This conception is broadly accepted by a significant amount of researchers, spanning from Slobin (1985, p. 1158) to Chomsky (1975, p. 13). However, differences do arise on one significant point; in some acquisition theories, a significant amount of grammar is believed to be provided in advance by the acquisition device (O’Grady, 1997). This grammatical component is also known as Universal
Grammar (UG) (O’Grady, 1997). Other theories suggest that the interaction between the acquisition device and experience is merely responsible for the entire grammar (Ellis, 1996). In my view, there might be an abundance of other factors affecting the acquisition of languages.
Researchers should not cease investigating this complex phenomenon and emphasis should be placed in parameters that have not been examined yet, one of which might be the origin of the individuals, and many more.
Undoubtedly worthy is the controversy deriving from the engendered study of such a puzzling and complex phenomenon as language acquisition (Doughty & Long, 2003).
Undeniably, Doughy and Long (2003) comment that unreasonable would it be to await a wide consensus on such a profoundly obscure phenomenon, especially since after so many years of investigation, much of it concentrated on how a single language is acquired.
Gass and Selinker (2008) discussed the interdisciplinary nature of acquiring a second language, underlining that second language acquisition is closely related to other areas of inquiry. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 17
In the meanwhile, they mention a plethora of approaches through which one can study the theory of acquiring a second language (Gass & Selinker, 2008).
Language teachers and curriculum designers have exhibited an increased interest in the field of second language acquisition (Gass & Selinker, 2008). The previously mentioned authors believe that language teachers have come to realize that in order to develop language teaching methodologies, a firm methodological basis in language learning should exist. Also, Gass and
Selinker (2008) specifically state that the development of language teaching methodologies should be based on an insight of how language learning takes place or it does not. Through these studies, language teachers and curriculum designers have become aware of the fact that language learning goes beyond rule memorization (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Emphasis should be placed in communication instead, and knowledge about the process of learning must be reflected in pedagogical decision – making (Gass & Selinker, 2008).
Be that as it may, the two researchers believe that it is of high significance to emphasize that the study of second language acquisition should be separate of language pedagogy, even though there are implications connecting second language acquisition to the discipline of language teaching (Gass & Selinker, 2008). My personal belief is that those two disciplines are to be perceived as inseparable. Only through the conjoint investigation of these two research fields, will educators make informed decisions about teaching.
1.1.2. Foreign Language Learning
It is important to stress the difference between learning a foreign language and acquiring a second language. Generally, foreign language (FL) learning is differentiated from second language acquisition , since it is the case that the former (FL) refers to learning a non – native language by living in the native language environment, such as Greek speakers learning English FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 18 in Greece, usually in the context of a classroom (Gass & Selinker, 2008). On the contrary, second language acquisition takes place when an individual is learning a non – native language in an environment that the specific language is spoken, for instance Greek speakers learning English in the UK, either in a classroom environment or not (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Gass and Selinker place special emphasis on the fact that second or foreign language acquisition takes place in an environment that there is ample access to input produced by speakers of the language being learned, while this is not the case with foreign language learning (2008).
1.1.3. Second language acquisition theories
It was in the late 1960s and early 1970s that quite a few researchers highlighted that the language of second language (L2) learners is characterized by systematicity, thus learner errors are indicating a rule – governed behaviour rather than errors committed randomly (Adjemian,
1976; Corder, 1967; Nemser, 1971; Selinker, 1972). This conception was the starting point for the development of “interlanguage”, proposing that L2 learners have an internal mental grammar, a natural language system that can be interpreted in terms of linguistic principles and rules
(Doughty & Long, 2003). There are quite a few theories on how second language acquisition actually takes place (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Second language acquisition research basically assumes that, through language learning, a language system is created by the leaners, commonly known as Interlanguage (IL) (Gass & Selinker, 2008). The concept of Interlanguage allows for validating learners’ speech as a system of its own with its own structure, rather than a deficit system filled with random errors (Gass & Selinker, 2008). The two researchers also support that
Interlanguage comprises of plentiful elements, some of which come from the native language or FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 19 the target language, but also from elements that do not originate in any of them (Gass & Selinker,
2008).
Ambiguous are the claims however about the nature of interlanguage, with the main issue being the scope of interlanguage grammar in comparison to other grammars and the role of
Universal Grammar (UG), too (Doughty & Long, 2003). Since the early 1980s, the question whether Universal Grammar intercedes L2 acquisition, and if so, to what extent, has been much debated (Doughty & Long, 2003). As Doughty and Long (2003) point out, grammars are assumed to be mental representations, in the generative tradition, and these representations are constrained by universal principles. Consequently, the properties of the human mind are the ones to determine linguistic universals and henceforth, these universal principles are the ones to regulate grammars, hence languages (Doughty & Long, 2003).
Although the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) perceived the first language as the only determinant of second language acquisition, and specifically in a negative way, Ellis (1986) exhibited that later proposals view it as merely one determinant among many. In particular, Ellis
(1986, p. 42) examined the claim that “second language learners acquire a knowledge of a L2 in a fixed order as a result of a predisposition to process language data in highly specific ways” and in an effort to achieve this goal Ellis (1986) studied early research on Error Analysis, Interlanguage and “Natural Route” of development. The general point raised was that learners go through similar developmental stages in acquiring an L2, despite their different language backgrounds
(Ellis, 1986). However, Ellis (1986) supports his view merely by interpreting the results of longitudinal studies on the acquisition of morphemes. In fact, little does he refer to the methodological criticisms of the above. Thus, the readers are left with the false belief that these initial acquisition studies provide ambiguous support for the natural order hypothesis. Ellis FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 20
(1986),drawing on work by Tarone (1982, 1983), also indicates that L2 development can be seen as the extension of simple to complex linguistic as well as of formal to informal situational contexts that target – language forms are used in.
Another very well know theory regarding second language acquisition is the critical period hypothesis (CPH) (Penfield & Roberts 1959), which was later replaced by the concept of sensitive period (Hytenstam & Abrahamsson, 2000). Ever since, these notions have been discharged by the linear decline hypothesis, which states that the ability to learn a second or foreign language is inversely proportional with age (Vanhove, 2013). For instance, Hakuta,
Bialystok, and Wiley (2003) found a negative linear relationship between age of arrival in a new country and ultimate L2 acquisition. Similar results were that of Flege, Yeni-Komshian and Liu
(1999), who discovered that the accent of Korean - English bilingual speakers was positively correlated with the age of arrival in the United States. Likewise, Birdsong (2006) underlined negative correlations between age of arrival and end – state L2 acquisition. He particularly highlighted that later arrival usually led to more grammaticality judgement errors as well as higher levels of non – native accent (Birdsong, 2006).
1.1.4. Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition
According to Carroll (1981), all individuals have the ability to acquire a foreign language.
However, each learner differs in how effectively, quickly or easily the acquisition takes place, as not all learners possess the same abilities and to the same degree (Lightbown & Spada, 2006).
The perception that people differ from one another while having a variety of things in common is barely new or enlightening (Kluckhohn & Murray, 1948). As Dörnyei and Rayn
(2015) comment, the well-developed strand of psychology named differential psychology, or referred to as individual differences (IDs) research, has been occupied with comprehending these FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 21 characteristics that diverge people, investigating in what manner and for which reasons differences may occur.
Among many researchers, Ellis (1986) investigated the ways in which individual differences have an impact on the rate and ultimate success of acquiring a second language. Ellis
(1986) actually presented a taxonomy, in an attempt to differentiate personal from general factors. As hestates “[p]ersonal factors are highly idiosyncratic features of each individual's approach to learning a L2” (Ellis, 1986, p. 100). General factors, on the other hand, are characteristics shared by all learners, such as cognitive style, aptitude, personality, etc, even though they might be realized differently in individuals (Ellis, 1986).
Drawing on work of Cervone and Pervin (2013), it is emphasised that in differential psychology, individual differences do matter to the degree that these individual features display continuity over time. Still, despite this restriction, an individual can differ from one another in a numerous kinds and ways, due to the incalculable interactions among heredity and environment that may take place throughout a person’s life (Dörnyei & Rayn, 2015). Dörnyei and Rayn (2015) also support that acknowledging that learners vary is fundamental in second language acquisition.
This is important especially since learning is usually perceived to be relying on stability across situations, failing to cater for the individual complexities or the reality of the L2 classroom environments (Dörnyei & Rayn, 2015).
Indeed, long observations have been made concerning the immense variations among individual learners with regard to their end – most success in acquiring a second language
(Dörnyei & Rayn, 2015). Henceforth, the study of individual differences, and in particular language aptitude, has gained the interest of many researchers in the field of second language acquisition (Dörnyei & Rayn, 2015). The capacity to acquire a second language proficiently is FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 22 not considered universal, although in many cases it is bilingualism, and not monolingualism, that is the norm around the world (Dörnyei & Rayn, 2015).
Despite various research carried out on second language learner characteristics, the influential research on “good language learners” in the 1970s was stimulating in further studying the variable of individual differences within the framework of second language acquisition
(Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, & Todesco, 1978; Rubin, 1975). The results emerging from this inquiry pointed out the importance of individual differneces as elements that make second language learners excel (Dörnyei & Rayn, 2015). They particularly indicated that, alongside with language aptitude, which is known to affect L2 learning achievement, other factors are involved in language learning success, if individualized learning techniques are applied (Dörnyei & Rayn,
2015). Dewaele (2009, 2012a) hopes that this discovery will be beneficial for effective learning practices to be adopted, as there is an underlying belief that “some hidden internal characteristic of the L2 learner predetermines a more or a less successful outcome” (Dewaele, 2012a, p. 159).
In my view, there are bountiful elements determining L2 success. Not only have we gained any knowledge regarding those, will we be able to provide assistance in order to enhance L2 achievement.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 23
1.2. Foreign Language Learning Aptitude
1.2.1. Shaping Foreign Language Learning Aptitude
Experience has proved that some individuals learn a second or foreign language easier and more quickly, or allegedly with better results than others (Wen, 2012). This could be explained through the concept of Foreign Language Aptitude (FLA) (Wen, 2012).
In the second language learning domain, “aptitude is characterized as strengths individual learners have—relative to their population—in the cognitive abilities [which] information processing draws on, during L2 learning and performance in various contexts and at different stages” (Robinson, 2005, p. 46). Rysiewicz (2008) understands foreign language aptitude as a collection of primary capacities, always available to an individual, interrelated with prior learning, and to some extent influential to the individual’s level of achievement. Reber (1985) claims that the term “ability” refers to “an individual’s potential to perform”, whereas “aptitude” describes “an individual’s potential for performance”.
Traditionally, aptitude has been perceived as a main factor in learning a second or foreign language (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015). Ehrman and Oxford (1995) conducted extensive research on acquisition and they discovered that the most strongly correlated with L2 proficiency individual differences variables were the aptitude measures. Kiss & Nikolov (2005) have also studied the link between aptitude scores and learners’ performances in proficiency, willingness to learn, gender, achieving in school as well as their English grades. The variable of language aptitude proves to predict best foreign learning success (Kiss & Nikolov, 2005).
In a broad level, Robinson (2013, p. 57) points out that language aptitude is concerned with the learners’ readiness to learn, as it referred as “the ability to successfully adapt to and FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 24 profit from instructed or naturalistic exposure to the L2”. Despite this perception, language aptitude does not merely predict the ability of an individual to learn a new language, but the rate of progress in learning “under optimal conditions of motivation, opportunity to learn, and quality of instruction” (Carroll, 1973, p. 6). The combination of both views would better describe this concept.
1.2.2. Foreign Language Aptitude and Intelligence
It is noteworthy that foreign language learning aptitude tests usually contain sections which are also parts of intelligence tests (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015). This implies no clear-cut relationship between the two constructs (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015). It could also be explained by the fact that these constructs involve several overlapping cognitive factors, (Dörnyei & Ryan,
2015).
Sasaki (1996) follows a different research course of aptitude while examining how foreign language aptitude and intelligence are interrelated. Based on a first order factor analysis, she demonstrated that there was a distinction between aptitude and intelligence (Sasaki, 1996).
Interestingly, a second order factor analysis exhibited connections between the two constructs, demonstrating that the second analysis was stronger for what Skehan (1998) has referred as
“central” aptitude component, language analytic ability. However, phonemes and memory, which constituted more peripheral components were weakly related to intelligence (Sasaki, 1996).
1.2.3. Foreign Language Aptitude and L1
Many foreign language educators make speculations regarding one’s level of native language skills and the effect on their capability to learn a foreign language (Sparks, Artzer,
Ganschow, Siebenhar, Plageman, &Patton, 1998). Many researchers (Dufva & Voeten, 1999; FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 25
Gottardo & Mueller, 2009; van Gelderen, Schoonen, Stoel, de Glopper, & Hulstijn, 2007) have observed strong relationships between L1 and L2 achievement. The above-mentioned have suggested that foreign language aptitude cannot be considered separately from L1 learning
(Dufva & Voeten, 1999; Gottardo & Mueller, 2009; van Gelderen, Schoonen, Stoel, de Glopper,
& Hulstijn, 2007). Studies conducted by Sparks, Humbach, and Javorsky, (2008) and Sparks,
Patton, Ganschow, and Humbach (2009) pointed out that early L1 literacy predicted the subsequent proficiency in L2 during high school years reliably.
Dörnyei and Ryan (2015) discuss the significantly great differences among the language proficiency levels of individuals acquiring an L2 and those acquiring and L1. A relevant study was conducted in the 1980s, when Skehan and Ducroquet (1988) administered foreign language learning aptitude tests to children taking part in a project named Bristol Language a decade ago
(Wells, 1985; Skehan, 1989, 1991). Results of this study indicated significant positive correlations between the L1 development and the aptitude scores, leading Skehan (1988) to conclude that foreign language aptitude was a residue of the L1 learning ability, explaining partly the variance. In particular, Skehan (1991, p. 278) cites these research results, supporting that
“aptitude for foreign language is, to some extent, a residue of first language learning ability”.
According to Skehan’s (1986) report, he stresses that children who make swift progress in their L1 tend to do better in FL learning at school. In accordance, recent research carried out by
Sparks and Ganschow (1991; 1993a; 1995a) indicates that an individual’s ability to learn a foreign language is related to the native language skills, depending on this individual’s aptitude for language learning in general. This hypothesis was introduced into the literature as the
Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH) (Sparks & Ganschow, 1991; 1993a; Sparks, FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 26
Ganschow, & Pohlman, 1989). It is important then to further investigate the nature of one’s way of acquiring their first language and its impact on foreign language aptitude.
1.2.4. Aptitude in the second language acquisition context
The main issue of foreign language aptitude research is quite easy, in the sense that there is a particular talent for learning foreign languages, exhibiting noticeable variations among learners (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003). Doreny and Skehan (2003) underline that there already exists considerable work consistent with the framework of foreign language aptitude, which attempts to link the second language acquisition process with aptitudinal constructs.
Rysiewicz (2008) indicates that foreign language learning aptitude and individual difference variable which has been investigated widely within the domain of second language acquisition. Research has proved that it is partly accountable for variated results appearing in foreign language learning achievement and proficiency (Rysiewicz, 2008).
Reves (1983) established that aptitude effectively predicts second and foreign acquisition, either in rich acquisition environments with exposure to naturalistic language use or in poor acquisition environments with main or sole exposure to classroom language use. Specifically,
Reves (1983) administered aptitude test to L1 Arabic learners of Hebrew in a second and foreign language context. These tests were the best predictors of language learning success in both context, with little difference in levels of prediction (Reves, 1983). Reves’s (1983) finding are compatible to Skehan’s (1989) suggestion that aptitude ought to be relevant in an SLA context, specifically since learners might confront instances where there is no pedagogic material selection constructing sequences for learning to take place. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 27
Dörnyei and Skehan (2003) explain that, for many years, aptitude has gained low interest in the area of foreign language learning and acquisition, as it has been perceived as an effective but yet moderate predictor, conceptually out of date, with little explanatory value and undemocratic with respect to the learners. Previously, Krashen (1981) had combined foreign language aptitude with learning, along with activities that are teacher – led, occurring exclusively in the classroom environment, and in particular with explicit focus on rules, practice activities with a non – communicative purpose, as well as learners’ awareness of language items. He had also proposed that aptitude was irrelevant for acquisition, advocating that language rules involve subconsciously inducing and internalizing them (Krashen, 1981).
Notwithstanding, recent research has revealed that such a judgement is gratuitous, especially because aptitude can be a central concept precisely when researchers focus on form in the field of second language acquisition (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003). We might as well accept that there is a critical period for learning a second language (Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2000) as well as that meaning – based acquisition alone is a precarious endeavour (Dörnyei & Skehan,
2003). If this is the case, then aptitude may serve as an amalgamation of individual differences, bearing the effectiveness necessary for learners to be able to focus on form while the conditions for doing so are functional (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003).
However, from the 1970s onwards, the enthusiasm for aptitude testing and the foreign language aptitude concept started fading, partly due to the developments in mainstream educational psychology (Williams & Burden. 1997). Within the language teaching profession, many researchers have correlated foreign language aptitude with methodologies prevailing at
Carroll’s research period, which are no longer investigated by the SLA researchers (Dörnyei & FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 28
Skehan, 2003). Consequently, the study of aptitude has become a marginal activity over the last
30 to 40 years due to two major influences (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003). Firstly, aptitude has been poorly considered within language teaching, as it has been perceived as anti – egalitarian, seen as conceivably harming many learners, with no aspiration of overcoming low aptitude (Dörnyei &
Skehan, 2003). As a result of drawing this conclusion, although unreasonable as it may seem, many researchers have deflected from studying aptitude (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003). The second negative influence is detected within the language teaching profession and it derives from the broad idea of learners differences (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003). Although all teachers acknowledge that differences between learners do exist, the majority of teaching materials assume that all learners are the same (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003). It is due to the uniformity of existing teaching materials that foreign language learning aptitude should be further investigated. Further research in this area then, would allow the development or adaptation of appropriate teaching materials, designed according the needs of the learners.
1.2.5. Later considerations on foreign language learning aptitude
The recent years, the study of the foreign language learning aptitude construct has gained the interest of many researchers. Mercer (2012a) specifically points out that researchers recognize the importance of the psychological concept of language aptitude, as there is extensive perception of a natural, innate ability to learn an L2, which substantially varies from one individual to another.
Current research has shifted its focus from predicting the pace of acquisition towards predicting an ultimate level of attainment, considering that aptitude might impose a “ceiling” effect on acquisition (Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2008; Kormos, 2013; Linck et al., 2013). This FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 29 shift may be explained if we consider that only a few adult learners of a second language are able to attain native – like proficiency levels, according to the extreme position that “Native-like ultimate attainment in adult learners is, in principle, non - existent” (Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam,
2008, p. 499). Although this observation has been disputed by some researchers (Birdsong, 2004,
2007), many others have questioned whether aptitude could explain differences in ultimate attainment. Thus, Kormos (2013) righteously believes that this view of aptitude requires re- definition or broadening of the concept to be able to take into account other non – cognitive variables.
The trait of language aptitude has often been considered as innate, and has been described as “a gift for languages” (Rosenthal, 1996, p. 59). However, the perception that language aptitude is innate has been long questioned (Neufeld, 1975). This questioning has recently been intensified (Singleton, 2014), particularly due to the widespread developing consensus that working memory is recognized as a significant language aptitude component (Wen, 2016).
Dörnyei and Ryan (2015) discuss the difficulty of defining what precisely “language flair” involves, as there is considerable diversity on the conceptualization of the construct. In simple terms, foreign language aptitude is a convoluted concept of “basic abilities that are essential to facilitate foreign language learning” (Carroll & Sapon, 1959, p. 14) rather than a unitary notion, and therefore it concerns an array of cognitively based learner differences.
Larsen – Freeman and Long (1991) added to Neufeld’s (1978, p. 169) idea that one’s ability to perform in a second language depends on previous learning experience, suggesting that doing well in a foreign language aptitude test largely depends on classroom experience rather than “some innate linguistic ability”. Singleton (2014) supports that, in numerous dimensions, language aptitude is, to some degree, a consequence of language awareness and experience. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 30
Robinson (2002) has accurately agreed that, unlike traditional views, language aptitude is increasingly viewed not as an unalterable endowment present since one’s birth, neither as an innate unchanging ability, but rather as a complex shaped by the impact of experiences and training. Reasonably, the concept of language aptitude being a trait did not come into sight from nowhere. Earlier studies have exhibited correlations between L1 early development and performance in children with their later L2 proficiency and L2 aptitude scores, understood as a manifestation of aptitude regularity from early childhood (Skehan, 1986; Sparks, 2012).
Researchers strongly support that language aptitude develops with experience, a view that relates to the case of working memory (WM) (Chan, Skehan & Gong, 2011; Wen, Biedroń, &
Skehan, 2017). WM is viewed as “mechanisms and processes that are involved in the control, regulation, and active maintenance of task-relevant information in the service of complex cognition” (Miyake & Shah, 1999, p. 450). The latest endeavour to reconceptualise foreign language learning aptitude is practically through the concept of working memory (WM), which is the cognitive ability to impermanently store and process linguistic materials concurrently
(McLaughlin 1995; Miyake & Friedman 1998).
Although such a definition has been widely accepted for many decades, research related to specific cognitive skills and capacities associated with learning, such as “working memory” and “phonological coding and decoding”, questions these assumptions. Robinson (2013, p. 57) explains that there is a “clear need to update our current measures and theories of aptitude, accommodating, where necessary, these recent findings from SLA and cognitive psychology research”. Nonetheless, the umbrella term of “language aptitude” is still used, especially because FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 31 standard language aptitude measures are still good indicators of learning success across a vast range of situational parameters.
Nevertheless, one of the main issues inherent in any consideration of language learning aptitude is that this quality, whatever it might be, is not directly accessible. As Esser & Kossling,
(1986) and Alexiou (2005) stress, foreign language learning aptitude is linked with cognition.
Language learning aptitude may be considered as a product of a set of general cognitive abilities rather than merely language specific abilities (Esser & Kossling, 1986; Alexiou, 2005).
Additionally, Milton and Alexiou (2004) support that young learners do possess aptitude, after having studied 200 young learners. This is because if young learners are assumed to have aptitude, and they must since they actually succeed in learning foreign languages, then aptitude must not be constructed of linguistic skills but of more general, and far more basic, cognitive abilities, although earlier views of aptitude younger learners were excluded (Milton & Alexiou,
2004).
It is also obvious that aptitude is a trait that may be trained, with Wesche (1981) inspecting how instruction could be adjusted taking into consideration aptitude differences.
Examining a government language training program for civil servants in Canada, she classified learners based on profiles of aptitude sub – test scores as analytic or memory – oriented (Wesche,
1981). She then delved into the repercussions of such learners exposed to matching or mismatching methodologies, either of analytic nature or the audiolingual method, which is regarded as memory oriented (Wesche, 1981). Milton and Alexiou (2014)also suggest that aptitude can possibly be trained, at least with young learners. Several studies (Milton, 2001; FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 32
Stevick, 1989) have supported that enhanced language learning ability can be trained while being young, specifically because good language learners seem to be early and serial learners.
Regarding aptitude and age, Harley and Hart (1997) supported that the qualities predicted by different aptitude components alter with age. They specifically studied seventh and eleventh grade children in an immersion program and they investigated which aptitude components were most importantly involved at these diverse ages (Harley and Hart, 1997). With regard to younger children, stronger correlations were observed with the memory components of aptitude, unlike with older ones, where higher correlations were found in language analysis subtests (Harley &
Hart, 1997). Henceforth, aptitude is not fixed and it would be sensible to assume that the nature of aptitude will change, since cognitive and linguistic skills develop, as children grow older and mature (Milton & Alexiou, 2004).
As Sawyer and Ranta (2001, p. 329) conclude, “treating L2 aptitude in a monolithic way obscures the nature of the relationship between general cognitive abilities and specific linguistic ones”. In my opinion, a combination of methods would be the best approach to investigate such a complex concept. It is due to this complexity that researchers should attempt to examine the matter with in depth analysis.
1.2.6. Foreign Language Learning Aptitude Tests
Ability testing goes back in time to when Chinese people employed it to select candidates for their civil services (Cooper, 2002). It is still the case that there are many financial and personal benefits by the accurate identification of which individuals will benefit the most of a particular educational program or which applicants are most likely to perform better in a job position (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015). This tendency is particularly apparent in the learning domain, FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 33 in which a popular belief that successful learning highly depends on language aptitude exists
(Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015).
In the beginning of the 1980s, an edited collection of aptitude tests appeared, evaluating, and reconceptualising the theory, measuring the L2 learning use (Diller, 1981; Parry &
Stansfield, 1990; Robinson, 2002a). L2 learning aptitude test have consistently developed to account for differences at the rate at which L2 learning occurs (Carroll, 1981, 1990; Skehan,
1998; Spolsky, 1995), either starting “from scratch” (Carroll, 1990) or during exposure to the L2 in a structured environment. Reber (1985) remarks that “aptitude tests are designed to evaluate potentialities for achievement ideally in dependent of current knowledge” (p. 6), aiming to
“mak(e) predictions about future achievements” (p. 50). Previously, Carroll (1962, p. 85) has stated that “aptitude measures are always measures of some kind of achievement, because the responses of individuals taking these tests are dependent to some degree on past learning”.
Therefore, as Robinson (2005) suggests, contemporary aptitude research addresses the issue of traditional measures’ capability to predict high levels of attainment, as well as the benefit of incidental L2 exposure, while examining what other supplementary measures would help ensure this. Robinson (2005) additionally comments on the inconvenience of traditional aptitude tests, designed and first administered in the 1950s – 1970s, adhering to paper – and – pencil administration methods of that age.
From a number of tools designed to measure aptitude the most widely known are: The
Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) (Carroll &Sapon, 1959) and Pimsleur Language
Aptitude Battery (PLAB) (Pimsleur 1966), which were written for English. Caroll and Stanley
Sapon (1959) conducted consistent research during the 1950s and they devised a practical FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 34 aptitude test battery. In 1962, Carroll found that some language skills, such as grammatical sensitivity, phonetic coding and language learning analytic ability are primarily important for aptitude to learn a foreign language. The MLAT is a timed test battery comprising of five tasks, selected from a long list of tasks that were used in trial versions (Rysiewicz, 2008). In addition,
Rysiewicz (2008) discusses the correlation analyses carried out, which exhibited that although all parts share typical characteristics of cognitive tasks, they are nonetheless independent of each other, and they are thus able to capture different aspects of the construct of aptitude. Since the
MLAT’s publication, efforts have been made to create similar FL aptitude measures in other languages (e.g. Swidish, Hungarian), and Rysiewicz (2008) developed a Polish version, targeting young adults.
Carroll (1990, p. 26) clearly stated that “(f)urther research in foreign language aptitude would require a more refined analysis of foreign language learning tasks in terms of the different cognitive abilities they call upon. I am not aware that much has been done in this direction”.
Carroll has noticed that different language tasks might require different combinations or sets of abilities in order to be successfully performed. This is because such a perception had been introduced in the 1970s – 1980s for different areas of the school curriculum (Fleishman, 1978;
Fleishman & Quaintance, 1984; Snow, 1987, 1994). Later on, systematic research has taken place in matching individual differences and abilities to the demands of different L2 task processing
(Robinson, 2005).
During the 1960s, Pimsleur (1966a) produced a commercially available battery targeted at high school students, the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB), which was the only alternative test at that time. This test, although it is similar to Carroll’s (1959) MLAT, it places emphasis less on auditory factors, rather than memory. It is worth mentioning that Pimsleur FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 35
(1968) believed that US high school language students underachieved due to auditory difficulties
(Pimsleur, 1966b).
The main purpose, constraint and objective of the development of the MLAT (Carroll &
Sapon, 1959), the Defense Modern Language Aptitude Battery (DLAB) (Peterson & Al Haik,
1976), and also VORD, a test of artificial language (Parry & Child, 1990) were to meet the prediction of rate and feasibility of administration (Robinson, 2005). DLAB was produced for US military use, intending to search for high aptitude learners, as it was felt that the MLAT did not satisfactorily discriminate well at the higher end of aptitude range (Peterson & Al Haik, 1976).
PLAB and VORD are closely related to the MLAT, although PLAB differs in the sense that it targets teenagers and young adult populations (Robinson, 2005). In the 1960s, an elementary – level MLAT, the EMLAT, was adapted to be administered to younger populations, and has been widely distributed and extensively used in SLA research (Robinson, 2005).
Late research also suggests that simple, time effective and children – friendly vocabulary size tests do exist, specifically appropriate for young learners (Roghani, 2017; Roghani & Milton,
2017). In 2005, Alexiou has developed a new aptitude test, the Young Learners Aptitude Test
(YLAT), to measure young learners’ foreign language aptitude, proving that youngsters do possess aptitude. The specific test comprises of short-term memory exercises, accompanied with pictures, as it appears that learners with strong short-term memory seem to have an advantage, particularly when learning new words in a foreign language (Milton & Alexiou, 2006).
Additionally, the test includes associative memory tasks, which seem to develop the capacity to retain sign pairs and can probably be related to the ability to retain foreign language vocabulary
(Esser & Kossling, 1986). Moreover, inductive learning tasks can also prove of use, since FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 36 inductive learning ability influences the organization in the mind of the different parts of speech while mapping thematic concepts of words (Cameron, 2001; Alexiou, 2009). This consequently aids the development of meta-linguistic abilities (Cameron, 2001; Alexiou, 2009). Furthermore, vocabulary knowledge can be assessed through employing visual perception tasks, such as ‘spot the differences’ games (Alexiou, 2005). This can also be achieved with reasoning tasks, such as story sequencing tasks, which are all included in YLAT (Alexiou, 2005). In these tasks, children are presented with story picture cards and they are asked to put them in order so as to create a story that makes sense (Alexiou, 2005). The rationale behind assessment is that should it be done in an appropriate way, for instance through play, drama, or games, pre-school learners are more likely to be eager to participate and to enjoy the process, as well (Alexiou & Vitoulis, 2014).
Many researchers have commented that these tests have served the SLA research and pedagogy well, as these test scores have highly correlated with instructed L2 success in a variety of contexts (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003; Ehrman, Leaver, & Oxford, 2003; Sawyer & Ranta, 2001;
Skehan, 1989, 1998, 2002). Thus, the majority of the researchers have tended to focus on specific aspects of aptitude, or on particular contexts in which aptitude may operate, instead of exploring how new aptitude batteries could be produced (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003).
In 2005, an increasingly popular alternative to the MLAT instrument was developed by
Meara, the LLAMA suite of tests, building “on pioneering work by John Carroll (e.g., Carroll &
Sapon, 1959) but over years . . . the design of the tests has significantly diverged from the originals on which they were based” (Meara, 2005, p. 2). Meara (2005) himself reported that the
LLAMA tests were largely modelled on the MLAT test, with large differences in their design to
“a more snazzy presentation style” (Lognostics, 2016). Meara has however commented that his FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 37 tests “have not been extensively standardised, and should not be considered a replacement for
MLAT in high-stakes situations” (Lognostics, 2016).
Recent SLA research regarding aptitude measurements investigates how to build on but also go beyond traditional tests, in a conceptual and theoretical level of approach to the construct, and in delivery of assessment measures, as well (Robinson, 2005). Research into the issues raised by Carroll (1990) has focused to investigate the influence of individual differences which are not directly measured by MLAT, as phonological working memory (WM) (Baddeley, 2000; Chee et al., 2004; N. Ellis, 2001; McLaughlin, 1995; Miyake & Friedman, 1998; Williams & Lovatt,
2003). Robinson, (2001c, 2002b) and Snow (1987) have also proposed that WM measures should be integrated into a broader battery of aptitude subtests, as abilities are interwoven with their effects on SLA, as these effects are in a complex to facilitate processing and learning in an instructional context. Additionally, De Graaff (1997), Robinson (1997a), and Williams (1999) discovered the existence of individual differences in aptitude, measured by traditional subtests, such as the MLAT, as well as that memory ability affects learning in implicit and explicit conditions.
Skehan (2002; Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003) argues in support of a broader battery of process
– sensitive aptitude tests, underlining that such batteries should capture the abilities at different
L2 processing stages, defined as the input, central processing and output stages. These should include not only abilities such as the phonetic and grammatical sensitivity, the rote memory and paired associates measured by the MLAT, but also abilities in lexicalizing L2 grammatical patterns which have been learnt by accessing these during fluent L2 production automatically
(Segalowitz, 2003; Segalowitz & Freed, 2004). FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 38
It is the case that innovations in aptitude testing have been made, bringing many advantages to both the test taker as well as the test user (Sands, Waters & McBride, 1997). In order to inform the selection, diagnosis and pedagogic use of aptitude profiles, and then probably larger batteries drawing on different combinations of abilities, might be necessary (Sands, Waters
& McBride, 1997).
Current aptitude studies still examine the influence of aptitude on learning in classes which are intact (Harley & Hart, 1997; Ranta, 2002). However, many studies now also explore experimental designs (Harley & Hart, 1997; Ranta, 2002). In these designs, participants are randomly selected and allocated to learning conditions, aiming to investigate how individual differences variables interact with specific learning processes in the short (de Graaff, 1997;
Robinson, 1997a, 1997b; Williams, 1999; Williams & Lovatt, 2003) and long term (Robinson,
2002c).
Further SLA research into the issues discussed above is of primary importance to the development of aptitude tests that can be used confidently by different groups of individuals
(Robinson, 2005). This is important especially since teachers, learners and administrators have to decide whether they can reach high levels of L2 ability and whether there is a low likelihood of success alongside with the practical and personal costs of failure (Robinson, 2005).
The present chapter has focused on second language acquisition theories, with particular emphasis on the most prominent ones. Foreign language learning has also been analysed, as well as Individual Differences, who are important factors for the construct of Foreign Language
Learning aptitude. In detailed, foreign language learning aptitude had been examined in connection with one’s L1 and intelligence theories. Finally, some of the existing aptitude tests have been discussed. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 39
Although foreign language aptitude has been intermittently investigated over the past few decades, there is a gap in the literature review. Detailed, there is no consistent research regarding the group of intellectually gifted students in the specific field. Some researchers have looked into the matter of aptitude in the scope of sciences and engineering, as it will be discussed in the following chapter. Therefore, the next chapter reviews this phenomenon, in order to stress the importance of creating a language specific language aptitude test, design for intellectually gifted students in particular.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 40
CHAPTER 2: INTELLECTUALLY GIFTED STUDENTS
2.1 Intellectual Giftedness
Intellectual giftedness (IG) as a concept has had a long history in the field of psychology and education (Mandelman, Tan, Aljughaiman, & Grigorenko, 2010). Since few scholars have refuted the presence of such a phenomenon underlying the concept of intellectual giftedness, there are continuing debates with regard to what intellectual giftedness actually is, how it should be called (Mandelman et al., 2010). The debate continues on whether IG is or should be possible to be identified, and if so, how, and finally, how to serve, above all, those who possess it
(Mandelman et al., 2010).
In the referred literature, intellectual giftedness is a concept that has a lack of unity and identity in both its referents and meanings (Dai, 2009), especially since conceptions of giftedness are diverse (Sterberg & Davidson, 2005). Although some authors advocate that giftedness is a multidimensional construct (e.g. Gagnè, 2005; Heller, Perleth & Lim, 2005; Renzuli, 2005), others conceptualize giftedness as unidimensional (e.g. Rost, 2009). Aside from this prevailing issue of operationalization, most authors acknowledge that high general intelligence is one of the central criteria of intellectual giftedness (Vock, Köller & Nagy, 2013; Wirthwein & Rost,
2011a). In the majority of cases, people with an IQ of at least 130 or more, scoring at or above the 98th percentile on a general intelligence test, are characterized as intellectually gifted (Rost,
2013).
Some related terms that are commonly used to describe intellectually gifted students are
“talented”, “high ability” or “high potential” (Mandelman et al., 2010). Nonetheless, there is a main underlying idea; that there are demonstrations of human potential that discern FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 41 intellectually an individual from their reference group, such as peers or colleagues (Mandelman et al., 2010). Thus, the concept of intellectual giftedness can be exemplified as a demonstration of a high – level of intellectual capacity across various domains (Kaufman, Beghetto, Baer &
Ivcevic. 2010). Intellectual giftedness is considered by some scholars as an always existing internal characteristic (Thomson & Oehlert, 2010) of a person who exhibits it, although it can be modified by situations in which a person is submerged, such as in an educational context
(Stoerger & Ziegler, 2010). Importantly, Sternberg and Davidson (2005) underline that giftedness can also be conceptualized as an ability that can be signified in extraordinary achievement or performance, but it does not necessarily manifest itself in all individuals at all points of time.
Another way to exemplify intellectual giftedness is to list the ways in which individuals diverge in cognitive abilities (Lohman, 2005). This approach is advantageous since there is recently considerable unanimity on organization and number of human cognitive abilities
(Lohman, 2005). The best probable current theory is the Cattell – Horn – Carroll (CHC). This theory contains at its core a three – level hierarchy, such as a general factor (G), eight to ten broad group factors as well as sixty to seventy-five primary ability factors (McGrew & Evans,
2004; Traub & McGrew, 2004). Although Lohman (2005) acknowledges the value of the specific model, he is cautious about the exclusive reliance on it, as it suggested that it should not be considered in isolation. If the criterion is competence in L1 writing and speaking, then verbal reasoning and fluency tests add important information (Lohman, 2005). Most importantly, when taking into consideration the efficiency in acquiring a second or foreign language, additional verbal abilities enter the equation (Lohman, 2005). FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 42
2.2. Intellectually gifted students
According to Neihart, Reis, Robinson and Moon (2002) there is no more diverse group of people than the variegated group recognized as gifted children and adolescents. Not only do these young people come from various classes and statuses, different ethnic and socioeconomic groups, and disparate nations, but they also evince an almost immense range of personal characteristics
“in temperament, risk-taking and conservatism, introversion and extraversion, reticence and flamboyance, and effort invested in reaching goals” (Neihart et al., 2002, p.1). Due to this vast repertoire of personal variations, no standard archetype of talent exists among gifted individuals
(Neihart et al., 2002).
When considering the abilities and aptitudes of gifted children, these differ both in verbal and nonverbal areas across age, population, sex, and in ethnic group (Reis & Renzulli, 2009).
Otherwise stated, high aptitude is palpable in immensely distinctive ways, conditioned on the type of assessment used, students’ family and cultural background, and other areas of talent capacity, in conjunction with the absence or presence of motivation, creativity as well as disabilities (Reis & Renzuli, 2009). Seemingly, there is great diversity and heterogeneity in this specific population, although many parents and educators might hold fixed conceptions and outdated notions regarding aptitude (Reis & Renzuli, 2009).
Reis and Renzuli (2009, p. 235) ultimately assert that “(g)iftedness is not a state of being, it is not fixed, and it does not reside in a chosen few over their lifetimes as a fixed entity. It is, rather, developmental—in some children and adults with high potential, at certain times, under certain circumstances, and with appropriate levels of support, time, effort, and personal investments and choices”. Upon this concept, special programs designed to address intellectually gifted students have been created. Some of them are listed and further discussed later on. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 43
2.3. Programs for the talented and gifted students: CTY Greece
Programs serving talented and gifted students around the world have been much developed while gifted education has become increasingly popular (Booij, Haan & Plug, 2016).
Specifically, Fox and Washington (1985) provided an overview of programs for gifted and talented students in the U.S. even before 1985. From a global perspective, there are numerous programs addressing gifted students. Dai and Steenbergen-Hu (2015) carried out research concerning students at the Special Class for the Gifted Young (SCGY), which is a residential early college entrance program at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), affiliated with the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Additionally, Sarouphim (2015) investigated the state of gifted education in Lebanon in an attempt to describe the efforts underway to establish programs for gifted learners in the country. In Greece, such a program was developed five years ago.
Center for Talented Youth Greece at Anatolia College (CTY Greece) was founded in
2014, as a culmination of the partnership of three organizations, Anatolia College, Johns Hopkins
University in the US and the Stavros Niarchos Foundation. CTY’s origins extend back to the
1970s when Johns Hopkins’ psychologist Julian Stanley focused on exceptionally bright young people and their capacity and enthusiasm for academic challenges that matched their advanced abilities. These gifted and talented summer programs offer students the opportunity to engage in challenging academic work. Likewise, highly able and motivated students attend CTY Greece, from second to eleventh grade, offering three – week enriching summer courses. CTY Greece students are regarded as intellectually gifted, based on scores obtained from two tests, which are developed and scored by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth: The School and College Ability Test (SCAT) and the Spatial Test Battery (STB). These tests measure verbal, FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 44 quantitative and visual-spatial reasoning respectively. Examination is mandatory in order for a student to be eligible to take part in the CTY Greece Programs. More specifically, the verbal section of SCAT measures a student’s understanding of the meaning of words and verbal reasoning ability and the quantitative section measures a student’s understanding of fundamental number operations. The testing process takes approximately 60 minutes from start to finish. The
STB is an alternative test consisting of four sections: Visual Memory Learning, Surface
Development, Block Rotations and Visual Memory Recall. The testing process is approximately
75 minutes in length from start to finish.
2.4. Intellectually gifted students and foreign language aptitude
Rare do they seem to be studies that examine foreign language aptitudes of students who are intellectually gifted (Bain, McCallum, Bell, Cochran & Sawyer, 2010). In fact, the referred literature suggests that aptitude among students identified as intellectually gifted are repeatedly reported and discussed solely from a psychological perspective (Dai & Renzulli, 2008;
Feldhunsen & Moon. 1992). Indeed, related to this topic, some researchers have placed emphasis primarily on psychological, personality and affective dimensions of language aptitude (Garfinkel,
Allen, & Neuharth- Pritchett, 1993; Sustekova, 1984b, 1987), disregarding any relationships between success in learning a foreign language and cognitive aptitude.
Findings amidst few studies examining the relationship between cognitive ability and foreign language learning reveal a predominant interrelation between domain – specific abilities and second or foreign language learning (Bain et al., 2010). Lohman (2005) underlines that in a bountiful of educational contexts, where there is a major concern regarding the selection of gifted students for special programs, giftedness should be examined from an aptitude perspective that accounts not only for cognitive abilities but for domain specific knowledge and academic FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 45 accomplishments, as well. As Glaser (1992) has suggested, domain knowledge and skill are the most significant requirements in most of the academic tasks.
In 2002, Lehmann, Juling and Knopf tested two combatant proposals, that of general intelligence determining specific performance in areas such as foreign language or mathematics or that domain – specific achievements are determined by special abilities. The authors, after comparing two groups of 10 to 11-year-old students who excelled in mathematics or foreign language, found evidence corroborative to the second hypothesis, advocating that their factor analyses indicated a foreign language special ability factor as well as a mathematics special ability factor (Lehmann et al., 2002).
Nevertheless, there is partly some evidence explaining that general academic achievement justifies some of the variance in foreign language achievement (Bain et al., 2010). Consequently, it would be expected that students who have been identified as intellectually gifted would perform better in a foreign language classroom environment (Bain et al., 2010). Variations in performance depending on relative strength of phonology, syntax, orthography and working memory are expected to occur (Bain et al., 2010).
According to Lohman (2005), prior accomplishment functions frequently as a critical aptitude for future accomplishment. It is up to a person’s inclination to use prior knowledge in a new situation (Lohman, 2005). It is also the demand and the structure of a situation that enables prior accomplishment to function as aptitude in a particular situation (Lohman, 2005).
Sparks and Ganschow’s hypothesis (1991) speculates that foreign language learning, meaning an attempt to learn language, can either be augmented/reinforced or narrowed by the degree to which students are able to control the syntactic, semantic and phonological components FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 46 of a specific linguistic code. Supporting this idea, the authors suggested that native language factors are probable to be considered as the main variable in foreign language learning (Sparks et al., 1991).
Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, and Daley (2000) supported the idea of a link between foreign language achievement and general cognitive abilities. They actually noted a modest relationship among academic achievement, calculated by grade point average (GPA), and success in second language learning (Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, and Daley, 2000). The researchers examined 184 university students, who have enrolled in foreign language courses at a university in the United
States, and results from their analyses indicated that GPA explained 11.5% of the variance in successfully learning a foreign language (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000). Even though these findings do not comprise a variable explicitly identified as cognitive ability, they do demonstrate a connection between general academic success, as of GPA scores, and foreign language courses success (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000).
The majority of the studies examining the relationship between cognitive ability, instead of academic achievement, and successfully learning a second language have not commenced in the United States employment (Sparks, & Ganschow, 1991). Instead, they have taken place in countries where acquiring two or more foreign languages is an important asset with regard to gaining employment (Sparks, & Ganschow, 1991). For instance, Sustenkova (1984a) examined
Czechoslovakian students from fifth to eighth grade and pinpointed factors that represented verbal ability as prediction of foreign language achievement. Additionally, Wesche, Edwards, and Wells (1982), formulated a hierarchical model intertwined with learning foreign languages while studying Canadian adults. In a subsequent study, Lehto (1995), based on a study of ninth FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 47 grade Scandinavian students, suggested a phonological loop, serving as a working memory subsystem that includes repetition of concise amounts of information at a subvocal level.
In another study, Sparks and Ganschow (1991) compared successful and unsuccessful college students on several variables including foreign language aptitude. The sample consisted of students who have obtained high grades in a foreign language course as well as students whose institutions have approved their petitions for an alternative to the foreign language requirement
(Sparks & Ganschow, 1991). The results revealed that high score students outperformed the petition students, since the later scored significantly poorer on the total MLAT test as well as on specific MLAT subtests requirement (Sparks & Ganschow, 1991). Results also indicated that petition students had significant difficulties in the phonological and syntactic levels of the language but, in terms of comprehension, they were not faced with the same difficulties on the semantic level requirement (Sparks & Ganschow, 1991).
2.5. Intelelctually gifted students and gender differences
There have not be any studies examining gender differences among intellectually gifted students with regard to foreign language learning aptitude. Nonetheless, Lubinski and Benshow
(1992, p. 62), while examining gender differences in cognitive functioning, including mathematical reasoning, mentioned that “males and females are converging toward a common mean on a variety of abilities”. Noteworthy are the meta – analytic reviews which have displayed that differences between males and females are decreasing (Rosenthal & Rubin, 1982; Hyde &
Linn, 1988). Studies examining scores of two test batteries over a period of 30 years concluded that females have succeeded in reaching the performance of males (Feingold, 1988). It is still the case though that not all studies have cited a decrease in gender differences especially due to continuous changes in cognitive tests (Lubinski et al.,1992). FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 48
Stanley (1992) has stated that over the course of 20 years, test publishers aimed at minimizing the so called “gender bias” by progressively disposing of items that exhibit gender discrepancies, from one version of a test to the other. Howbeit, data from 1982 through 1987 obtained from 86 nationally standardized aptitude and achievement tests display significant gender differences in particular tests across normative and highly selected samples (Stanley,
1992). More detailed, 12th grade students taking the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) have demonstrated gender differences, since females outperformed males in spelling and vice versa with regard to mechanical reasoning (Stanley, 1992). Gender disparities are also detected in more selected samples on Advanced Graduate Record Examinations, Advanced Placement and other advanced tests, as well (Stanley, 1992).
Lubinski et al (1992, p. 62) stated that male and female proportions in mathematically gifted samples are discordant, and they may have derived from “normative differences in level or dispersion or from both operating in concert to produce a collective effect that can be startling”.
The researchers based their claims on data collected over a period of twenty years, from 1972 through 1991, on over a million of seventh and eighth grade students tested in the SAT –
Mathematics in numerous talent searches across the United States, such as Iowa State, Johns
Hopkins, University of Denver and Duke (Lubinski et al., 1992). Gender differences were observed in both level and dispersion of SAT – Mathematics scores among the seventh grade students who were qualified and participated in the testing (Lubinski et al., 1992). This is supporting Benbow’s (1988) claim that when considering mathematical reasoning ability, gender differences are consistently observed. Lubinski et al (1992) also underlined that neither in SAT –
Verbal nor in Advanced Raven scores meaningful differences were observed. However, FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 49 substantial differences both in spatial and mechanical reasoning abilities were found (Lubinski et al., 1992).
Lakoff (1973) has actually proposed “the deficiency theory”, suggesting that gender differences in language mirror power differences as they appear in society. Alexiou (2016) interestingly comments that sex – stereotyping in jobs, as it is imposed by society, affects girls’ behaviour and expectations, while encouraging a positive frame of mind towards language learning. This is important because society’s requirements seem to fulfil the above-mentioned claim (Alexiou, 2016). In fact, due to the expected patterns of interaction, girls’ communicative skills are enhanced, as they present a commendatory disposition for languages (Alexiou, 2016).
Consequently, when it comes to first and second language acquisition, girls seem to perform better than boys in both languages (Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991). In particular, in a study carried out by Nyikos (1990, cited in Sunderland, 2000, p. 206), females performed better than males in a German vocabulary memorisation test. However, Alexiou (2016) highlights that several studies reveal that males excel as well. Unsurprisingly, there seems to be no consensus on the matter, especially since a large body of research indicates that no significant differences are observed on language performance genderwise (Alexiou, 2016).
This chapter explored the concept of intellectual giftedness and most particularly the characteristics of intellectually gifted students. In addition, some of the most well known programs designed for intellectually gifted students are mentioned, and their importance is stressed. Further on, studies regarding FLA and intellectually gifted students are introduced, with special emphasis on gender differences. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 50
Even though extensive research regarding intellectually gifted students has taken place, some questions remain unanswered. Indeed, language aptitude has not been thoroughly tested within groups of school aged intellectually gifted students and some important variables affecting their performance have not substantially been examined. The present dissertation therefore aims to fill in the gap in literature review by shedding light into this area of linguistic research. The methodology described in the next chapter will approach the matter with caution and detail in order to provide some useful insights.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 51
CHAPTER 3: Methodology
3.1. Aims, Research Context and Research Questions
So far, studies have been carried out examining gifted students’ aptitude and its implications on mathematics and science (Preckel, Goetz, Pekrun, & Kleine, 2008; Lubinski et al., 1992). Other researchers have examined the foreign language aptitudes alongside with attitudes, attributions and achievements of post – secondary gifted students, aiming to discover the relationship between previous achievements and aptitudes (Bain et al., 2010). The rationale of the particular study, drawing from the literature review, is to measure the degree of foreign language aptitude of school aged intellectually gifted students, with the use of an original questionnaire. The outmost aim is to examine that special population, that of students between the ages of 12 and 17, who have been characterized as gifted, as little is there any research on that particular group. Variables such as their previous CTY SCAT scores in Math and Language will be taken into consideration in an attempt to examine whether these predict the participants’ level of foreign language aptitude. Variables such as the participants’ school background, their English proficiency, and the native language effect are to be examined.
Consequently, the research questions are the following:
1) Is the proposed measurement of aptitude a reliable instrument of measuring foreign
language learning aptitude? Are all the parts of the test reliable?
2) What is the correlation, if any, between the variables of the study (Students’ and
parents’ background, Foreign Language Learning aptitude, Proficiency in the
English Language, and CTY SCAT Test scores)? FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 52
3) Does gender have an effect on foreign language aptitude of high ability students? Is
there a gender effect on the different parts of the tool?
4) Does age have an effect on foreign language aptitude of high ability students?
5) Do the participants’ CTY scores predict their level of foreign language learning
aptitude? Is there any effect of exposure to English and foreign language aptitude to
intellectually gifted students?
3.2. Participants
The participants were 120 intellectually high ability students attending CTY Greece summer programs (N = 120). They were selected based on their eligibility to enter the CTY
Greece summer program, after taking the SCAT Verbal, SCAT Quantitative, and STB exams.
Seventy boys and fifty girls, aged between twelve and seventeen years old (M = 14.01, SD =
1.025) took part in the study. Almost six out of ten of the participants attended a private school and the rest of them attended a public one.
The participants were recruited from different parts of Greece, from Cyprus and some of them were international students, coming from Ireland, Spain and the United States of America.
The majority of the participants (Greeks, Spanish, Cypriots) had a similar educational background concerning foreign languages, as they have been receiving English instruction at school for a great period of time. Only a small percentage of the sample were native speakers of the language. Overall, the sample had been receiving English instruction from five to eleven years (M = 7.59, SD = 1.890). Additionally, Greek learners have also been receiving additional instruction in English, in the form of private individual lessons or via attending classes at private language centres,for three to eleven years (M = 6.06, SD = 2.372). It should be mentioned that all FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 53 participants knew more than one additional foreign languages. More detailed, eight participants knew one foreign language, sixty nine participants knew two foreign languages, thirty two participants knew three foreign languages and eleven participants knew four to five foreign languages. Participants were also asked whether their mother or father was a native speaker of
English, as well as whether their parents knew any foreign languages. As it appears, the mothers of the participants knew more languages, compared to the fathers. For more information on the participants, see Table 1.
Table 1. Participants.
Number of participants 120
Boys 58.3%
Girls 41.7%
Private school 58.3%
Public School 41.7%
From Greece 86.7%
From Cyprus 5.8%
From other countries 7.5%
Native Speakers 13.4%
Private individual lessons in English 63.8%
English classes at private language centres 36.3%
Knowledge of one foreign language 6.7%
Knowledge of two foreign languages 57.5%
Knowledge of three foreign languages 26.7% FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 54
Knowledge of four to five foreign languages 9.2%
Mother Native speaker of English 10.8%
Father Native speaker of English 9.3%
3.3. Research Tools
A devised measurement tool was employed to measure the participants’ level of foreign language aptitude (α = .87) and was originally named “Game on Cognitive Abilities”, as the desired effect was for the participants to perceive it more like a game rather than a test. The specific tool was computer based, having the form of an online survey, conducted via a
SurveyMonkey link. As it was timed, the approximate time of completion was between 20 to 25 minutes. The tool comprised of five parts, each measuring cognitive skills related to foreign language learning aptitude. Some parts of the questionnaire were created based on adaptations of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) as well as Alexiou’s (2005) Young Learners’
Aptitude Test (YLAT). The specific test has been named Intellectually Gifted Language Aptitude
Test (IGLAT).
Before the administration, IGLAT was piloted with 40 students who volunteered to participate in the research. Results yield from the pilot administration were pivotal in finalizing the tool and its procedures, such as timings and manner of administration. Furthermore, piloting also determined the number of the testing items and its categories. More detailed, although the test consisted of eight parts and 80 testing items prior to the piloting, the final version of it consists of five parts and 59 testing items in total.
In detail, the first part was designed according to MLAT’s Part 1: Number Learning (NL)
(Carroll, 1959), measuring memory abilities associated with meaning relationships. In this part, FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 55 the participants were given 30 seconds to memorize 10 numbers in an artificial language and their digital correspondence. They were then given 10 numbers (testing items) in the artificial language and they were asked to write the correct digital correspondence.
The second part was also formulated based on MLAT’s Part 5: Paired Associates (PA), focusing on the rote memory aspect of learning foreign languages. The participants were given 30 second to memorize 10 pseudo words and their translation in English. Right after, they were presented with the 10 items in this pseudo language and they were expected to choose the correct
English translation from a list of five possible answers.
The third part was adapted from YLAT’s categorisation (Alexiou, 2005) and it was renamed to Artificial Language Game (ALG). The aim of this task is to examine word association through sorting, demanding analytical skills as well as epagogic thinking. In this part, the participants had 20 seconds to memorize a colour associated with a broad category (e.g.:
Means of Transport = Red). They were then given different items that belong to these categories and their task was to select the colour of the category that each item belonged to.
The forth part was adjusted according to YLAT symbol association (SYM) (Alexiou,
2005), aiming to test paired associative memory. Here the participants were presented with ten stimuli, and more specifically with ten different images, each one associated with a symbol. They were exposed to the first three stimuli for 10 seconds. Then, another three stimuli were added and participants were exposed to them for another 20 seconds. Finally, participants were exposed to a total of ten stimuli for 30 seconds. After each exposure, they were given an image and they were expected to choose, between a list of possible answers, the correct symbol that was associated with it. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 56
The fifth part was conceived based on MLAT’s Part 4: Words in a sentence (WORDS), testing recognition, analogy, and understanding of a wide range of syntactic structures. This part contained ten different sets of sentences. The first sentence was the key sentence, where one word in the key sentence was underlined capitalized. The participants’ task was to select the letter of the word in the second sentence that played the same role in that sentence as the underlined word in the key sentence. A formatted version of the online “Game on Cognitive Abilities” Aptitude devised test can be found in APPENDIX I. For more information on the devised parts and their adaptations from the original tests, see Table 2.
Table 2. Adaptation of the devised parts.
Name of the part adapted Devised from
Number Learning MLAT, Part 1
Paired Associates MLAT, Part 5
Artificial Language Game YLAT
Symbol Association YLAT
Words in a sentence MLAT, Part 4
Additionally, two EFL vocabulary size tests, the XLEX (Meara & Milton, 2003), consisting of six hundred items, and Pic-lex (Alexiou, 2019), consisting of one hundred items, were also administered, in order to categorise students into levels of proficiency.
XLEX (Meara & Milton, 2003) is a vocabulary size test, especially useful for young learners, which focuses on a narrow range of frequent vocabulary and takes approximately five to ten minutes to complete. In particular, XLEX (Meara & Milton, 2003) examines the knowledge FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 57 of the 5000 most frequent words in English and approximates the overall knowledge of the particular vocabulary. In order to calculate a learners the knowledge of vocabulary, one counts the number of yes responses to real words, multiplying this by 50 in order to give a raw score out of the 5000 items. What makes the test even more useful though is its ability to become computerized, resembling a computer game rather than a formal assessment.
Pic-Lex (Alexiou, 2019), is a test tool devised due to the urgent need to better comprehend the issues around vocabulary size and early learning, around the time of entry to school. Therefore, Pic – Alex (Alexiou, 2019) is intended for very young learners and aims to provide assessment of receptive vocabulary size with the use of picture cues (Alexiou & Milton,
2020). The vocabulary items used in this test are drawn and lemmatized from Kilgarrif’s (2016) recent frequency world list, where one word is chosen in every 50 words from a list, which is organized in terms of frequency, thus forming a test of 100 words. The particular test is scored in a similar way that XLEX is, and it can be interpreted into CEFR levels (Alexiou & Milton, 2020).
3.4. Data Collection
Data were collected during the course of the three – week CTY Greece summer program, and more specifically from 23/06/2019 until 12/07/2019. The administration took place at
Anatolia College’s computer labs. The Director of CTY Greece at Anatolia College has previously agreed in writing that the research can take place during the program (APPENDIX
III). The parents of the participants have previously given written permission that their children are allowed to participate in any research carried out during the three-week program. The vocabulary size tests were administered first and IGLAT followed. The participants volunteered FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 58 in taking part in the research and they were tested in groups of ten to twelve in order to ensure proper administration.
This chapter aimed to present the methodology followed in the particular dissertation. The research context has been introduced, as well as the aim of the study and the research questions.
Furthermore, information has been given on the participants’ profile, the research tools used and the method of data collection, too.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 59
CHAPTER 4: Results and Discussion
In this particular chapter, the psychometric characteristics of the measurement tools that were employed in the present research will be presented first. Later on, the results addressing the original research questions will be presented and discussed according to the referred literature.
Additionally, some interesting findings, which were not included in the original research questions, will be presented. At this point, it should be mentioned that in order to test the hypotheses of the present study, a series of statistical analyses have been carried out with the use of the SPSS statistic tool Version 25.
4.1. Is the proposed measurement of aptitude a reliable instrument of measuring foreign
language learning aptitude? Are all the parts of the test reliable?
In order to examine the reliability of IGLAT, and each individual subpart, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of internal consistency was used, according to the first research question (RQ
1). A concise presentation of the findings appears in Table 3 and a more detailed presentation is provided in APPENDIX II.
Table 3. Reliability Analysis for Game on Cognitive Abilities – Aptitude Test (α = .87).
Cronbach’s Alpha
1. Number Learning .77
2. Paired Associates .63
3. Artificial Language Game .89 FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 60
4. Symbol Association .74
5. Words in a Sentence .55
As presented in Table 3, the “Number Learning” subscale, consisting of ten items, appeared to have good internal consistency. All items appeared to be worthy of retention. The greatest increase in alpha would come from deleting item 1, but removal of this item would increase alpha coefficient only by .01. The “Paired Associates” subscale, composed of ten items, also appeared to have an acceptable internal consistency and all items appeared to be worthy of retention. Further on, the “Artificial Language Game” subscale, comprising of twenty items, appeared to have a good internal consistency, too, as well as the “Symbols Association” subscale, which was composed of ten items. In the specific subscale, all items appeared to be worthy of retention. The greatest increase in alpha would come from deleting item 3, and the removal of this item would increase alpha by .07. Finally, the “Words in a sentence” subscale, consisting of ten items, appeared to have an unacceptable internal consistency. The greatest increase in alpha came from deleting item 8 by .044.
Overall, to be able to form a final score of the tool employed, all 59 items were included in the reliability analysis and IGLAT appeared to have good internal consistency, α = .87. These findings were crucial for the course of the dissertation. The reliability analysis of IGLAT was of vital importance, as it allowed for the continuation of the research.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 61
4.2. What is the correlation, if any, between the variables of the study (Students’ and
parents’ background, Foreign Language Learning aptitude, Proficiency in the
English Language, and CTY SCAT Test scores)?
A correlation analysis has been carried out, between all variables of the research, in order to explore whether any statistically significant correlations would be found, according to the second research question (RQ 2) (See APPENDIX V). For this specific analysis, the Pearson correlation coefficient was taken into consideration.
Table 4. Correlation Analyses between CTY scores and IGLAT.
SCAT Math SCAT Verbal
IGLAT total score .205*
“Paired Associates” .198*
“Symbols Associations” .285**
“Words in a sentence” .197* .297**
* Significant correlations at p < 0.05 ** Significant correlations at p < 0.01
As it appears in Table 4, significant correlations emerged between the participants’ scores in SCAT Verbal, SCAT Math and the fifth part of IGLAT, named “Words in a sentence” as well as between participants’ scores in SCAT Math and the forth part of IGLAT, named “Symbols
Associations”. Moreover, significant correlations were found between the SCAT Math scores of the participants and the “Paired Associates” part of IGLAT. In general, correlations were found between the SCAT Math scores and the total score of IGLAT. These analyses revealed a FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 62 correlation between the participants’ CTY SCAT scores and their performance in IGLAT, in support of the sixth research question.
Table 5. Correlation Analyses between XLEX and IGLAT.
XLEX vocabulary size test
IGLAT total score .236**
“Artificial Language Game” .256**
“Symbols Associations” .286**
“Words in a sentence” .288**
* Significant correlations at p < 0.05 ** Significant correlations at p < 0.01
Additionally, significant correlation was found between IGLAT and the XLEX vocabulary size test, as depicted in Table 5. More particularly, the XLEX test was correlated with the “Artificial Language Game”, the “Symbols Associations” and the “Words in a sentence”.
These results revealed a correlation between the vocabulary size test and IGLAT.
Table 6. Correlation Analyses between gender, IGLAT and XLEX.
Gender
“Artificial Language Game” .198*
IGLAT total score .205*
XLEX vocabulary size -.194*
* Significant correlations at p < 0.05 ** Significant correlations at p < 0.01
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 63
Furthermore, the variable of gender appeared to correlate with the “Artificial Language
Game” part of IGLAT as well as the total test in IGLAT, indicating a gender effect on the results, as they appear in Table 6. However, when examining the gender variable, a negative correlation emerged between the variable of gender and the scores in the XLEX vocabulary size test.
Table 7. Correlation Analyses between IGLAT and demographics.
Extra lessons in English “Artificial Language Game” -.216*
Native speaker of English “Words in a Sentence” -.187*
Number of foreign “Number Learning” -.210*
languages known
* Significant correlations at p < 0.05 ** Significant correlations at p < 0.01
Table 7 depicts analyses between the demographic variables and the different parts of
IGLAT. Results revealed negative correlations between the extra lessons the participants take in the English language and the performance in the “Artificial Language Game” part of IGLAT.
Moreover, negative correlations also emerged between the variable of native speakers of English and scores in the subpart of IGLAT names “Words in a Sentence” as well as the number of foreign languages the participants know and their performance in the “Number Learning” subpart
IGLAT.
It is worthy of mention that the correlation analyses revealed that age as well as previous exposure to the English language did not correlate with the IGLAT test scores of the participants. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 64
This has been an unexpected finding, as the impression was that the older the students would be, the better they would perform in the IGLAT test. Alexiou and Milton (2004) have suggested that aptitude is not fixed and it would be sensible to assume that the nature of aptitude changes, since cognitive and linguistic skills develop as children grow older and mature. Maybe the present findings are justified by the fact that most of the participants were around the same age. So be it, age is an important factor when considering performance in class. Therefore, the present findings should be cautiously examined and considered.
Additionally, no statistically significant correlation emerged between the parents’ background knowledge of foreign languages and the participants’ performance in IGLAT. As it turns out, parents’ background is not an important factor affecting language aptitude. Despite these findings, the effect of L1 on the performance of the participants should be closely examined. Generally, foreign languages spoken in the home environment might not seem crucial, but studies have proved that L1 language ability predicts L2 development, as well (Mitits,
Alexiou and Milton, 2018).
Finally, the five parts of the IGLAT were statistically correlated to one another, supporting the good composition of the test, and thus concluding that all the above mentioned scales measure the Foreign Language Aptitude of intellectually gifted students. A full presentation of the relationship between the variables is provided in APPENDIX V, in the form of a correlation matrix. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 65
4.3. Does gender have an effect on foreign language aptitude of high ability students? Is
there a gender effect on the different parts of the tool?
In order to test the third research question, concerning whether gender might have an effect on the foreign language aptitude of intellectually gifted students (RQ 3), a series of
ANOVAs have been employed. More detailed, a one – way ANOVA analysis was conducted to compare the effect of gender on the scores in the IGLAT test.
Table 8. The effect of gender on IGLAT total scores.
N Mean Std. Deviation One – way ANOVA
Performance in Girls 50 46.89 6.023 F (1,118) = 5.151, p = .025.
IGLAT Boys 70 44.06 7.199
As results indicate in the above Table, gender had a statistically significant effect on the participants’ performance in the test.
Another series of one – way ANOVAs were carried out with the five different parts of the questionnaire and the gender, but only one of them was statistically significant.
Table 9. The effect of gender on “Artificial Language Game”.
N Mean Std. Deviation One – way ANOVA
“Artificial Girls 50 18.62 2.490 F (1,118) = 4.794, p = .031.
Language Boys 70 17.25 3.891
Game”
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 66
As it is apparent in Table 9, the results showed that gender did have an effect on the third part of the questionnaire in the “Artificial Language Game” part of the test.
Rosenthal and Rubin (1982) and Hyde and Linn (1988) commented that there is a decrease in the differences between boys and girls with regard to their performance on aptitude tests. However, there seems to be an over going debate regarding differences genderwise and research has provided no universally agreed consensus.
Lakoff (1973), while composing “the deficiency theory”, introduced a social aspect on gender dipartites. He particularly discussed how gender differences in language actually reflect power differences in society Lakoff, 1973). Alexiou (2016) interestingly commented that mainly the females have presented a favourable attitude towards language learning, as an outcome of sex stereotyping, as imposed by society. It has been noticed therefore that females appear to outperform males in both L1 and L2 achievement (Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991). Feinglod
(1988) has also stated earlier that females have managed to outperform males largely. However, as Alexiou (2016) notices, males excel as well. Extensive research indicates that no significant gender differences are observed on language performance (Alexiou, 2016).
The results of the present dissertation actually depict differences in the performance of boys and girls. While considering the social status and expectations in Greece, one could conclude that there are indeed social prejudices involved in the females’ language performance.
Most importantly however, the teaching implications involved are of great importance. It goes without saying that educators should not be biased by the existing situation and they should strive to provide equal opportunities to all students. Alexiou (2016) stresses the importance of creating an inclusive environment in the classroom, where all students are treated equally regardless of their gender. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 67
4.4. Does age have an effect on foreign language aptitude of high ability students?
The forth research question, suggesting that age would have an effect on the foreign language aptitude of high ability students was rejected (RQ 4). Although there are slight differences, no statistically significant differences between different age groups emerged, as the descriptive statistics revealed (Table 10).
Table 10. Descriptive statistics regarding the age of the participants and IGLAT.
Age Mean score Std. Deviation
12 48 1.1
13 43 1.2
14 45 .9
15 46 1.4
16 45 2.2
17 46 6.5
Alexiou and Milton (2004) have suggested that aptitude is not fixed and it would be sensible to assume that the nature of aptitude will change, since cognitive and linguistic skills develop as children grow older and mature. Hence, it was expected that differences in the participants’ performance due to their age would emerge. However, results were inconclusive, probably because the majority of the participants were approximately around the same age. A question however remains: how can teachers and educator cater for age differences in foreign language education? The cognitive and linguistic skill development of some students might take FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 68 place more rapidly, compared to others. Even students at the same age present differences in their cognitive and linguistic skills. Therefore, tests examining aptitude are pivotal in determining the course of education. It is imperative that educators take into account these dissimilarities, by considering the aptitude of students, while being in the position to offer differentiated learning, according to students’ needs.
4.5. Do the participants’ CTY scores predict their level of foreign language learning
aptitude? Is there any effect of exposure to English and foreign language aptitude to
intellectually gifted students?
In order to investigate the fifth research question and thus examine whether the participants’ SCAT Verbal and SCAT Math scores would predict their level of foreign language aptitude (RQ 5), a series of regression analyses were performed.
More specifically, a simple linear regression was calculated to predict the total IGLAT score based on the SCAT Math scores. The results of the analysis showed that 3.9% of the aptitude test scores variance is explained by the SCAT Math scores variable, and it is depicted in
Table 11.
Table 11. Predicting the total IGLAT score.
Predictor R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. Error of Estimate
SCAT Math .198 .039 .031 2.058
Similarly, a simple linear regression was calculated to predict the score on the “Paired
Associates” subpart of the IGLAT test based on the SCAT Math scores. The results presented in FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 69
Table 12 indicate that 3.9% of the aptitude subpart “Paired Associates” scores’ variance is explained by the SCAT Math scores variable.
Table 12. Predicting the “Paired Associates” scores.
Predictor R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. Error of Estimate
SCAT Math .198 .039 .031 2.058
Additionally, a simple linear regression was calculated to predict the score on the
“Symbols Associations” subpart of the IGLAT test based on the SCAT Math scores. Table 13 exhibits that 8.1% of the aptitude subpart “Symbols Associations” scores’ variance is explained by the SCAT Math scores variable.
Table 13. Predicting the “Symbol Associations” scores.
Predictor R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. Error of Estimate
SCAT Math .285 .081 .073 .927
Finally, a stepwise regression analysis was used to unravel the contribution of the SCAT
Verbal and Math scores in the performance in “Words in a sentence” subpart of the IGLAT test in this data, and the results of the analysis are shown in Table 14.
Table 14. Results of stepwise regression
Predictors R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. Error of Estimate
1.SCAT Verbal .297 .088 .081 1.772 FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 70
1.SCAT Verbal .391 .153 .138 1.715
2.SCAT Math
The results suggest that both predictors make a unique contribution to variance in the performance in “Words in a sentence”, but it is SCAT Verbal which makes the greatest contribution. SCAT Verbal can explain 8.8% of variance in the participants’ scores in “Words in a sentence”. The SCAT Math can add to this and can explain an additional 6.5% so that together these factors can explain a total of 15.3% of variance. Promoting the verbal reasoning abilities of the students can be argued to benefit the participants’ ability of recognition, analogy, and understanding of a great range of syntactic structures. At the same time, promoting students’ math abilities can add to this because syntactic structures demand analogies that can also be found in mathematical reasoning.
As Lohman (2005) has suggested, prior accomplishment frequently behave as a critical aptitude for future accomplishment. Prior knowledge may be used in a new situation. The demand and the structure of that situation may enable prior accomplishment to function as aptitude in a particular situation (Lohman, 2005). This is the case with the participants’ SCAT scores and their performance in IGLAT. The SCAT test comprises of tasks which are highly cognitive based, and thus the present findings are supported by research carried out by
Onwuegbuzie, Bailey and Daley (2000). According to these researchers, there is a link between foreign language achievement and general cognitive abilities (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000). This association is indispensable, in the sense that the understanding of this linkage may offer useful insights to teachers and educators. If the case is that the higher the cognitive abilities of an individual, the better their performance in L2 achievement will be, implications do exist for those FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 71 whose cognitive skills are not exceptional. CTY SCAT scores have proved to be good predictors of foreign language achievement. Therefore, adaptations of tests examining cognitive abilities might prove helpful in predicting achievement and performance in L2.
4.6. Interesting Findings
During the investigation of the main research questions, some interesting findings emerged, and thus they were further analysed to better understand and interpret the results.
4.6.1. The foreign language aptitude level of intellectually high ability students
With regard to the level of foreign language aptitude of intellectually gifted students, the participants’ total scores in the IGLAT test were calculated. Results indicated that the participants performed quite well at aptitude test, scoring 76.7%. As it appears in Table 15, their minimum performance was 17 and the maximum was 57 out of the 59 testing items.
Table 15. Participants’ scores in the IGLAT Test.
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
IGLAT scores 17 57 45.23 6.852
There was indeed some variance between the performance of the participants in the test, but the results coincide with Bain et al (2010), who found that post – secondary gifted students obtained high scores in the aptitude testing. Indeed, the participants’ scores confirm that the
IGLAT test is a reliable tool, which measures the foreign language learning aptitude of intellectually gifted students. In fact, the results present a profile of high aptitude. Although we do not have a ceiling effect, well above the majority of the participants scored highly. These FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 72 scores set high expectations for prospective teachers and educators. Aptitude scoring is especially helpful, in order to create the appropriate teaching materials.
4.6.2. The effect of gender on the participants’ performance in the XLEX vocabulary size
test
The possibility that gender might have an effect on the participants’ performance in the
XLEX test was investigated and another ANOVA analysis was conducted.
Table 16. The effect of gender on XLEX scores.
N Mean Std. Deviation one – way ANOVA
XLEX Scores Girls 70 3138.00 1114.49 F (1,118) = 4.604, p = .034.
Boys 50 3567.84 1058.19
The results, as presented in Table 16, indicated that gender had a statistically significant effect on the XLEX test scores. Specifically, boys outperformed girls in the XLEX vocabulary size test.
The results of the study do not agree with the literature review. Stanley’s (1992) research has demonstrated that, while taking the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), gender differences emerged, with females outperforming males in spelling and vice versa. However, the present results suggest that boys’ knowledge of the English Vocabulary is better, compared to girls.
Generally, though, all participants obtained high scores in the XLEX test, scoring averagely 4750 out of 6000. These scores actually confirm that the majority of intellectually gifted students have a very good command of the English language. The fact that many participants have been taking
English lessons, or have been exposed to the English language at home, partly explains their high FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 73 scores. Additionally, a percentage of the participants, as small as it has been, were native speakers of English.
4.6.3. The effect of L1 on the foreign language aptitude of intellectually high ability
students.
As the correlation analysis results suggested, the participants’ native/ first language (L1) did not affect their performance in the foreign language learning aptitude test. In this particular study then, L1 did not appear to have an effect on IGLAT performance. On the contrary, Mitits,
Alexiou and Milton (2018) have argued otherwise. In particular, they replicated Ongun and
Daller’s (2015) study. In their study, Ongun and Daller (2015) examined how the L1 spoken at home might affect the development of the L2 and concluded that the Turkish (L1) used at home correlated with amplified performance, both in the L1 and in the L2. The same results appear in
Mitits, Alexiou and Milton’s (2018) study. They examined Muslim minority Turkish L1 speakers, who attended bilingual schools in Thrace, and they discovered that there is a profound relationship between the L1 spoken at home with the L2 learnt in the immersion environment
(Mitits, Alexiou and Milton, 2018). What the researchers concluded was that “the more the L1 is promoted in the home, and the greater the language ability of learners in the L1, then the better progress learners make in their L2” (Mitits, Alexiou and Milton, 2018, p. 580).
The results of the present study do not coincide with those of the studies mentioned above. However, there seems to be a sensible explanation. The number of Greek and international high ability students who took part in the study affect the reliability of the present data. More detailed, the majority of the participants were students from different parts of the same country,
Greece, and only a minority were international students from other parts of the world. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 74
Henceforth, if the participants were to be speakers of L1s, learning an L2 in an immersion environment or program, results might have been different. Consequently, this deep – seated relationship between the L1 and the L2 development and achievement should be further investigated.
4.6.4. The participants’ performance in the vocabulary size tests
As discussed in the Methodology section, in order to measure the English proficiency of the participants, two vocabulary size tests have been administered. Results analyses though indicated no statistically significant differences between the participants’ performance.
Specifically, all participants scored highly in XLEX test, and so they did in the Pic – lex test
(Alexiou, 2019), where participants had to recognize a word in its picture form. Here, scores were between 96 and 98 percent. This proved to have a ceiling effect, since the test is addressed to younger students of lower language levels, specifically between Pre –A1 to A2 CEFR levels.
Therefore, it makes sense that the levels obtained in the particular study were much higher, as the participants were much above, language like.
The findings introduced in this chapter are of great importance because they have shed some light into the complex matter of foreign language aptitude of intellectually gifted students.
Most important though are the educational implications deriving from these findings.
More specifically, by administering the IGLAT test, teachers and educators can be informed about their students’ level of aptitude. In this way, they can make decisions regarding the teaching material, methodology and curricula that will be employed. Having the ability to examine what factors might affect an individual’s aptitude allows for education based on the learners’ needs, as well as their differences in terms of age, gender, etc. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 75
The importance of the present study though lies with the IGLAT test, which specifically targets intellectually gifted adolescents. To my knowledge, never before has the foreign language aptitude of these students been measured. On the contrary, emphasis has been placed on their aptitude in different disciplines. What makes this dissertation unique then, is that it caters to enlighten educators on how to teach intellectually gifted students more effectively.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 76
CHAPTER 5: Limitations of the study and Recommendations
5.1. Limitations of the study
As with the majority of the studies, these results must be interpreted with a caution and some limitations should be borne in mind. First, IGLAT is a newly devised test, comprising of parts taken and adapted from the MLAT and YLAT aptitude tests, which proved to work as good predictors of foreign language learning aptitude. It is the case that the specific tool has been piloted before to final administration, and such, significant results emerged with regard to its final version. However, the IGLAT test has not been standardized yet, and results must be interpreted cautiously.
The second limitation concerns the parts of IGLAT. Specifically, IGLAT measures memory abilities associated with word and meaning relationships, rote memory and recognition, analogy, and understanding of a wide range of syntactic structures. Although IGLAT measures a variety of specific cognitive skills related to foreign language learning aptitude, the phonological aspect of aptitude is not examined.
As far as the sample is concerned, the number of the participants was adequate in order to carry out statistical analyses. Nevertheless, should the sample be of bigger size, it is expected that results would be even more conclusive. Despite the efficient number of participants, the representation of nationalities is not accurate, as the majority of the participants come from
Greece and only a minority of them are international.
As the participants were students of CTY Greece at Anatolia College, who attended a residential program in Thessaloniki, the sample could be described as occasional, vocational or circumstantial. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 77
Another limitation of the study might be that the data were collected following the method of self – assessment. The particular method increases the possibilities of errors in measuring and analyzing the results, as the participants might not have been honest in their answers, in order to present a better image of their performance.
5.2. Recommendations
Progress has been made within the field of foreign language learning aptitude testing, but many important research questions remain unanswered. The present study focused on examining the foreign language aptitude of school - aged intellectually gifted students. There seems to be a gap in research of aptitude investigating particular groups of intellectually gifted students at these specific ages. Studies examining the aptitude of intellectually gifted students have taken place but at a post – secondary level (Bain et al., 2010). Thus, the particular research design is exploratory rather than explanatory and further research should be carried out in order to shed light into this area of second language acquisition.
It is advised that further research should take into account the number of the participants.
Larger numbers of intellectually high ability students taking the newly devised foreign language learning aptitude test (IGLAT) is expected to yield more statistically significant results.
Furthermore, future researchers should take into consideration the origin of the sample, in order to be in a position to make general remarks about the performance of this special group. Withal, other variables, such as the parental background knowledge on foreign language learning and the exposure of the participants to foreign languages, should enter the equation. Should such a research design be followed, the conclusions drawn will be more conclusive.
As far as the tool of the particular study is concerned, it should also be subject to further study. This newly devised test (IGLAT) proved to operate well in testing highly able students and FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 78 their aptitude in learning foreign languages. Advancing studies should include the extension of
IGLAT with the addition of other parts, testing for instance the phonological as well as other aspects of language aptitude. Future research should also aim to standardize the IGLAT test, by administering it to participants around the country, despite their intellectual background.
Additionally, administration in different ages should assist in confirming that this test achieves in measuring the foreign language learning aptitude of students between the ages of 12 and 17.
It is of paramount importance that, with regard to the vocabulary size tests, the majority of the participants performed really well. More detailed, there was a ceiling effect in the Pic-lex vocabulary test (Alexiou, 2019), where participants scored between 96 and 98 percent. The
XLEX scores where around 4750 out of 5000, indicating very high levels of English language knowledge. However, to my knowledge, there is no test addressed to participants such as those of the current study. The findings of this dissertation therefore do endorse the need to devise or create a vocabulary size test designed specifically for students identified as intellectually gifted.
Finally, in order to fully understand the importance of the current findings, as well as their implications in educating intellectually high ability students, comparisons should be made. A suggestion would be to compare the performance between intellectually high ability students, as the ones tested here, with other participants that have not been characterized as such. Along these lines, we will be able to understand the extent to which highly able students outperform others, or not. An examination of the L1 effect on the aptitude tested would also prove beneficial, especially since many researchers have stressed the existence of strong relations between one’s first language and their performance in a second or a foreign one (Dufva & Voeten, 1999;
Gottardo & Mueller, 2009; van Gelderen, Schoonen, Stoel, de Glopper, & Hulstijn, 2007).
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 79
CHAPTER 6: Conclusion
In this dissertation, the foreign language learning aptitude of intellectually high ability students was examined. The significance of the concept of foreign language learning aptitude has been much recognized in the field of psychology (Mercer, 2012a) and many researchers have stressed that aptitude functions as a main factor in L2 learning (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015).
Although many aptitude measurements do exist, for instance the MLAT (Chapon, 1959) and the
PLAB (Pimsleur, 1966) as well as the YLAT (Alexiou, 2005) for younger learners, a newly devised aptitude test was employed in the particular study. This new test is subject to further research and standardization, but it proved to work well in measuring the foreign language aptitude of intellectually gifted adolescents.
The aim of this dissertation was to measure the degree of foreign language aptitude of school aged intellectually gifted students, with the use of an original test, named IGLAT.
IGLAT was computer based and timed, demanding between 20 to 25 minutes of completion. It also comprised of five parts, each measuring cognitive skills related to foreign language learning aptitude. The reliability of IGLAT (α = .87) and its sub parts were measured.
CTY SCAT scores in Math and Language were taken into consideration and predicted the participants’ level of foreign language aptitude. Gender and age differences were also examined.
Additionally, further analyses exhibited the effect of previous exposure to the English language as well as the effect of L1 on the participants’ performance.
The group of intellectually high ability students has been examined in terms of aptitude repeatedly but solely from a psychological perspective (Dai & Renzulli, 2008; Feldhunsen &
Moon. 1992). Undeniably, researchers have primarily focused on psychological, personality and affective dimensions of language aptitude (Garfinkel, Allen, & Neuharth- Pritchett, 1993; FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 80
Sustekova, 1984b, 1987). Consequently, the present study added a new perspective into the matter.
The results indicated that intellectually high ability students did well on the IGLAT aptitude test, scoring 76%. These results should be taken into account when considering how to select gifted students for special programs, as Lohman (2005) underlined that in a bountiful of educational contexts this is a major concern. Moreover, such information would provide a useful insight for teachers and educators, in order to deeply understand their learners’ capabilities, strengths and weaknesses, and consequently offer them better opportunities to learn.
The gender analysis confirms that girls outperformed boys in their overall aptitude performance, as well as on its subparts. These results build on existing evidence of the decrease in gender differences, as suggested by Rosenthal and Rubin, 1982; Hyde and Linn, 1988 and
Feingold, 1988. With regard to this matter, Lubinski and Benshow (1992, p. 62) clearly mention
“males and females are converging toward a common mean on a variety of abilities”. Other studies however have highlighted that non statistically significant difference are inspected genderwise (Alexiou, 2016). These parameters arise the need of further investigation on the matter.
While previous research has focused on age related aptitude differences (Alexiou &
Milton (2004), these results demonstrate that age did not have an effect on the participants’ performance in the IGLAT test. In fact, all participants performed well, regardless of their age, unlike what Alexiou and Milton (2004) have suggested, assuming that the nature of aptitude will change, since cognitive and linguistic skills develop as children grow older and mature.
The study also demonstrates a correlation between the participants’ SCAT Test scores, both in the Quantitative – Mathematical and the Verbal part, and their performance in the IGLAT FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 81 test. These data contribute a clearer understanding of the idea that the The School and College
Ability Test designed by John’s Hopkins University not only enables students to take part in courses offered for talented youths, but it also predicts their foreign language learning aptitude well.
Contrary to the hypothesized association between foreign language aptitude and previous language awareness and experience (Singleton, 2014), results indicated that there was not an effect of previous exposure to English and the participants’ level of foreign language learning aptitude. Larsen – Freeman and Long (1991) and Neufeld (1978) proposed that one’s ability to perform in an L2 depends on previous learning experience. This suggests that doing well in a foreign language aptitude test depends on experience rather than a linguistic ability, which is innate (Larsen – Freeman & Long, 1991; Neufeld, 1978). It is beyond the scope of the study to provide a more in depth analysis of the specific data, as further research is needed to establish the relationship between previous language experience and foreign language learning aptitude.
Finally, the intellectually high ability students’ L1 did not seem to correlate with their performance in the aptitude test. The generalizability of these results is limited though, as the majority of the participants were of the same origin, and only a minority were of other nationalities. Henceforth, due to the lack of available data, the results cannot confirm any L1 effect on foreign language learning aptitude. Other studies have revealed that L1 does have an effect on the L2 performance, as Mitits, Alexiou and Milton (2018) have argued. Such studies could be the stepping-stone in further analysing the L1 effect on the performance in the IGLAT test.
As a general remark, the results of the present study offer a bountiful of implications in the educational context. More specifically, since the findings offer an insight into the foreign FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 82 language learning aptitude of students identified as intellectually gifted, teachers can be informed about the aptitude of their students. Should educators decide to take into consideration such parameters, their teaching approach will be much more effective when it comes to teaching the intellectually gifted, especially since aptitude plays a pivotal role in the L2 learning environment.
Should differentiated instruction, based on the students’ aptitude in learning a foreign language, be adopted, learners are to be more successful in mastering the target language. Moreover, researchers and practitioners are provided with a new aptitude measurement, aiming adolescents in particular. Despite the existing tools, and specifically since most of them were created either for adult or very young learners, a new one designed bearing in mind the particular group of learners will possibly prove more helpful. Furthermore, scholars can also examine age and gender differences, as conducted in the present study, and other factors involved in aptitude, such as the effect of L1 and the parents’ background knowledge. All these findings will hopefully raise awareness regarding the importance of aptitude testing, and may also provide substantial information in curricula design and selection in educational programs.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 83
REFERENCES
Alexiou, T. (2020). Pic-lex: Picture Vocabulary size test. http://gp.enl.auth.gr/piclex/
Alexiou, T. (2016) Gender research in EFL classrooms –or: Are girls better language learners? In
D. Elsner & V. Lohe (Eds.) Gender and Language Learning: Research and Practice
(pp.85-95). Tubingen, Germany: Narr Francke Attempto Verlag.
Alexiou, T. (2009). Young learners’ cognitive skills and their role in foreign language vocabulary
learning. In M. Nikolov (ed.) Second Language Acquisition: Early learning of Modern
Foreign Languages. Processes and Outcomes (pp. 46-61). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Alexiou, T. (2005). Cognitive development, aptitude and language learning in Greek young
learners. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Wales, Swansea.
Alexiou, T. and Vitoulis, M. (2014). iGeneration issues: Tracing preschoolers English receptive
and productive vocabulary though interactive media. Mission impossible? In J. Enever, E.
Lindren and S. Ivanov (eds) Conference Proceedings from Early Language Learning:
Theory and Practice 2014 (pp. 16-22). Umeå: Umeå University.
Alexiou, T., Roghnai, S. & Milton, J. (2019). Assessing the Vocabulary Knowledge of Preschool
Language Learners. In Prosic – Sandovac, D. and Rixon, S. Integrating Assessment into
Early Language Learning and Teaching Practice, pp. 207-224. Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.
Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2008). The robustness of aptitude effects in nearnative
second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30, 481–509.
Adjemian, C. (1976). On the nature of interlanguage systems. Language Learning, 26, 297–320. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 84
Bachman, L. and Cohen, A. D. (1998). Interfaces between Second Language Acquisition and
Language Testing Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Baddeley, A. (2000). Working memory and language processing. In B.E. Dimitrova & K.
Hyltenstam (Eds.), Language processing and simultaneous interpreting (pp. 1–16).
Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Bain, S. K., McCallum, R. S., Bell, S. M., Cochran, J. L., & Sawyer, S. C. (2010). Foreign
language learning aptitudes, attitudes, attributions, and achievement of postsecondary
students identified as gifted. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22, 130.
Benbow, C. P. (1988). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability in intellectually talented
pre - adolescents: Their nature, effects, and possible causes. Behavioral and Brain
Sciences, 11, 169-183.
Birdsong, D. (2007). Nativelike pronunciation among late learners of French as a second
language. In O. S. Bohn, & M. J. Munro (Eds.), Language experience in second
language speech learning (pp. 99–116). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview.
Language Learning, 56, 9–49.
Birdsong, D. (2004). Second language acquisition and ultimate attainment. In A. Davies, & C.
Elder (Eds.), Handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 82–105). London: Blackwell
Publishing
Birdsong, D. (1989). Metalinguistic Performance and Interlinguistic Competence. Berlin and
New York: Springer Verlag. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 85
Booij, A., Haan, F., and Plug, E. (2016). Enriching students pays off: Evidence from an
individualized gifted and talented program in secondary education. IZA Discussion
Paper Series, 9757.
Cameron, L. (2001) Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Carroll, J. B. (1990). Cognitive abilities in foreign language aptitude: Then and now. In T. Parry
& C. Stansfield (Eds.), Language aptitude reconsidered (pp. 11– 29). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Carroll, J. B. (1981). Twenty-five years of research on foreign language aptitude. In K. C. Diller
(Ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude (pp. 83–118).
Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Carroll, J. B. (1962). The prediction of success in intensive foreign language training. In Glaser,
R., editor, Training and research in education. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh
Press, 87–136.
Carroll, J. B., & Sapon, S. (1959). The Modern Languages Aptitude Test. San Antonio, TX:
Psychological Corporation.
Cervone, D., & Pervin, L. A. (2013). Personality: Theory and research (12th ed.). New York:
Wiley.
Chan E., Skehan, P., & Gong, G. (2011). Working memory, phonemic coding ability and foreign
language aptitude: Potential for construction of specific language aptitude tests – the
case of Cantonese. A Journal of English Language, Literatures and Cultural Studies,
60(1), 45-73. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 86
Chaudron, C. (2003). Data collection in SLA research. In Doughty, C. and Long, M.H., editors,
The handbook of second language acquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 762–828.
Chee, M. W., Soon, C. S., Lee, H. L. & Pallier, C. (2004). Left insula activation: A marker for
language attainment in bilinguals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
101 (2), 15265–15276.
Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language. New York: Pantheon.
Cooper, C. (2002). Individual differences (2nd ed.). London: Arnold.
Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learners’ errors. International Review of Applied
Linguistics, 5, 161–70.
Dai, D. Y. (2009). Essential tensions surrounding the concept of giftedness. In L. Shavinina
(Ed.), International handbook on giftedness (pp. 39–80). New York, NY: Springer.
Dai, D. Y., & Renzulli, J. S. (2008). Snowflakes, living systems, and the mystery of giftedness.
Gifted Child Quarterly, 32, 114–130.
Dai, D. Y., & Steenbergen-Hu, S. (2015). Special Class for the Gifted Young: A 34-year
experimentation with early college entrance programs in China. Roeper Review 37(1), 9-
18.
De Graaff, R. (1997). Differential effects of explicit instruction on second language acquisition.
The Hague: Holland Institute of Generative Linguistics.
Dewaele, J.M. (2012a). Learner internal psychological factors. In J. Herschensohn, & M. Young-
Scholten (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 159–
179). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 87
Dewaele, J.M. (2009). Individual differences in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie, &
T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), The new handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 623–646).
Bingley: Emerald.
Diller, K. C. (1981). (Ed.) Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude.
Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Dornyei, Z., & Ryan, S. (2015). The psychology of the language learner revisited. New York:
Routledge
Dornyei, Z., & P. Skehan. (2003). Individual differences in second language learning in C.
Doughty and M. Long (eds.). The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford:
Blackwell
Doughty, C. J., & Long, M. H. (Eds.). (2003). The handbook of second language acquisition.
Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Doughty, C. J. and Long, M. H. (2000). Eliciting second language speech data. In L. Menn and
N. Bernstein Ratner (eds), Methods for Studying Language Production. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 149–77.
Dufva, M., & Voeten, M. J. M. (1999). Native language literacy and phonological memory as
prerequisites for learning English as a foreign language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20,
329–348.
Ellis, N. C. (2001). Memory for language. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language
instruction (pp. 34–68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, N. (1996). Sequencing in SLA: phonological memory, chunking and points of order.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 91–126.
Ellis, N. (1994). Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. New York: Academic Press. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 88
Ehrman, M. E., Leaver, B., & Oxford, R. (2003). A brief overview of individual differences in
second language learning. System, 31, 313–330.
Ehrman, M. E., & Oxford, R. L. (1995). Cognition plus: Correlates of language learning success.
The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 67–89.
Esser, U. and Kossling, B. (1986) A general psychological approach to the diagnosis of foreign
language aptitude. In V. Cook (ed.) Experimental Approaches to Second Language
Learning (pp. 95–100). Oxford: Pergamon.
Faerch, C. and Kasper, G. (ed.) (1987). Introspection in Second Language Research. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Feingold, A. (1988). Cognitive gender differences are disappearing. American Psychologist, 43,
95 - 103.
Feldhunsen, J. F., & Moon, S. M. (1992). Grouping gifted students: Issues and concerns. Gifted
Child Quarterly, 36, 63–67.
Fishman, J. A. (2001). Can Threatened Languages be Saved? Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Flege, J., Yeni-Komshian, G. and Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second language acquisition.
Journal of Memory & Language, 41, 78–104.
Fleishman, E. A. (1978). Relating individual differences to the dimensions of human tasks.
Ergonomics, 21, 1007–1019.
Fleishman, E. A., & Quaintance, M. K. (1984). Taxonomies of human performance: The
description of human tasks. New York: Academic Press.
Fox, L. H., & Washington, J. (1985). Programs for the gifted and talented: Past, present, and
future. In F. D. Horowitz & M. O'Brien (Eds.), The gifted and talented: Developmental
perspectives (pp. 223-250). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 89
Gagnè, F. (2005). From gifts to talents: The DMGT as a developmental model. In R. J.
Sternberg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (2nd ed., pp. 98–119).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Garfinkel, A., Allen, L. Q., & Neuharth-Pritchett, S. (1993). Foreign language for the gifted:
Extending affective dimensions. Roeper Review, 15, 235–238.
Gass, S., and Selinker, L. (2008). Second language acquisition: an introductory course, 3rd edn.
New York: Routledge
Gass, S. M. and Selinker, L. (2001). Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course.
Second edition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. van Gelderen, A., Schoonen, R., Stoel, R. D., De Glopper, K., & Hulstijn, J. (2007).
Development of adolescent reading comprehension in language 1 and language 2: A
longitudinal analysis of constituent components. Journal of Educational Psychology,
99(3), 477–491.
Glaser, R. (1992). Expert knowledge and processes of thinking. In D. F. Halpern (Ed.),
Enhancing thinking skills in the sciences and mathematics (pp. 63–75). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Gottardo, A., & Mueller, J. (2009). Are first- and second-language factors related in predicting
second-language reading comprehension? A study of Spanish-speaking children
acquiring English as a second language from first to second grade. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 101(2), 330–344. de Graaff, R. (1997). Differential effects of explicit instruction on second language acquisition.
The Hague: Holland Institute of Generative Linguistics. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 90
Granena, G. (2013). Cognitive attitudes for second language learning and the LLAMA Language
Aptitude Test. In G. Granena & M. Long (Eds.), Sensitive periods, language aptitude
and ultimate attainment (pp. 3-41). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Gregg, K. R. (1994). Second language acquisition: history and theory. Encyclopedia of
Language and Linguistics. Second edition. Oxford: Pergamon, 3720–6.
Hakuta, K., Bialystok, E. and Wiley, E. (2003). Critical evidence: A test of the Critical-Period
Hypothesis for second-language acquisition. Psychological Science, 14, 31–38.
Harley, B., & Hart, D. (1997). Language aptitude and second language proficiency in classroom
learners of different starting ages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 379–400.
Heller, K. A., Perleth, Ch., & Lim, T. K. (2005). The Munich model of giftedness designed to
identify and promote gifted students. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson
(Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (2nd ed., pp. 147–170). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Huebner, T. and Davis, K. A. (1999). Sociopolitical Perspectives on Language Policy and
Planning in the USA. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Huebner, T. (1983a). A Longitudinal Analysis of the Acquisition of English. Ann Arbor, MI:
Karoma.
Huebner, T. (1983b). Linguistic systems and linguistic change in an interlanguage. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition, 6 (1), 33–53.
Hyde, S. & Linn, M.G. (1988). Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis.
Psychological Bulletin, 104, 139 155. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 91
Hyltenstam, K. and Abrahamsson, N. (2000). Who can become native-like in a second language?
All, some, or none? On the maturational constraints controversy in second language
acquisition. Studia Linguística, 54, 150–66.
Iwashita, N. (2001). The role of task-based conversation in the acquisition of Japanese grammar
and vocabulary. Ph.D. thesis. University of Melbourne, Department of Linguistics and
Applied Linguistics.
Jordens, P. & Lalleman, J. (1988). Language Development. Dordrecht: Foris.
Kaufman, J. C., Beghetto, A. R., Baer, J. & Ivcevic, Z. (2010). Creativity polymathy: What
Benjamin Franklin can teach your kindergartener. Learning and Individual Differences,
20 (4), 380–387.
Kiss, C. & Nikolov, M. (2005). Developing, Piloting, and Validating an Instrument to Measure
Young Learners’ Aptitude. Language Learning 551(1), 99-150.
Klein, W. (1986). Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Klein, F. (1981). The acquisition of English in Hawaii by Korean adolescent immigrants: a
longitudinal study of verbal auxiliary agreement. Ph.D. dissertation. University of
Hawaii, Department of Linguistics.
Kluckhohn, C., & Murray, H. A. (1948). Personality in nature, society and culture. New York:
Knopf.
Kormos, J. (2013). New conceptualizations of language aptitude in second language attainment.
In G. Granena, & M. H. Long (Eds.), Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate
L2 attainment (pp. 131–152). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 92
Krashen, S. (1981). Aptitude and attitude in relation to second language acquisition and learning.
In K. C. Diller (ed.), Individual Differences and Universals in Language Learning
Aptitude. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 155–75.
Lakoff, R. (1973). Language and woman’s place. Language in Society, 2, 45 – 80.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2001). Individual cognitive/ affective learner contributions and differential
success in second language acquisition, in M. Breen (ed.). Learner Contributions to
Language Learning. Harlow: Longman.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1991). Second language acquisition research: staking out the territory.
TESOL Quarterly, 25(2), 315–50.
Larsen-Freeman, D. and Long, M. H. (1991). An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition
Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lehmann, W., Juling, I., & Knopf, H. (2002). General and domain specific cognitive
performance: A comparative study in secondary schools with a mathematical and
linguistic profile. Zeitschrift fur Padagogische Psychologie, 16, 29–41.
Lehto, J. (1995). Working memory and school achievement in the ninth form. Educational
Psychology, 15, 271–281.
Liceras, J. M., Maxwell, D., Laguardia, B., Fernandez, Z., Fernandez, R., and Diaz, L. (1997). A
longitudinal study of Spanish non-native grammars: beyond parameters. In A. T. Perez-
Leroux and W. Glass (eds), Contemporary Perspectives on the Acquisition of Spanish.
Vol. 1: Developing Grammars. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press, 99–132.
Linck, J. A., Hughes, M. M., Campbell, S. G., Silbert, N. H., Tare, M., Jackson, S. R. &
Doughty, C. J. (2013). Hi-LAB: A new measure of aptitude for high-level language
proficiency. Language Learning, 63(3), 530–566. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 93
Lightbown, P.M. & Spada, N. (2006) How Languages are Learned (2nd revised edn). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Lognostics. (2016). Free software from lognostics. The LLAMA Language Aptitude Tests.
Retrieved from http://www.lognostics.co.uk/tools/llama/
Lohman, D. F. (2005). An aptitude perspective on talent: Implications for identification of
academically gifted minority students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28, 333–
360.
Lohman, D. F. (2005). The role of nonverbal ability tests in identifying academically gifted
students: An aptitude perspective. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 111-138.
Lubinski, D & Benshow, C. P. (1992). Gender Differences in Abilities and Preferences Among
the Gifted: Implications for the Math-Science Pipeline. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 1(2), 61 – 66.
Mandelman, S. D., Tan, M., Aljughaiman, A. M., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2010). Intellectual
giftedness: Economic, political, cultural, and psychological considerations. Learning
and Individual Differences, 20(4), 287–297.
Meara, P. (2005). LLAMA language aptitude tests. Swansea: Lognostics.
Meara, P. & Milton, J. (2003). X_Lex, the Swansea Levels Test. Newbury: Express.
Mercer, S. (2012a). Dispelling the myth of the natural-born linguist. ELT Journal, 66(1), 22–29.
Milton, J. (2001). The lessons of excellence: Sir Richard Burton and language learning. The
Linguist 40(5), 135–139. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 94
Milton, J. and Alexiou, T. (2006) Language aptitude development in young learners. In C. Abello-
Contesse, R. DeKeyser, P. Chandler, F. Gallardo del Puerto, M.L. García Lecumberri, K.
Geeslin, P. Guijarro-Fuentes, J. Milton, C. Muñoz, C. Pérez-Vidal, G. Ruiz- González and
T. Scovel (eds) The Age Factor in L2 Acquisition and Teaching (pp. 177-192). Spain: Peter
Lang Publishers.
Milton, J. and Alexiou, T. (2004). Reconsidering language learning aptitude with young learners
in mind. In E. Kitis (ed.) Working Papers in Linguistics (WPL). Thessaloniki: Aristotle
University.
Mitits, L., Alexiou, T. & Milton, J. (2018). Does the language you speak at home affect the size
of your L2 vocabulary? The Language Learning Journal, 46(5), 569 – 592. 569-582,
DOI: 10.1080/09571736.2018.1503134
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999). Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance
and executive control. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Miyake A., & Friedman, N. P. (1998). Individual differences in second language proficiency:
working memory as language aptitude in A. F. Healy and L. E. Bourne (eds.). Foreign
Language Learning: Psycholinguistic Studies on Training and Retention. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McGrew, K. S., & Evans, J. J. (2004). Internal and external factorial extensions to the Cattell-
Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities: A review of factor analytic research
since Carroll’s seminal 1993 treatise (Carroll Human Cognitive Abilities Project
Research Report No. 2). Retrieved July 20, 2019, from the Institute for Applied
Psychometrics Web site: http://www.iapsych.com/carrollproject.htm FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 95
McLaughlin, B. (1995). Aptitude from an information processing perspective. Language Testing,
11, 364–81.
Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., Stern, H., & Todesco, A. (1978). The good language learner. Toronto:
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
Neihart, M., Reis, S. M., Robinson, N. M., & Moon, S. M. (Eds.). (2002). The social and
emotional development of gifted children: What do we know? Waco, TX: Prufrock
Press.
Nemser, W. (1971). Approximative systems of foreign language learners. International Review of
Applied Linguistics, 9, 115–23.
Neufeld, G. G. (1978). A theoretical perspective on the nature of language aptitude. International
Review of Applied Linguistics, 16(1), 16-26.
Norris, J. & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of instruction: a research synthesis and quantitative
metaanalysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528.
O’Grady, W. (1997). Syntactic Development. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ongun, Z. & M. Daller. (2015). Bilingualism, vocabulary and IQ scores. Paper presented at
EUROSLA, September 2015, Aix en-Provence.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Bailey, P., & Daley, C. E. (2000). Cognitive, affective, personality, and
demographic predictors of foreign language achievement. Journal of Educational
Research, 94, 3–15.
Parry, T., & Child, J. (1990). Preliminary investigation of the relationship between VORD,
MLAT and language proficiency. In T. Parry & C. Stansfield (Eds.), Language aptitude
reconsidered (pp. 30–66). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 96
Parry, T., & Stansfield, C. (1990). (Eds.) Language aptitude reconsidered. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Penfield, W. & Roberts, L. (1959). Speech and brain mechanisms. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Peterson, C. R., & Al Haik, A. R. (1976). The development of the Defense Language Aptitude
Battery (DLAB). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 6, 369–380.
Pimsleur, P. (1996a). Testing foreign language learning. In Valdman, A., ed., Trends in
language teaching. New York: McGraw Hill, 175–214.
Pimsleur, P. (1966b). The Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery. New York: Harcourt, Brace,
Jovanovic.
Pimsleur, P. (1968). Language aptitude testing. In Davies, A., editor, Language aptitude
symposium: A linguistic approach (pp.98-106). New York: Oxford University Press.
Philipson, R. (ed.) (2000). Rights to Language: Equity, Power, and Education. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Preckel, F., Goetz, T., Pekrun, R., & Kleine, M. (2008). Gender differences in gifted and average-
ability students: Comparing girls’ and boys’ achievement, self-concept, interest, and
motivation in mathematics. Gifted Child Quarterly, 52, 146–159.
Ranta, L. (2002). The role of learners’ analytic abilities in the communicative classroom. In P.
Robinson (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 159–180).
Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Reis, S. M., & Renzulli, J. S. (2009). Myth #1: The gifted and talented constitute one single
homogeneous group and giftedness is a way of being that stays in the person over time
and experiences. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53, 33–235. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 97
Renzulli, J. S. (2005). The three-ring conception of giftedness: A developmental model for
promoting creative productivity. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson
(Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (2nd ed., pp. 246–279). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Reber, A.S. (1985). The Penguin dictionary of psychology. London: Penguin Books.
Reves, T. (1983). What makes a good language learner? Ph.D. dissertation. Hebrew University.
Ritchie, W. R. and Bhatia, T. J. (eds) (1996). Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. San
Diego: Academic Press.
Robinson, P. (2013). Aptitude in second language acquisition. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of applied linguistics: Language learning and teaching (pp. 129–133).
Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Robinson, P. (2005). Aptitude and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics, 25, 45–73.
Robinson, P. (2002a). (Ed.) Individual differences and instructed language learning. Amsterdam:
Benjamins.
Robinson, P. (2002b). Learning conditions, aptitude complexes and SLA: A framework for
research and pedagogy. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed
language learning (pp. 113–133). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Robinson, P. (2001c). Individual differences, cognitive abilities, aptitude complexes, and learning
conditions in SLA. Second Language Research, 17, 368–392. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 98
Robinson, P. (1997a). Individual differences and the fundamental similarity of implicit and
explicit adult second language learning. Language Learning, 47, 45–99.
Robinson, P. (1997b). Automaticity and generalizability of second language learning under
implicit, incidental, enhanced and rule-search conditions. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 19, 223–247.
Rod, E. (1986). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Roghani, S. (2017) Investigating the Use of Category Generation Tasks in Estimating
Productive. Vocabulary Size in a Foreign Language. PhD thesis, Swansea University.
Roghani, S. and Milton, J. (2017) Using category generation tasks to estimate productive
vocabulary size in a foreign language. TESOL International Journal 12 (1), 143-159.
Rost, D. H. (Ed.). (2009). Hochbegabte und hochleistende Jugendliche. Befunde aus dem
Marburger Hochbegabtenprojekt (2nd ed.). Münster: Waxmann.
Rosenthal, J. (1996). Teaching science to language minority students: Theory and practice.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Rosenthal, R. & Rubin, D. B. (1982). Further meta-analytic procedures for assessing cognitive
gender differences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 708-712.
Rubin, J. (1975). What the ‘good language learner’ can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41–51.
Rysiewicz, J. (2008). Measuring foreign language learning aptitude. Polish adaptation of the
Modern Language Aptitude Test by Carroll and Sapon. Poznań Studies in Contemporary
Linguistics, 44, 569-595.
Sands, W., Waters, B., & McBride, J. (1997). (Eds.) Computerized adaptive testing: From
inquiry to operation. Washington, DC: American Psychological Corporation. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 99
Sarouphim, K. M. (2015). Slowly but surely: Small steps toward establishing gifted education
programs in Lebanon. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 38(2), 196–211.
Sato, C. J. (1990). The Syntax of Conversation in Interlanguage Development. Tubingen: Gunter
Narr.
Sato, C. J. (1989). A non-standard approach to Standard English. TESOL Quarterly, 23(2), 259–
82.
Sasaki, M. (1996). Second Language Proficiency, Foreign Language Aptitude, and Intelligence.
New York: Peter Lang.
Sawyer, M., & Ranta, L. (2001). Aptitude, individual differences and instructional design. In P.
Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 319–353). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R. W. (1983). Interaction, acculturation and the acquisition of communicative
competence. In N. Wolfson and E. Judd (eds), Sociolinguistics and Second Language
Acquisition (pp.137-174). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Segalowitz, N. (2003). Automaticity and second language acquisition. In C. Doughty & M. H.
Long (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 382– 408). Oxford:
Blackwell.
Segalowitz, N., & Freed, B. F. (2004). Context, contact, and cognition in oral fluency acquisition:
Learning Spanish in at home and study abroad contexts. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 26, 201–226.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209–31. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 100
Singleton, D. (2014). Apt to change: The problematic of language awareness and language
aptitude in age-related research. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching,
4(3), 557-571.
Slobin, D. (1985). Crosslinguistic evidence for the language-making capacity. In D. Slobin (ed.),
The Crosslinguistic Study of Language Acquisition. Vol. 2 (pp. 1157-1256). Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sorace, A. (1996). The use of acceptability judgments in second language acquisition research.
In W. R. Ritchie and T. J. Bhatia (eds), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition
(pp.375-409). San Diego: Academic Press.
Skehan, P. (2002). Theorising and updating aptitude. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Individual differences
and instructed language learning (pp. 69–93). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Skehan, P. (1991). Individual differences in second language learning. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 13(2), 275–298.
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. London: Edward
Arnold.
Skehan, P. (1986). Cluster analysis and the identification of learner types. In V. Cook (Ed.),
Experimental approaches to second language learning (pp. 81- 94). Oxford: Pergamon.
Skehan, P. (1986). The role of foreign language aptitude in a model of school learning. Language
Testing, 3, 188–221.
Skehan, P., & Ducroquet, L. (1988). A comparison of first and foreign language ability. Working
Documents No. 8. London: ESOL Department, Institute of Education, London
University. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 101
Snow, R. E. (1987). Aptitude complexes. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning
and instruction, Vol. 3: Conative and affective process analysis (pp. 11–34). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Snow, R. E. (1994). Abilities in academic tasks. In R. J. Sternberg & R. K. Wagner (Eds.), Mind
in context: Interactionist perspectives on human intelligence (pp. 3–37). New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Sparks, R. (2012). Individual differences in L2 learning and long-term L1-L2 relationships.
Language Learning, 62(Supplement 2), 5-27.
Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., & Humbach, N. (2009). Long-term relationships among
early first language skills, second language aptitude, second language affect, and later
second language proficiency. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30, 725–755.
Sparks, R. L., Humbach, N., & Javorsky, J. (2008). Individual and longitudinal differences
among high and low-achieving, LD, and ADHD L2 learners. Learning and Individual
Differences, 18(1), 29–43.
Sparks, R. L., Artzer, M., Ganschow, L., Siebenhar, D., Plageman, M. & Patton, J. (1998).
Differences in native-language skills, foreign language aptitude, and foreign language
grades among high-, average-, and low-proficiency foreign-language learners: two
studies. Language Testing 15(2), 181–216.
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1995a). A strong inference approach to causal factors in foreign
language learning: a response to MacIntyre. Modern Language Journal, 79, 235–44.
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1993a). Searching for the cognitive locus of foreign language
learning difficulties: linking native and foreign language learning. Modern Language
Journal, 77, 289–302. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 102
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1991). Foreign language learning differences: Affective or native
language aptitude differences. Modern Language Journal, 75(1), 3–16.
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L. & Pohlman, J. (1989). Linguistic coding deficits in foreign language
learners. Annals of Dyslexia, 39, 179–95.
Spolsky, B. (1995). Prognostication and language aptitude testing, 1925–62. Language Testing,
12, 321–340.
Stanley, J. C., Benbow, C. P., Brody, L. E. & Dauber, S. L. (1992). Gender differences on eighty-
six nationally standardized aptitude and achievement tests, in Talent Development.
Proceedings from the 1991 Henry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research
Symposium on Talent Development. N. Colangelo, N. Assouline, S.C. and Ambrosan
D.L. Eds. Trillium Press, Unionville, NY.
Sternberg, R. J., & Davidson, J. E. (2005). Conceptions of giftedness (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Stevick, E. (1989). Success with foreign languages: Seven who achieved it and what worked for
them. New York: Prentice Hall,
Stoeger, A., & Ziegler, H. (2010). Research on a modified framework of implicit personality
theories. . Learning and Individual Differences, 20(4), 318 – 326.
Sunderland, J. (2000). Issues of language and gender in second and foreign language education.
Language Teaching, 33, 203 – 223.
Sustekova, L. (1987). Personality development of language gifted pupils. Psychologia a
Patopsychologia Dietata, 22, 15–31. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 103
Sustekova, L. (1984a). Some correlates of foreign language abilities. Psychologia a
Patopsychologia Dietata, 19, 19–27.
Sustekova, L. (1984b). Some psychological characteristics of pupils gifted in languages.
Psychologia a Patapsychologia, 19, 235–245.
Tarone, E. E., Gass, S. M., & Cohen, A. D. (1994). Research Methodology in Second-Language
Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Tarone, E. (1983). On the variability of interlanguage systems. Applied Linguistics, 4, 146-163.
Tarone, E. (1982). Systematicity and attention in interlanguage. Language Learning, 32, 69-82.
Thomson, A. A., & Oehlert, J. (2010). The etiology of giftedness. Learning and Individual
Differences, 20(4), 298 – 307.
Towell, R. & Hawkins, R. (1994). Approaches to Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Traub, G. E., & McGrew, K. S. (2004). A confirmatory factor analysis of Cattell-Horn-Carroll
Theory and cross-age invariance of the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities
III. School Psychology Quarterly, 19, 72–87.
Vanhove, J. (2013). The Critical Period Hypothesis in Second Language Acquisition: A
Statistical Critique and a Reanalysis. PLoS ONE 8(7), 69-172.
Vock, M., Köller, O., & Nagy, G. (2013). Vocational interests of intellectually gifted and
highly achieving young adults. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 305–
328.
Warner, N. (2001). Kui ka mana‘ai: children acquire traits of those who raise them. Plenary:
Pacific Second Language Research Forum. University of Hawaii. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 104
Watson-Gegeo, K. A. (1992). Thick explanation in the ethnographic study of child socialization:
a longitudinal study of the problem of schooling for Kwara’ae (Solomon Islands)
children. In W. A. Corsaro and P. J. Miller (eds), Interpretative Approaches to
Children’s Socialization (pp.51-66). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Wells, G. (1985). Language development in the pre-school years. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wen, Z., Biedroń, A., & Skehan, P. (2017). Foreign language aptitude theory: Yesterday, today
and tomorrow. State-of-the-art article. Language Teaching, 50(1), 1-31.
Wen, Z. (2016). Working memory and second language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Wen, Z. (2012). Foreign language aptitude. ELT Journal, 66(2), 233-235.
Wesche, M., Edwards, H., & Wells, W. (1982). Foreign language aptitude and intelligence.
Applied Psycholinguistics, 3, 127–140.
Wesche, M. (1981). Language aptitude measures in streaming, matching students with methods,
and diagnosis of learning problems. In K. C. Diller (ed.), Individual Differences and
Universals in Language Learning Aptitude (pp.119-154). Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
Williams, J., & Lovatt, P. (2003). Phonological memory and rule learning. Language Learning,
53, 67–121.
Williams, J. N. (1999). Memory, attention, and inductive learning. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 21, 1–48.
Williams, M. & Robert L. Burden (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers: A Social
Constructivist Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 105
Wirthwein, L., & Rost, D. H. (2011a). Giftedness and subjective well-being: A study with
adults. Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 182–186. https://cty.jhu.edu/summer/ https://www.cty-greece.gr/en
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 106
APPENDIX I GAME ON COGNITIVE ABILITIES
This game consists of 5 parts.
* 1. Code
* 2. Gender
Boy Girl
* 3. How old are you?
12 15
13 16
14 17
* 4. Where do you come from?
Greece Cyprus Other
* 5. How long have you been learning English at school? (years)
* 6. Do you take any extra lessons in English?
YES NO
7. Please specify
Private tutoring
Private language centre (frontistirio)
8. How long have you been taking extra lessons in English? (years)
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 107
* 9. Are you a native speaker of English?
YES NO
* 10. How many foreign languages do you know? Count English as well)
* 11. Please specify
* 12. Is your mother a native speaker of English?
YES NO
* 13. How many foreign languages does your mother know?
* 14. Is your father a native speaker of English?
YES NO
* 15. How many foreign languages does your father know?
* 16. Do you attend a public or a private school?
PUBLIC PRIVATE
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 108
Please look at these words and choose “yes” or “no” for the words that you know or can use. that table fine Yes Yes Yes No No No with question instead Yes Yes Yes No No No before effect produce Yes Yes Yes No No No market person Yes group Yes No Yes No No woman feel Yes arrive Yes No Yes No No stand round Yes difficult Yes No Yes No No early believe both Yes Yes Yes No No No FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 109 century perform manage Yes Yes Yes No No No cup pity mud Yes Yes Yes No No No discuss probable cliff Yes Yes Yes No No No park single stream Yes Yes Yes No No No path dish normal Yes Yes Yes No No No tower earn everywhere Yes Yes Yes No No No weather sweat deny Yes Yes Yes No No No whole trick shot Yes Yes Yes No No No
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 110 refer diamond impress Yes Yes Yes No No No independent press staircase Yes Yes Yes No No No feeling provide daily Yes Yes Yes No No No bullet drum essential Yes Yes Yes No No No juice reasonable associate Yes Yes Yes No No No nod boil conduct Yes Yes Yes No No No gentle sandy relative Yes Yes Yes No No No slip military upward Yes Yes Yes No No No
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 111 publish crisis headlong Yes Yes Yes No No No insult jug violent Yes Yes Yes No No No cardboard lessen fade Yes Yes Yes No No No humble oak rake Yes Yes Yes No No No contract antique trunk Yes Yes Yes No No No mount chart mercy Yes Yes Yes No No No tube limp anxious Yes Yes Yes No No No moreover permission pedestrian Yes Yes Yes No No No
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 112 arrow kennard candlin Yes Yes Yes No No No feeble gazard litholect Yes Yes Yes No No No sorrow fishlock gumm Yes Yes Yes No No No brighten cantileen alden Yes Yes Yes No No No dam gillen treadaway Yes Yes Yes No No No outlet pardoe sumption Yes Yes Yes No No No darrock frequid horozone Yes Yes Yes No No No waygood hobrow hyslop Yes Yes Yes No No No
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 113 manomize Yes No horobin Yes No
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 114
Part 1: Number Learning
You will read the names of numbers, and you will be asked to write down these numbers IN DIGITAL FORM. For example, if you saw the number “seventeen” in English, you would write down 1 7.
But in this test, you will see the numbers in a new language. Here’s how it will work:
“ma” is one “mama” is two “kee” is three
So: “ma” = 1 “kee” = 3 “mama” = 2
“bu” is twenty
“bu - ma” is twenty - one because “bu” is twenty and “ma” is one
As soon as you watch the video, press NEXT to go to the questions.
Items New Language Digital Numbers
1 “ma” 1
2 “mama” 2
3 “kee” 3
4 “lo” 4
5 “loi” 5
6 “bu” 20
7 “bi” 30
8 “da” 40
9 “dai” 50
10 “dei” 60
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 115
”bi-da”
”bi-kee”
”mama”
”bu-kee”
”da-ma”
”dei-mama”
”da-kee”
”bi-lo”
”dei-lo”
”da-lo” FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 116
Part 2: Paired Associates
Your task here is to MEMORIZE the Celtic-English vocabulary below.
There are only 10 words to memorize.
Then, you have to find the meaning of the words in English.
As soon as you watch the video, press NEXT to go to the questions.
Items Celtic English
1 f’on hour
2 ci? juice
3 seb her
4 cib tip
5 leb climb
6 s?eb help
7 c’olev problem
8 si?ron forest
9 ca’op rope
10 faub minute FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 117
cib c’olev a. club a. clothes b. run b. card c. theatre c. create d. tip d. problem e. wood e. juice seb faub a. her a. family b. card b. minute c. jump c. mobile d. run d. stone e. rope e. tip leb ci? a. animal a. tip b. help b. her c. stone c. help d. climb d. juice e. minute e. stone f’on si?ron a. minute a. family b. juice b. forest c. phone c. theatre d. jump d. run e. hour e. her ca’op s?eb a. corn a. her b. rope b. problem c. tool c. forest d. climb d. climb e. help e. help
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 118
Part 3: Artificial Language Game
You will see some broad categories, each one associated with a colour. You will be given different items that belong to these categories. Your task is to select the colour of the category that each item belongs to.
If the category of “SHOES” is given the colour “PINK” and the category of “HAIR” is given the colour “BLACK”, then
Trainers = Pink and 2. Blonde = Black
As soon as you watch the video, press NEXT to go to the questions.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 119
Teacher T-shirt red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
Train Doctor red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
Jumper Lawyer red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
Pumpkin Onions red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
Bus Taxi red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 120
Juice Rugby red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
Uniform Swimming red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
Car Coat red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
Baseball Water polo red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
Firefighter Cucumber red red yellow yellow green green blue blue purple purple
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 121
Part 4: Paired Associates (Symbols) There are ten images, each one associated with a symbol.
You will be given an image and you will have to choose the symbol that is associated with the specific image.
As soon as you watch the video, press NEXT to go to the questions.
Which symbol is the correct? a b c
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 122
Which symbol is the correct? a b c
As soon as you watch the video, press NEXT to go to the questions.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 123
Which symbol is the correct? a d b e c f
Which symbol is the correct? a d b e c f
Which symbol is the correct? a d b e c f
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 124
As soon as you watch the video, press NEXT to go to the questions.
Which symbol is the correct? a f b g c h d i e j FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 125
Which symbol is the correct? a f b g c h d i e j
Which symbol is the correct? a f b g c h d i e j FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 126
Which symbol is the correct?
a f
b g
c h
d i
e j
Which symbol is the correct? a g b h c i d j e f
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 127
Part 6: Words in a Sentence In each of the following questions, we will call the first sentence the key sentence. One word in the key sentence will be capitalized.
Your task is to select the word in the second sentence that plays the same role in that sentence as the capitalized word in the key sentence.
Look at the following sample question: Sample: JOHN took a long walk in the woods.
Children in blue jeans were singing and dancing in the park. A B C D E
You would select “A.” because the key sentence is about “John” and the second sentence is about “children.”
186. ANNA is sad.
From the expression on your face, I understand that you must have had a
A B C D
difficult day.
E
o A o B o C o D o E
187. Paul claimed THAT Jake loved pancakes.
At the cinema, that assistant claimed that she knew that actress on the film
A B C D
from another television series.
E
o A o B o C o D o E
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 128
188. I HAD my hair cut.
My dad who travels a lot had a terrible accident last week and he had to go to
A B
the garage so that he could have his car fixed.
C D E
o A o B o C o D o E
189. NEVER have I seen such a beautiful place.
Her grandmother would rarely tell her stories to get her to bed and seldom
A B C would she speak about how often her parents would argue.
D E
o A o B o C o D o E
190. I talked to Sarah about the CONCERT yesterday
Last night, I saw Mary chatting with John regarding the incident in the
A B laboratory between professor Gillian and his daughter trying to hurt him.
C D E
o A o B o C o D o E FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 129
191. If only I was AS lucky as Julia
Nathan hoped to be accepted in the university just like his brother was
A B C
admitted in his first choice the previous semester.
D E
o A o B o C o D o E
192. Hardly had we sat down WHEN the fire alarm went off.
No sooner had we opened the door than we realized something was wrong and
A B
immediately started screaming before we knew that the police was already
C D E
around the corner.
o A o B o C o D o E
193. ASSUMING you like meat, I’d hardly recommend that restaurant.
The man wearing a black coat and holding tightly to his briefcase pushed to
A B C
the front of the queue waving his passport and ticket.
D E
o A o B o C o D o E
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 130
194. Contrary to popular OPINION, he is not a millionaire.
Jonathan has never stopped trying his best to pass his exam unlike what his
A B mother believed with regard to his efforts and abilities.
C D E
o A o B o C o D o E
195. I’m not so angry AS disappointed.
He lay there on the sand like a beached whale as he was watching the waves
A B C hit on the rocks at a very cold night.
D E
o A o B o C o D o E
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 131
APPENDIX II
Reliability Analysis for subscales
Table 1. Reliability Analysis for subscale “Number Learning” (a = .77).
Item Correlation
1. “bi ba” .15
2. “bi kee” .53
3. “mama” .00
4. “bu kee” .53
5. “da ma” .50
6. “dei mama” .40
7. “da kee” .32
8. “bi lo” .51
9. “dei lo” .69
10. “da lo” .63
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 132
Table 2. Reliability Analysis for subscale “Paired Associates” (a = .63).
Item Correlation
6. “f’on” .37
7. “ci?” .26
8. “seb” .29
9. “cib” .23
10. “leb” .40
11. “s?eb” .31
12. “c’olev” .23
13. “si?ron” .25
14. “ca’op” .38
15. “faub” .30
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 133
Table 3. Reliability Analysis for subscale “Artificial Language Game” (a = .89).
Item Correlation
1. Teacher .76
2. Train .05
3. Jumper .20
4. Pumpkin .62
5. Bus .00
6. T-shirt .19
7. Doctor .83
8. Lawyer .74
9. Onions .66
10. Taxi .00
11. Juice .60
12. Uniform .34
13. Car .00
14. Baseball .70
15. Firefighter .81
16. Rugby .79
17. Swimming .78
18. Coat .38
19. Water Polo .88
20. Cucumber .89
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 134
Table 4. Reliability Analysis for subscale “Symbols Associations” (a = .74).
Item Correlation
Symbols 1 .07
Symbols 2 .63
Symbols 3 .18
Symbols 4 .43
Symbols 5 .80
Symbols 6 .60
Symbols 7 .80
Symbols 8 .47
Symbols 9 .54
Symbols 10 .42
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 135
Table 5. Reliability Analysis for subscale “Words in a sentence” (a = .59).
Item Correlation
Item 1 .30
Item 2 .37
Item 3 .30
Item 4 .35
Item 5 .37
Item 6 .37
Item 7 .17
Item 9 .27
Item 10 .17
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 136
APPENDIX III
6th December 2018
To Dr. Thomai Alexiou Department of English Language and Literature Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
The Center for Talented Youth (CTY) Greece identifies pre-college students of high academic ability and supports them with extracurricular educational programs.
This confirms that Marianthi Serafeim got approval to carry out part of her research project on “Measuring foreign language learning aptitude of intellectually high ability students with a newly devised test” during the CTY Greece summer residential program, which is going to take place from the 23rd of June to the 12th of July 2019 at Anatolia College.
CTY Greece will ensure that the program guidelines are followed during the administration of any questionnaire or material to students. Our research coordinator needs to be kept informed about the involvement of the CTY Greece students in this research.
Sincerely,
Georgia Tsoulfa, Ph.D. Director of CTY Greece
FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING APTITUDE OF INTELLECTUALLY HIGH ABILITY STUDENTS 137
APPENDIX V: Correlation Matrix SCAT SCAT Gender Age Origin Years Extra Type of Years Native N Mother Foreign Father Foreign Public NL PA ALG SYM WORD IGLAT XLEX Lang Math Eng. at lessons extra extra speaker foreign native lang. native lang. Private S school lessons lessons lang. speaker mother speaker father School 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 1. 1 -.176 .175 .150 .099 -.037 .077 .017 .199 .036 .041 -.034 -.015 -.097 -.033 .144 .059 -.141 -.021 .017 .297** .051 .004
2. 1 -.358** .021 .023 .135 -.151 -.048 -.142 .136 -.081 .121 -.047 .139 .068 -.326** -.030 .198* .124 .285** .197* .205* .132
3. 1 .175 -.103 .067 .096 -.159 -.079 -.186* .075 -.131 -.083 -.216* -.113 .143 .060 .173 .198* .004 .112 .205* -.194*
4. 1 .201* .366** -.012 -.054 .016 -.072 .086 -.108 .161 -.085 .110 .026 .099 -.084 .072 .079 .118 .090 .019
5. 1 .278** -.305** .033 .053 .203* .124 .157 .292** .208* .258** -.073 -.085 -.166 .067 .110 -.120 -.065 .125
6. 1 -.285** -.018 .029 .192* .120 .147 .228* .041 .198* -.194* -.154 .054 .042 .171 .076 .026 .104
7. 1 -.241** -.102 -.152 -.300** -.147 -.209* .490** -.092 .012 -.216* -.147 .047 -.146 -.271**
8. 1 .216 -.013 -.067 .081 .019 .133 -.145 .156 .102 -.006 -.086 .054 .146 .034 .034
9. 1 .136 .224* .094 .218 .173 .143 .219 -.090 .127 .101 .029 .039 .073 .001
10. 1 .017 .731** .188* .665** .222* -.079 -.123 -.007 -.053 .057 -.187* -.116 -.103
11. 1 -.010 .377** -.124 .365** -.113 -.210* .046 .118 .085 .043 .020 -.036
12. 1 .103 .725** .105 -.023 -.141 .049 -.069 .034 -.188* -.117 -.151
13. 1 .102 .398** -.068 -.283** -.116 .046 .132 -.097 -.123 .082
14. 1 .284** .026 -.124 .048 -.050 -.011 -.230* -.119 -.101
15. 1 -.107 -.138 .078 .039 .094 -.133 -.029 .032
16. 1 .044 -.048 -.069 -.207* .001 -.062 -.155
17. 1 .162 .091 -.018 .238** .521** -.011
18. 1 .430** .231* .206* .668** -.019
19. 1 .372** .216* .776** .256**
20. 1 .269** .463** .286**
21. 1 .565** .288**
22. 1 .236**
23. 1 * Significant correlations at p < 0.05 ** Significant correlations at p < 0.01