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Chapter 1.Pmd VARIAVARIAVARIAVARIATIONSTIONS ININ PSYPSYCHOLOGICALCHOLOGICAL ATATATTRIBUTESTRIBUTESTRIBUTES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand psychological attributes on which people differ from each other, learn about different methods that are used to assess psychological attributes, explain what constitutes intelligent behaviour, learn how psychologists assess intelligence to identify mentally challenged and gifted individuals, understand how intelligence has different meaning in different cultures, and understand the difference between intelligence and aptitude. Introduction Individual Differences in Human Functioning Assessment of Psychological Attributes Intelligence Theories of Intelligence Theory of Multiple Intelligences Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous- successive Model of Intelligence Individual Differences in Intelligence CONTENTS Variations of Intelligence Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests (Box 1.1) Culture and Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Key Terms Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons (Box 1.2) Summary Special Abilities Review Questions Aptitude : Nature and Measurement Project Ideas Creativity Weblinks Pedagogical Hints 1 Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 2021–22 If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how they differ from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, as also in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences can be noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious. Introduction In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are applied to understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ, what brings about these differences, and how such differences can be assessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern psychology has been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. This chapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individual differences. One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been of interest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other in their ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn from experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles. In this chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions of intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations in the intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities or aptitudes. exemplifies a typical combination of INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN various traits. The question which you may FUNCTIONING like to pose is how and why people differ. Individual variations are common within This, in fact, is the subject matter of the and across all species. Variations add study of individual differences. For colour and beauty to nature. For a psychologists, individual differences refer to moment, think of a world around you distinctiveness and variations among where each and every object is of the same people’s characteristics and behaviour colour, say red or blue or green. How would patterns. the world appear to you? Certainly not a While many psychologists believe that beautiful one! Would you prefer to live in our behaviours are influenced by our such a world? In all likelihood, your personal traits, some others hold the view answer will be ‘no’. Like objects, people too that our behaviours are influenced more by possess different combinations of traits. situational factors. This latter view is Variability is a fact of nature, and known as situationism, which states that individuals are no exception to this. They situations and circumstances in which one vary in terms of physical characteristics, is placed influence one’s behaviour. A such as height, weight, strength, hair person, who is generally aggressive, may colour, and so on. They also vary along behave in a submissive manner in the psychological dimensions. They may be presence of her/his top boss. Sometimes, intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive, the situational influences are so powerful creative or not so creative, outgoing or that individuals with differing personality withdrawn, etc. The list of variations can traits respond to them in almost the same be endless. Different traits can exist in ways. The situationist perspective views varying degrees in an individual. In this human behaviour relatively more as a result sense, each one of us is unique as s/he of influence of external factors. 2 Psychology 2021–22 her/his family and neighbourhood, we ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL may consider assessing her/his ATTRIBUTES personality characteristics. For a poorly Psychological attributes are involved in motivated person, we may assess her/his very simple phenomena like in time taken interests and preferences. Psychological to react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time, assessment uses systematic testing and also in highly global concepts like procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, happiness. It is difficult to count and and personal qualities of individuals. specify the number of psychological attributes that can be assessed. Some Domains of Psychological Assessment is the first step in Attributes understanding a psychological attribute. Psychological attributes are not linear or Assessment refers to the measurement of unidimensional. They are complex and psychological attributes of individuals and expressed in terms of dimensions. A line their evaluation, often using multiple is a mere aggregate of many points. A point methods in terms of certain standards of occupies no space. But think of a box. It comparison. Any attribute will be said to occupies space. It can be described only in exist in a person only if it can be measured terms of its three dimensions, i.e. length, by using scientific procedures. For width, and height. Similar is the case with example, when we say, “Harish is psychological attributes. They are usually dominant”, we are referring to the degree multi-dimensional. If you want to have a of ‘dominance’ in Harish. This statement is complete assessment of a person, you will based on our own assessment of need to assess how s/he functions in ‘dominance’ in him. Our assessment may various domains or areas, such as be informal or formal. Formal assessment cognitive, emotional, social, etc. is objective, standardised, and organised. We will discuss in this chapter some On the other hand, informal assessment important attributes that are of interest to varies from case to case and from one psychologists. These attributes are assessor to another and, therefore, is open categorised on the basis of varieties of tests to subjective interpretations. Psychologists used in psychological literature. are trained in making formal assessment 1. Intelligence is the global capacity to of psychological attributes. understand the world, think rationally, Once assessment is done, we can use and use available resources effectively this information to predict how Harish will when faced with challenges. Intelligence probably behave in future. We may predict tests provide a global measure of a that Harish, if given a chance to lead a person’s general cognitive competence team, will most likely be an authoritarian including the ability to profit from leader. If the predicted consequence is not schooling. Generally, students having what we want, we may want to intervene low intelligence are not likely to do so to effect a change in Harish’s behaviour. well in school-related examinations, but The attribute chosen for assessment their success in life is not associated depends upon our purpose. In order to only with their intelligence test scores. help a weak student perform well in 2. Aptitude refers to an individual’s examinations, we may assess her/his underlying potential for acquiring skills. intellectual strengths and weaknesses. If Aptitude tests are used to predict what a person fails to adjust with members of an individual will be able to do if given 3 Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 2021–22 proper environment and training. A used for the purposes of clinical person with high mechanical aptitude diagnosis, guidance, personnel can profit from appropriate training and selection, placement, and training. can do well as an engineer. Similarly, Besides objective tests, psychologists a person having high language aptitude have also developed certain projective can be trained to be a good writer. tests, especially for the assessment of 3. Interest is an individual’s preference for personality. You will learn about them engaging in one or more specific in Chapter 2. activities relative to others. Assessment • Interview involves seeking information of interests of students may help to from a person on a one-to-one basis. You decide what subjects or courses they may see it being used when a can pursue comfortably and with counsellor interacts with a client, a pleasure. Knowledge of interests helps salesperson makes a door-to-door us in making choices that promote life survey regarding the usefulness of a satisfaction and performance on jobs. particular product, an employer selects 4. Personality refers to relatively enduring employees for her/his organisation, or a characteristics of a person that make journalist interviews important people her or him distinct from others. on issues of national and international Personality tests try to assess an importance. individual’s
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