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Home , Aptitude, Intelligence quotient

VARIAVARIAVARIAVARIATIONSTIONS ININ PSYPSYCHOLOGICALCHOLOGICAL ATATATTRIBUTESTRIBUTESTRIBUTES

After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand psychological attributes on which people differ from each other, learn about different methods that are used to assess psychological attributes, explain what constitutes intelligent behaviour, learn how assess to identify mentally challenged and gifted individuals, understand how intelligence has different meaning in different cultures, and understand the difference between intelligence and .

Introduction Individual Differences in Functioning Assessment of Psychological Attributes Intelligence of Intelligence of Multiple Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous- successive Model of Intelligence Individual Differences in Intelligence CONTENTS Variations of Intelligence Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests (Box 1.1) Culture and Intelligence Key Terms Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons (Box 1.2) Summary Special Abilities Review Questions Aptitude : Nature and Measurement Project Ideas Weblinks Pedagogical Hints

1 Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes

2021–22 If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how they differ from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, as also in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences can be noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious. Introduction In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are applied to understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ, what brings about these differences, and how such differences can be assessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern has been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. This chapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individual differences. One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been of interest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other in their ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn from experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles. In this chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions of intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations in the intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities or .

exemplifies a typical combination of INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN various traits. The question which you may FUNCTIONING like to pose is how and why people differ. Individual variations are common within This, in fact, is the subject matter of the and across all species. Variations add study of individual differences. For colour and beauty to nature. For a psychologists, individual differences refer to moment, think of a world around you distinctiveness and variations among where each and every object is of the same people’s characteristics and behaviour colour, say or blue or green. How would patterns. the world appear to you? Certainly not a While many psychologists believe that beautiful one! Would you prefer to live in our behaviours are influenced by our such a world? In all likelihood, your personal traits, some others hold the view answer will be ‘no’. Like objects, people too that our behaviours are influenced more by possess different combinations of traits. situational factors. This latter view is Variability is a fact of nature, and known as situationism, which states that individuals are no exception to this. They situations and circumstances in which one vary in terms of physical characteristics, is placed influence one’s behaviour. A such as height, weight, strength, hair person, who is generally aggressive, may colour, and so on. They also vary along behave in a submissive manner in the psychological dimensions. They may be presence of her/his top boss. Sometimes, intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive, the situational influences are so powerful creative or not so creative, outgoing or that individuals with differing personality withdrawn, etc. The list of variations can traits respond to them in almost the same be endless. Different traits can exist in ways. The situationist perspective views varying degrees in an individual. In this human behaviour relatively more as a result sense, each one of us is unique as s/he of influence of external factors.

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2021–22 her/his family and neighbourhood, we ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL may consider assessing her/his ATTRIBUTES personality characteristics. For a poorly Psychological attributes are involved in motivated person, we may assess her/his very simple phenomena like in time taken interests and preferences. Psychological to react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time, assessment uses systematic testing and also in highly global concepts like procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, happiness. It is difficult to count and and personal qualities of individuals. specify the number of psychological attributes that can be assessed. Some Domains of Psychological Assessment is the first step in Attributes a psychological attribute. Psychological attributes are not linear or Assessment refers to the measurement of unidimensional. They are complex and psychological attributes of individuals and expressed in terms of dimensions. A line their evaluation, often using multiple is a mere aggregate of many points. A point methods in terms of certain standards of occupies no space. But think of a box. It comparison. Any attribute will be said to occupies space. It can be described only in exist in a person only if it can be measured terms of its three dimensions, i.e. length, by using scientific procedures. For width, and height. Similar is the case with example, when we say, “Harish is psychological attributes. They are usually dominant”, we are referring to the degree multi-dimensional. If you want to have a of ‘dominance’ in Harish. This statement is complete assessment of a person, you will based on our own assessment of need to assess how s/he functions in ‘dominance’ in him. Our assessment may various domains or areas, such as be informal or formal. Formal assessment cognitive, emotional, social, etc. is objective, standardised, and organised. We will discuss in this chapter some On the other hand, informal assessment important attributes that are of interest to varies from case to case and from one psychologists. These attributes are assessor to another and, therefore, is open categorised on the basis of varieties of tests to subjective interpretations. Psychologists used in psychological literature. are trained in making formal assessment 1. Intelligence is the global capacity to of psychological attributes. understand the world, think rationally, Once assessment is done, we can use and use available resources effectively this information to predict how Harish will when faced with challenges. Intelligence probably behave in future. We may predict tests provide a global measure of a that Harish, if given a chance to a person’s general cognitive competence team, will most likely be an authoritarian including the ability to profit from leader. If the predicted consequence is not schooling. Generally, students having what we want, we may want to intervene low intelligence are not likely to do so to effect a change in Harish’s behaviour. well in school-related examinations, but The attribute chosen for assessment their success in life is not associated depends upon our purpose. In order to only with their intelligence scores. help a weak student perform well in 2. Aptitude refers to an individual’s examinations, we may assess her/his underlying potential for acquiring skills. intellectual strengths and weaknesses. If Aptitude tests are used to predict what a person fails to adjust with members of an individual will be able to do if given

3 Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes

2021–22 proper environment and . A used for the purposes of clinical person with high mechanical aptitude diagnosis, guidance, personnel can profit from appropriate training and selection, placement, and training. can do well as an engineer. Similarly, Besides objective tests, psychologists a person having high language aptitude have also developed certain projective can be trained to be a good writer. tests, especially for the assessment of 3. Interest is an individual’s preference for personality. You will learn about them engaging in one or more specific in Chapter 2. activities relative to others. Assessment • Interview involves seeking information of interests of students may help to from a person on a one-to-one basis. You decide what subjects or courses they may see it being used when a can pursue comfortably and with counsellor interacts with a client, a pleasure. of interests helps salesperson makes a door-to-door us in making choices that promote life survey regarding the usefulness of a satisfaction and performance on jobs. particular product, an employer selects 4. Personality refers to relatively enduring employees for her/his organisation, or a characteristics of a person that make journalist interviews important people her or him distinct from others. on issues of national and international Personality tests try to assess an importance. individual’s unique characteristics, e.g. • Case Study is an in-depth study of the whether one is dominant or submissive, individual in terms of her/his outgoing or withdrawn, moody or psychological attributes, psychological emotionally stable, etc. Personality history in the context of her/his assessment helps us to explain an psychosocial and physical environment. individual’s behaviour and predict how Case studies are widely used by she/he will behave in future. clinical psychologists. Case analyses of 5. Values are enduring beliefs about an the lives of great people can also be ideal mode of behaviour. A person highly illuminating for those willing to having a value sets a standard for learn from their life experiences. guiding her/his actions in life and also Case studies are based on data for judging others. In value assessment, generated by different methods, e.g. we try to determine the dominant interview, observation, questionnaire, values of a person (e.g., political, psychological tests, etc. religious, social or economic). • Observation involves employing systematic, organised, and objective Assessment Methods procedures to record behavioural Several methods are used for psychological phenomena occurring naturally in real assessment. You have learnt about some time. Certain phenomena such as of these methods in Class XI. Let us recall mother-child interactions can be easily their key features. studied through observation. The major • Psychological Test is an objective problems with observational methods and standardised measure of an are that the observer has little control individual’s mental and/or behavioural over the situation and the reports may characteristics. Objective tests have suffer from subjective interpretations of been developed to measure all the the observer. dimensions of psychological attributes • Self-Report is a method in which a (e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.) person provides factual information described above. These tests are widely about herself/himself and/or opinions,

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2021–22 beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Such we discuss some important theories of information may be obtained by intelligence. using an interview schedule or a questionnaire, a psychological test, or Discovering the Attributes of Activity a personal diary. Intelligent Persons 1.1 1. Who is the most intelligent of your INTELLIGENCE classmates? Think of her/him in your mind’s eye, and write down Intelligence is a key construct employed to a few words/phrases describing know how individuals differ from one that person. 2. Think of 3 other persons in your another. It also provides an understanding immediate environment, whom of how people adapt their behaviour you consider intelligent, and write according to the environment they live in. down a few words/phrases In this section, you will read about describing the attributes of each. intelligence in its various forms. 3. Judge the newer additions with reference to what you wrote in item Psychological notion of intelligence is no. 1. quite different from the common sensical 4. Make a list of all the attributes you notion of intelligence. If you watch an consider as manifestations of intelligent person, you are likely to see in intelligent behaviours. Using these her/him attributes like mental alertness, attributes, try to frame a definition. ready wit, quickness in , and 5. Discuss your report with your classmates and the teacher. ability to understand relationships. The 6. Compare it with what the Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as researchers have to say about the power of perceiving, learning, ‘intelligence’. understanding, and knowing. Early intelligence theorists also used these attributes in defining intelligence. was one of the first psychologists THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE who worked on intelligence. He defined Psychologists have proposed several the ability to judge well, intelligence as theories of intelligence. Theories can be understand well, and well. broadly classified as either representing a Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most psychometric/structural approach or an widely used, understood intelligence in information-processing approach. terms of its functionality, i.e. its value for The psychometric approach considers adaptation to environment. He defined it as intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It the global and aggregate capacity of an expresses the individual’s performance in individual to think rationally, act terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. purposefully, and to deal effectively with On the other hand, the information- her/his environment. Other psychologists, processing approach describes the such as Gardner and Sternberg have processes people use in intellectual suggested that an intelligent individual not reasoning and . The major only adapts to the environment, but also focus of this approach is on how an actively modifies or shapes it. You will be intelligent person acts. Rather than able to understand the concept of focusing on structure of intelligence or its intelligence and how it has evolved, when underlying dimensions, information-

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2021–22 processing approaches emphasise independent of the others. These primary studying cognitive functions underlying abilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension intelligent behaviour. We will discuss (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and some representative theories of these ideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and approaches. accuracy in numerical and computational We mentioned above that Alfred Binet skills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualising was the first who tried to patterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed formalise the concept of intelligence in (speed in perceiving details), (v) Word terms of mental operations. Prior to him, Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly), we find the notion of intelligence described (vi) (accuracy in recalling in general ways in various philosophical information), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning treatises available in different cultural (deriving general rules from presented traditions. Binet’s theory of intelligence facts). was rather simple as it arose from his proposed a hierarchical interest in differentiating more intelligent model of intelligence consisting of abilities from less intelligent individuals. He, operating at two levels, called Level I and therefore, conceptualised intelligence as Level II. Level I is the associative learning consisting of one similar set of abilities in which output is more or less similar to which can be used for solving any or every the input (e.g., rote learning and memory). problem in an individual’s environment. Level II, called cognitive competence, His theory of intelligence is called Uni or involves higher-order skills as they one factor theory of intelligence. This transform the input to produce an effective theory came to be disputed when output. psychologists started analysing data J.P. Guilford proposed the structure- of individuals, which was collected using of-intellect model which classifies Binet’s test. intellectual traits among three dimensions: In 1927, proposed a operations, contents, and products. two-factor theory of intelligence Operations are what the respondent does. employing a statistical method called factor These include , memory analysis. He showed that intelligence recording, memory retention, divergent consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and production, convergent production, and some specific factors (s-factors). The evaluation. Contents refer to the nature of g-factor includes mental operations which materials or information on which are primary and common to all intellectual operations are performed. performances. In addition to the g-factor, These include visual, auditory, symbolic he said that there are also many specific (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., abilities. These are contained in what he words) and behavioural (e.g., information called the s-factor. Excellent singers, about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs, architects, scientists, and athletes may be etc.). Products refer to the form in which high on g-factor, but in addition to this, information is processed by the respondent. they have specific abilities which allow Products are classified into units, classes, them to excel in their respective domains. relations, systems, transformations, and Spearman’s theory was followed by Louis implications. Since this classification Thurstone’s theory. He proposed the (Guilford, 1988) includes 6´5´6 categories, theory of primary mental abilities. It therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell states that intelligence consists of seven is expected to have at least one factor or primary abilities, each of which is relatively ability; some cells may have more than

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2021–22 one factor. Each factor is described in Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, terms of all three dimensions. architects, interior decorators, and The above mentioned theories are surgeons are likely to have highly representations of psychometric approach developed spatial intelligence. to understand intelligent behaviour. Musical (an ability to produce and manipulate musical rhythms and Theory of Multiple Intelligences patterns) : It is the capacity to produce, proposed the theory of create and manipulate musical patterns. multiple intelligences. According to him, Persons high on this intelligence are very intelligence is not a single entity; rather sensitive to sounds and vibrations, and distinct types of intelligences exist. Each in creating new patterns of sounds. of these intelligences are independent of Bodily-Kinaesthetic (an ability to use each other. This means that, if a person whole or portions of the body flexibly and exhibits one type of intelligence, it does creatively) : This consists of the use of the not necessarily indicate being high or low whole body or portions of it for display on other types of intelligences. Gardner or construction of products and problem also put forth that different types of solving. Athletes, dancers, actors, intelligences interact and work together sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons to find a solution to a problem. Gardner are likely to have such kind of intelligence. studied extremely talented persons, who Interpersonal (an ability to had shown exceptional abilities in their understand to subtle aspects of others’ respective areas, and described eight behaviours) : This is the ability to types of intelligence. These are as follows: understand the motives, feelings and Linguistic (an ability to produce and behaviours of other people so as to bond use language) : It is the capacity to use into a comfortable relationship with language fluently and flexibly to express others. Psychologists, counsellors, one’s thinking and understand others. politicians, social workers, and religious Persons high on this intelligence are leaders are likely to possess high ‘word-smart’, i.e. they are sensitive to interpersonal intelligence. different shades of word meanings, are Intrapersonal (an ability to articulate, and can create linguistic understand of one’s own feelings, images in their mind. Poets and writers motives, and desires): This refers to the are very strong in this component of knowledge of one’s internal strengths and intelligence. limitations and using that knowledge to Logical-Mathematical (an ability to effectively relate to others. Persons high think logically and critically, and solve on this ability have finer sensibilities problems) : Persons high on this type of regarding their identity, can think logically and existence, and meaning of life. critically. They engage in abstract Philosophers and spiritual leaders present reasoning, and can manipulate symbols examples of this type of intelligence. to solve mathematical problems. Scientists Naturalistic (an ability to identify the and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be features of the natural world) : This strong in this component. involves complete awareness of our Spatial (an ability to form visual relationship with the natural world. It is images and patterns) : It refers to the useful in recognising the beauty of abilities involved in forming, using, and different species of flora and fauna, and transforming mental images. The person making subtle discriminations in the high on this intelligence can easily natural world. Hunters, farmers, tourists, represent the spatial world in the mind.

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2021–22 botanists, zoologists, and bird watchers Experiential Intelligence: Experiential possess more of naturalistic intelligence. or creative intelligence is involved in using past experiences creatively to solve Triarchic Theory of Intelligence novel problems. It is reflected in creative (1985) proposed the performance. Persons high on this aspect triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg integrate different experiences in an views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, original way to make new discoveries and to shape and select environment to inventions. They quickly find out which accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s information is crucial in a given situation. society and culture”. According to this theory, there are three basic types of On the ‘Practical’ Track Activity intelligence: Componential, Experiential, 1.2 and Contextual. The elements of the You have just been admitted into a triarchic theory of intelligence are shown school/college. You will take three in Figure 1.1. examinations during the entire year. Componential Intelligence : Compo- You sincerely want to receive high nential or analytical intelligence is the marks in the course. How likely are you to engage in each of the following analysis of information to solve problems. actions? Rank the following courses of Persons high on this ability think action. Match your answer with that analytically and critically and succeed in of your classmates. schools. This intelligence has three • Attend classes regularly. components, each serving a different • Create study groups with your function. First is the knowledge acquisition friends for weekly discussions. • Take detailed notes in the class. component, which is responsible for • Join a tutorial/coaching centre. learning and acquisition of the ways of • Prepare written notes for each doing things. The second is the meta or a chapter. higher order component, which involves • Read the textbook chapters planning concerning what to do and how thoroughly. to do. The third is the performance • Solve the questions of the last three years. component, which involves actually doing Talk to your teacher after the class. things.

Fig.1.1 : Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

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2021–22 Contextual Intelligence : Contextual you perceive the relations among various or practical intelligence involves the ability concepts and integrate them into a to deal with environmental demands meaningful pattern for comprehension. For encountered on a daily basis. It may be example, in Raven’s Progressive Matrices called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. (RPM) Test, a design is presented from Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to which a part has been removed. You are their present environment or select a more required to choose one of the six options favourable environment than the existing that best completes the design. one, or modify the environment to fit their Simultaneous processing helps you in needs. Therefore, they turn out to be grasping the meaning and relationship successful in life. between the given abstract figures. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of Successive processing takes place when intelligence represents the information- you remember all the information serially processing approach to understand so that the recall of one to the recall intelligence. of another. Learning of digits, alphabets, multiplication tables, etc. are examples of Planning, Attention-arousal, and successive processing. Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model Planning : This is an essential feature of Intelligence of intelligence. After the information is attended to and processed, planning is This model has been developed by J.P. activated. It allows us to think of the Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994). possible courses of action, implement them According to this model, intellectual to reach a target, and evaluate their activity involves the interdependent effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is functioning of three neurological systems, modified to suit the requirements of the called the functional units of brain. These task or situation. For example, to take the units are responsible for arousal/attention, test scheduled by your teacher, you would coding or processing, and planning have to set goals, plan a time schedule of respectively. study, get clarifications in case of problems Arousal/Attention : State of arousal is and if you are not able to tackle the basic to any behaviour as it helps us in chapters assigned for the test, you may attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention have to think of other ways (e.g., give more enable a person to process information. An time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your optimal level of arousal focuses our goals. attention to the relevant aspects of a These PASS processes operate on a problem. Too much or too little arousal knowledge base developed either formally would interfere with attention. For (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or instance, when you are told by your informally from the environment. These teacher about a test which s/he plans to processes are interactive and dynamic in hold, it would arouse you to attend to the nature; yet each has its own distinctive specific chapters. Arousal forces you to functions. Das and Naglieri have also focus your attention on reading, learning developed a battery of tests, known as the and revising the contents of the chapters. Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It Simultaneous and Successive consists of verbal as well as non-verbal Processing : You can integrate the tasks that measure basic cognitive information into your knowledge system functions presumed to be independent of either simultaneously or successively. schooling. The battery of tests is meant for Simultaneous processing takes place when individuals between 5 and 18 years of age.

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2021–22 The results of assessment can be used intelligence while rich nutrition, good to remedy cognitive deficits of children family background, and quality schooling with learning problems. increases intelligence. There is a general This model represents the information- consensus among psychologists that processing approach to intelligence. intelligence is a product of complex interaction of (nature) and environment (nurture). Heredity can best be INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE viewed as something that sets a range Why are some people more intelligent than within which an individual’s development is others? Is it due to their heredity, or is it actually shaped by the support and due to the influence of environmental opportunities of the environment. factors? You have already read about the influence of these factors in the Assessment of Intelligence development of an individual in Class XI. In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful attempt to Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and formally measure intelligence. In 1908, Nurture when the scale was revised, they gave the The evidence for hereditary influences on concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a intelligence comes mainly from studies on measure of a person’s intellectual twins and adopted children. The development relative to people of her/his intelligence of identical twins reared age group. A mental age of 5 means that together correlate almost 0.90. Twins a child’s performance on an intelligence separated early in childhood also test equals the average performance level show considerable similarity in their of a group of 5-year olds. Chronological intellectual, personality and behavioural Age (CA) is the biological age from birth. characteristics. The intelligence of identical A bright child’s MA is more than her/his twins reared in different environments CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA. correlate 0.72, those of fraternal twins Retardation was defined by Binet and reared together correlate almost 0.60, and Simon as being two mental age years below those of brothers and sisters reared the chronological age. together correlate about 0.50, while In 1912, William Stern, a German reared apart correlate about 0.25. psychologist, devised the concept of Another line of evidence comes from the (IQ). IQ refers to studies of adopted children, which mental age divided by chronological age, show that children’s intelligence is more and multiplied by 100. similar to their biological rather than MA adoptive parents. IQ = 100 CA ´ With respect to the role of environment, studies have reported that as children grow The number 100 is used as a multiplier in age, their intelligence level tends to move to avoid the decimal point. When the MA closer to that of their adoptive parents. equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is Children from disadvantaged homes more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQ adopted into families with higher socio- becomes less than 100 when the MA is less economic status exhibit a large increase in than the CA. For example, a their intelligence scores. There is evidence 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12 that environmental deprivation lowers would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 ´ 100),

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2021–22 ‘’, while persons Activity ‘Intelligent’ Numbers 1.3 with IQ above 130 are considered to have (Computing IQ) exceptional talents. The IQ score of a • Find out the IQ of a 14-year-old child with a mental age of 16. person can be interpreted by referring to • Find out the mental age of a 12- Table 1.1. year-old child with an IQ of 90. Table 1.1 : Classification of People on the Basis of IQ whereas the same child with an MA of 7 IQ Range Descriptive Label Per cent in the would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 ´ 100). The Population average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age. Above 130 Very superior 2.2 IQ scores are distributed in the 120 – 130 Superior 6.7 population in such a way that the scores 110 – 119 High average 16.1 of most people tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution. Only a few 90 – 109 Average 50.0 people have either very high or very low 80 – 89 Low average 16.1 scores. The frequency distribution for the 70 – 79 Borderline 6.7 IQ scores tends to approximate a bell- Below 70 Intellectually disabled 2.2 shaped curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean. All persons do not have the same The distribution of IQ scores in the form intellectual capacity; some are of a is shown in exceptionally bright and some are below Figure 1.2. average. One practical use of intelligence The mean IQ score in a population is test is to identify persons at the extremes 100. People with IQ scores in the range of of . If you refer to 90–110 have normal intelligence. Those Table 1.1, you will notice that about 2 per with IQ below 70 are suspected to have cent of the population have IQ above 130,

Fig.1.2 : Normal Curve Pattern Showing Distribution of IQ Scores in the Population

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2021–22 and a similar percentage have IQ below to those who cannot be trained and 70. The persons in the first group are require institutional care throughout their called intellectually gifted; those in the lives. You have learnt earlier that the second group are termed intellectually mean IQ score in the population is 100. disabled. These two groups deviate These figures are used to understand the considerably from the normal population categories of intellectually disabled. The in respect of their cognitive, emotional, different levels of intellectual disability are: and motivational characteristics. mild (IQs 55 to approximately 70), Variations of Intelligence moderate (IQs 35–40 to approximately 50– 55), severe (IQs 20–25 to approximately Intellectual Deficiency 35–40), and profound (IQs below 20–25). On the one hand are the gifted and Although the development of people with creative persons we discussed briefly mild disability is typically slower than that earlier. On the other hand, there are of their peers, they can function quite children who face enormous difficulty in independently, hold jobs and families. As learning even very simple skills. Those the level of disability increases, the children who show intellectual deficiency difficulties are strongly marked. The are termed as ‘intellectually disabled’. As people with moderate disability lag behind a group, there is wide variation among the their peers in language and motor skills. intellectually disabled. The American They can be trained in self-care skills, and Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) simple social and skills. views intellectual disability as They need to have moderate degree of “significantly sub-average general supervision in everyday tasks. Individuals intellectual functioning existing with profound and severe disability are concurrently with deficits in adaptive incapable of managing life and need behaviour and manifested during the constant care for their entire lives. You developmental period”. This definition will read more about the characteristics points to three basic features. First, in of the intellectually disabled in Chapter 4. order to be judged as intellectually disabled, a person must show significantly sub-average intellectual functioning. Persons having IQs below 70 are judged Intellectually gifted individuals show to have sub-average intelligence. The higher performance because of their second relates to deficits in adaptive outstanding potentialities. The study of behaviour. Adaptive behaviour refers to a gifted individuals began in 1925, when person’s capacity to be independent and followed the lives of about deal effectively with one’s environment. 1500 children with IQs of 130 and above The third feature is that the deficits must to examine how intelligence was related be observed during the developmental to occupational success and life period, that is between 0 and 18 years adjustment. Although the terms ‘talent’ of age. and ‘giftedness’ are often used inter- Individuals who are categorised as changeably, they mean different things. having intellectual disability show Giftedness is exceptional general ability significant variation in their abilities, shown in superior performance in a wide ranging from those who can be taught to variety of areas. Talent is a narrower term work and function with special attention, and refers to remarkable ability in a

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2021–22 specific field (e.g., spiritual, social, These may include life enrichment aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are programmes that can sharpen children’s sometimes called ‘prodigies’. skills in productive thinking, planning, It has been suggested by psychologists decision-making, and communication. that giftedness from the teachers’ point of view depends on a combination of high Types of Intelligence Tests ability, high creativity, and high Intelligence tests are of several types. On commitment. the basis of their administration procedure, Gifted children show early signs of they can be categorised as individual or intellectual superiority. Even during group tests. They can also be classified as infancy and early childhood, they show either verbal or performance tests on the larger attention span, good recognition basis of the nature of items used. memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity Depending upon the extent to which an to environmental changes, and early intelligence test favours one culture over appearance of language skills. To equate another, it can be judged as either culture- giftedness with brilliant academic fair or culture-biased. You can choose a performance is not correct. Athletes who test depending on the purpose of your use. show superior psychomotor ability are also gifted. Each gifted student Individual or Group Tests possesses different strengths, personalities and characteristics. Some important An individual intelligence test is one which characteristics of gifted children are : can be administered to one person at a • Advanced logical thinking, questioning time. A group intelligence test can be and problem solving behaviour. administered to several persons • High speed in processing information. simultaneously. Individual tests require • Superior generalisation and discri- the test administrator to establish a mination ability. rapport with the subject and be sensitive • Advanced level of original and creative to her/his feelings, moods and expressions thinking. during the testing session. Group tests, however, do not allow an opportunity to be • High level of intrinsic motivation and familiar with the subjects’ feelings. self-esteem. Individual tests allow people to answer • Independent and non-conformist orally or in a written form or manipulate thinking. objects as per the tester’s instructions. • Preference for solitary academic Group tests generally seek written answers activities for long periods. usually in a multiple-choice format. Performance on intelligence tests is not the only measure for identifying the gifted. Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests Many other sources of information, such as teachers’ judgment, school achievement An intelligence test may be fully verbal, record, parents’ interviews, peer and self- fully non-verbal or fully performance- ratings, etc. can be used in combination based, or it may consist of a mixture of with intellectual assessment. To reach their items from each category. Verbal tests full potential, gifted children require special require subjects to give verbal responses attention and different educational either orally or in a written form. programmes beyond those provided to Therefore, verbal tests can be administered normal children in regular classrooms. only to literate people. The non-verbal tests use

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2021–22 pictures or illustrations as test items. is asked to arrange the blocks within a Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test is time period to produce a given design. A an example of a non-verbal test. In this major advantage of performance tests is test, the subject examines an incomplete that they can be easily administered to pattern and chooses a figure from the persons from different cultures. alternatives that will complete the pattern. A specimen item from RPM is given in Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests Figure 1.3. Intelligence tests can be culture-fair or culture-biased. Many intelligence tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed. Tests developed in America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural ethos. Hence, educated middle class white subjects generally perform well on those tests. The items do not respect the cultural perspectives of Asia and Africa. The norms for these tests are also drawn from western cultural groups. You may be already familiar with the concept of norms Fig.1.3 : An Item from Raven’s Progressive discussed in Class XI. Matrices Test It is nearly impossible to design a test that can be applied equally meaningfully in Performance tests require subjects to all cultures. Psychologists have tried to manipulate objects and other materials to develop tests that are culture-fair or perform a task. Written language is not culturally appropriate, i.e. one that does not necessary for answering the items. For discriminate against individuals belonging example, Kohs’ Block Design Test contains to different cultures. In such tests, items a number of wooden blocks. The subject are constructed in a manner that they

Box Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests 1.1 You might have learnt by now that intelligence tests serve many useful purposes such as selection, counselling, guidance, self-analysis, and diagnosis. Unless used by a trained investigator, they may be misused either intentionally or unintentionally. Some of the ill- effects of intelligence testing by naive testers are: • Poor performance on a test may attach a stigma to children and thereby adversely affect their performance and self-respect. • The tests may invite discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders in the society. • Administering a test biased in favour of the middle class and higher class populations may underestimate the IQ of children coming from disadvantaged sections of the society. • Intelligence tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical side of intelligence, and they also do not relate much to success in life. Intelligence can be a potential factor for achievement in various spheres of life. It is suggested that one should guard against erroneous practices associated with intelligence tests and take the help of trained psychologists to analyse an individual’s strengths and weaknesses.

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2021–22 assess experiences common to all cultures (NCERT) has documented Indian tests. or have questions in which language usage Critical reviews of Indian tests are is not required. Non-verbal and published in the form of handbooks. performance tests help reduce the cultural NLEPT has brought out the handbooks in bias usually associated with verbal tests. the area of intelligence, aptitude, personality, attitudes, and interests. Intelligence Testing in India Table 1.2 lists some tests developed in S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt in India. Among these, Bhatia’s Battery of constructing an intelligence test in Hindi Performance Tests is quite popular.

Table 1.2 : Some Tests Developed in India

Verbal Performance

• CIE Verbal Group Test of Intelligence by • CIE Non-verbal Group Test of Intelligence Uday Shankar • Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests • Group Test of General Mental Ability by • Draw-a-Man Test by Pramila Pathak S. Jalota • Adaptation of Wechsler Adult Performance • Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta Intelligence Scale by R. Ramalingaswamy • The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M. Mohsin • Group Test of Intelligence by Bureau of Psychology, Allahabad • Indian Adaptation of Stanford-Binet Test (Third Edition) by S.K. Kulshrestha • Test of General Mental Ability (Hindi) by M.C. Joshi. in the 1930s. C.H. Rice attempted to CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE standardise Binet’s test in Urdu and Punjabi. At about the same time, A major characteristic of intelligence is that Mahalanobis attempted to standardise it helps individuals to adapt to their Binet’s test in Bengali. Attempts were also environment. The cultural environment made by Indian researchers to develop provides a context for intelligence to Indian norms for some western tests develop. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, including RPM, WAIS, Alexander’s has argued that culture provides a social Passalong, Cube Construction, and Kohs’ context in which people live, grow, and Block Design. Long and Mehta prepared a understand the world around them. For Mental Measurement Handbook listing out example, in less technologically developed 103 tests of intelligence in India that were societies, social and emotional skills in available in various languages. Since then, relating to people are valued, while in a number of tests have either been technologically advanced societies, developed or adapted from western personal achievement founded on abilities cultures. The National Library of of reasoning and judgment is considered Educational and Psychological Tests to represent intelligence. (NLEPT) at the National Council of From your previous reading you know Educational and Training that culture is a collective system

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2021–22 of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and others in the society. Some non-western achievements in art and literature. A societies value self-reflection and person’s intelligence is likely to be tuned collectivistic orientation as opposed to by these cultural parameters. Many personal achievement and individualistic theorists have regarded intelligence as orientation. attributes specific to the person without regard to their cultural background. The Intelligence in the Indian Tradition unique features of culture now find some Contrary to technological intelligence, representation in theories of intelligence. intelligence in the Indian tradition can be Sternberg’s notion of contextual or termed as integral intelligence, which practical intelligence implies that gives emphasis on connectivity with the intelligence is a product of culture. social and world environment. Indian Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like thinkers view intelligence from a holistic individuals, have a life of their own; they perspective where equal attention is paid grow and change, and in the process to cognitive and non-cognitive processes as specify what will be the end-product of well as their integration. successful intellectual development. The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’ which is According to him, while elementary mental often used to represent intelligence is far functions (e.g., crying, attending to more pervasive in scope than the western mother’s voice, sensitivity to smells, concept of intelligence. Buddhi, according walking, and running) are universal, the to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental manner in which higher mental functions effort, determined action, feelings, and such as problem solving and thinking opinions along with cognitive competence operate are largely culture-produced. such as knowledge, discrimination, and Technologically advanced societies understanding. Among other things, adopt child rearing practices that foster buddhi is the knowledge of one’s own self skills of generalisation and , based on conscience, will and desire. Thus, speed, minimal moves, and mental the notion of buddhi has affective and manipulation among children. These motivational components besides a strong societies promote a type of behaviour, cognitive component. Unlike the western which can be called technological views, which primarily focus on cognitive intelligence. In these societies, persons parameters, the following competencies are are well-versed in skills of attention, identified as facets of intelligence in the observation, analysis, performance, speed, Indian tradition : and achievement orientation. Intelligence • Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to tests developed in western cultures look context, understanding, discrimination, precisely for these skills in an individual. problem solving, and effective Technological intelligence is not so communication). valued in many Asian and African • Social competence (respect for social societies. The qualities and skills regarded order, commitment to elders, the as intelligent actions in non-western young and the needy, concern cultures are sharply different, though the about others, recognising others’ boundaries are gradually vanishing under perspectives). the influence of western cultures. In • Emotional competence (self- addition to cognitive competence that is regulation and self-monitoring of very specific to the individual, the non- emotions, honesty, politeness, good western cultures look for skills to relate to conduct, and self-evaluation).

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2021–22 • Entrepreneurial competence information accurately and efficiently. To (commitment, persistence, patience, know the characteristics of persons who hard work, vigilance, and goal-directed are high on emotional intelligence, read behaviours). Box 1.2. Emotional intelligence is receiving increasing attention of educators for EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE dealing with students who are affected by The notion of emotional intelligence stresses and challenges of the outside broadens the concept of intelligence world. Programmes aimed at improving beyond the intellectual sphere/domain and students’ emotional intelligence have considers that intelligence includes beneficial effects on their academic emotions. You may note that it builds on achievement. They encourage cooperative the concept of intelligence in the Indian behaviour and reduce their antisocial tradition. Emotional intelligence is a set activities. These programmes are very of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, useful in preparing students to face the expression, and regulation of emotions. It challenges of life outside the classroom. is the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ and scholastic record is not enough to be SPECIAL ABILITIES successful in life. You may find many people who are academically talented, but Aptitude : Nature and Measurement are unsuccessful in their own life. They experience problems in family, workplace By now you have learnt enough about and interpersonal relationships. What do intelligence. You may recall that they lack? Some psychologists believe that intelligence tests assess a general mental the source of their difficulty may be a lack ability. Aptitude refers to special abilities of emotional intelligence. This concept was in a particular field of activity. It is a first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who combination of characteristics that indicates considered emotional intelligence as “the an individual’s capacity to acquire some ability to monitor one’s own and other’s specific knowledge or skill after training. We emotions, to discriminate among them, and assess aptitude with the help of selected to use the information to guide one’s tests. The knowledge of aptitude can help thinking and actions”. Emotional Quotient us to predict an individual’s future (EQ) is used to express emotional performance. intelligence in the same way as IQ is used While assessing intelligence, to express intelligence. psychologists often found that people with In simple terms, emotional intelligence similar intelligence differed widely in refers to the ability to process emotional acquiring certain knowledge or skills. You

Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons Box 1.2 • Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions. • Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body language, voice and tone, and facial expressions. • Relate your emotions to your so that you take them into account while solving problems and taking decisions. • Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions. • Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and others to achieve harmony and peace.

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2021–22 may observe in your class that there are (vi) Space Relations, (vii) Spelling, and certain areas in which some intelligent (viii) Language Usage. J.M. Ojha has students do not do well. When you have a developed an Indian adaptation of DAT. problem in mathematics, you may turn to Several other aptitude tests have been Aman for help, and with similar difficulties developed in India for measuring scientific, in literature you may consult Avinash. You scholastic, literary, clerical, and teaching may request Shabnam to sing for your aptitudes. annual function, and may turn to John when facing a problem with your bike. CREATIVITY These specific skills and abilities are called aptitudes. With proper training these In the foregoing sections, you have read abilities can be considerably enhanced. that there are variations in psychological In order to be successful in a particular attributes like intelligence, aptitude, field, a person must have both aptitude personality and so on. Here, you will learn and interest. Interest is a preference for that there are differences in the potential a particular activity; aptitude is the for creativity across individuals and the potentiality to perform that activity. A manner in which creativity is expressed. person may be interested in a particular Some are highly creative and others are not job or activity, but may not have the so creative. Some may express creativity in aptitude for it. Similarly, a person may writing, still others in dance, music, poetry, have the potentiality for performing a job, and so on. Manifestations of but may not be interested in doing that. creativity can be observed in a novel In both cases, the outcome will not be solution to a problem, an invention, satisfactory. A student with high composition of a poem, painting, new mechanical aptitude and strong interest in chemical process, an innovation in law, a engineering is more likely to be a breakthrough in preventing a and successful mechanical engineer. the like. Despite differences, one common Aptitude tests are available in two element among these is the production of forms: independent (specialised) aptitude something new and unique. tests and multiple (generalised) aptitude We generally think of creativity in terms tests. Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical of creative persons like Tagore, Einstein, Aptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and Typing C.V. Raman, Ramanujan etc. who have Aptitude are independent aptitude tests. made outstanding contributions in Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form different spheres. In recent years, our of test batteries, which measure aptitude understanding of creativity has broadened. in several separate but homogeneous Creativity is not just limited to a selected areas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), few — the artist, the scientist, the poet or the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), the inventor. An ordinary individual who is and the Armed Services Vocational engaged in simple occupations like pottery, Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known carpentry, cooking, etc. can also be aptitude test batteries. Among these, creative. However, it has been said that DAT is most commonly used in they are not working at the same level of educational settings. It consists of 8 creativity as an eminent scientist or a independent subtests: (i) Verbal Reasoning, writer. Hence, we can say that individuals (ii) Numerical Reasoning, (iii) Abstract vary in terms of the level and the areas in Reasoning, (iv) Clerical Speed and which they exhibit creativity and that all Accuracy, (v) Mechanical Reasoning, may not be operating at the same level.

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2021–22 Einstein’s theory of relativity is an you have already read in Class XI about example of the highest level of creativity strategies to enhance creativity. which implies bringing out altogether new ideas, facts, theory, or a product. Creativity and Intelligence Another level of creativity is working on One important debate in understanding what has already been established the variations in creativity has been the earlier by way of modifications, by putting relationship of creativity with intelligence. things in new perspectives or to new use. Let us take an example of two students Research literature suggests that in a class. Sunita is regarded by her children begin to develop their imagination teachers as an excellent student. She does during the early years of childhood but her work on time, scores the highest they express creativity mostly through grades in her class, listens to instructions physical activities and in non-verbal ways. with care, grasps quickly, reproduces When language and intellectual functions accurately but she rarely comes out with are fully developed and store of knowledge ideas which are her own. Rita is another is adequately available, creativity is student who is just average in her studies expressed through verbal modes too. Those and has not achieved high grades who are outstanding in their creativity may consistently. She prefers to learn on her give an indication about the direction in own. She improvises new ways of helping which their creativity lies through their her mother at home and comes up with self-chosen activities. In some cases, new ways of doing her work and however, opportunities need to be provided assignments. The former is considered to before they can manifest their hidden be more intelligent and the latter as more potential for creativity. creative. Thus, a person who has the How do we explain variations in the ability to learn faster and reproduce potential for creativity? As in the case of accurately may be considered intelligent other mental and physical characteristics, more than creative unless s/he devises such variations can be attributed to the new ways of learning and doing. complex interaction of heredity and Terman, in the 1920s, found that environment. There is no disagreement persons with high IQ were not necessarily that creativity is determined by both creative. At the same time, creative ideas heredity and environment. Limits of the could come from persons who did not have creative potential are set by heredity, a very high IQ. Other have environmental factors stimulate the shown that not even one of those identified development of creativity. How much of the as gifted, followed up throughout their creative potential can be realised, when adult life, had become well-known for and in what specific form and direction is creativity in some field. Researchers have largely determined by environmental also found that both high and low level of factors such as motivation, commitment, creativity can be found in highly intelligent family support, peer influences, training children and also children of average opportunities, etc. Although no amount of intelligence. The same person, thus, can be training can transform an average person creative as well as intelligent but it is not to the level of Tagore, Shakespeare, etc. necessary that intelligent ones, in the but it is also true that every individual can conventional sense, must be creative. raise her/his level of creative potential Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not beyond its present level. In this context, ensure creativity.

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2021–22 Researchers have found that the are off-the-beaten track, ability to see new relationship between creativity and relationships between seemingly unrelated intelligence is positive. All creative acts things, ability to guess causes and require some minimum ability to acquire consequences, ability to put things in a knowledge and capacity to comprehend, new context, etc. This is contrary to the retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, for tests of intelligence which mostly involve example, need facility in dealing with convergent thinking. In tests of language. The artist must understand the intelligence, the person has to think of the effect that will be produced by a particular right solution to the problem and the focus technique of painting, a scientist must be is on assessing abilities such as memory, able to reason and so on. Hence, a certain logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptual level of intelligence is required for creativity ability, and clear thinking. There is little but beyond that intelligence does not scope for the expression of spontaneity, correlate well with creativity. It can be originality, and imagination. concluded that creativity can take many Since expressions of creativity are forms and blends. Some may have more of varied, tests have been developed using intellectual attributes, others may have different stimuli like words, figures, action, more of attributes associated with and sounds. These tests measure general creativity. But, what are the attributes of creative thinking abilities like ability to a creative person? You may like to discuss think of a variety of ideas on a given topic/ the attributes which are common to all situation, alternative ways of looking at kinds of creative persons. things, problems or situations, to guess Creativity tests came into existence to causes and consequences, to think of assess variations in terms of the potential unusual ideas to improve and to use for creativity in contrast to intelligence. common objects, ask unusual questions A general feature of most of the and so on. A few investigators have also creativity tests is that they are open-ended. They permit the person to think of different developed tests of creativity in different answers to the questions or problems in areas such as literary creativity, scientific terms of her/his experiences, whatever creativity, mathematical creativity, etc. these may have been. These help the Some of the famous psychologists who individual to go in different directions. have developed creativity tests are There are no specified answers to Guilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach and questions or problems in creativity tests. Kogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi. Therefore, there is freedom to use one’s Each test has a standardised procedure, a imagination and express it in original ways. complete set of manual, and interpretation Creativity tests involve divergent thinking guide. These can be used only after and assess such abilities as ability to extensive training in administration and produce a variety of ideas, i.e. ideas which interpretation of test scores.

Key Terms Aptitude, Aptitude tests, Case study, Cognitive assessment system, Componential intelligence, Contextual intelligence, Creativity, Emotional intelligence, Culture-fair test, Experiential intelligence, g-factor, Individual differences, Intellectual giftedness, Intellectual disability, Intelligence, Intelligence tests, Intelligence quotient (IQ), Interest, Interview, Mental age (MA), Observational method, Planning, Psychological test, Simultaneous processing, Situationism, Successive processing, Values.

20 Psychology

2021–22 • Individuals vary in their physical and psychological characteristics. Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations in people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns. • A wide variety of personal attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, interests, personality, and values can be assessed. Psychologists assess these attributes through psychological tests, interviews, case studies, observations, and self-reports. • The term ‘intelligence’ refers to an individual’s capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively to meet the demands of life. Intellectual development is the product of a complex interplay of hereditary factors (nature), and environmental conditions (nurture). • The psychometric approaches to intelligence lay emphasis on studying intelligence as a constellation of abilities, expressed in quantitative terms such as IQ. The more recent theories representing information-processing approaches, e.g. Sternberg’s triarchic theory and Das’s PASS model describe the processes underlying intelligent behaviour. Howard Gardner suggests that there are eight different kinds of intelligence. • Intelligence is assessed with the help of specially designed tests. Intelligence tests may be of verbal or performance type; can be administered individually or in groups; and may be culturally-biased or culturally-fair. At the two extremes of intelligence are the intellectually deficient persons and the intellectually gifted. • Culture provides a context for intellectual development. Western culture promotes ‘technological intelligence’ based on skills of analysis, performance, speed, and achievement orientation. In contrast, non-western cultures value self-reflection, social and emotional competence as signs of intelligent behaviour. Indian culture promotes ‘integral intelligence’ that emphasises connectivity with people and the larger social world. • Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive and manage one’s and other’s feelings and emotions; to motivate oneself and restrain one’s impulses; and to handle interpersonal relationships effectively. • Aptitude refers to an individual’s potential for acquiring some specific skills. Aptitude tests predict what an individual will be able to do given proper training and environment. • Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel, appropriate and useful. Certain level of intelligence is necessary to be creative, but a high level of intelligence, however, does not ensure that a person would certainly be creative.

Review Questions 1. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence? 2. To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)? Discuss. 3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner. 4. How does the triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence? 5. “Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological systems”. Explain with reference to PASS model. 6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence? 7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores? 8. How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence? 9. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual ability? Explain. 10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and why? 11. How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude measured? 12. How is creativity related to intelligence?

21 Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes

2021–22 Project 1. Observe and interview 5 persons in your neighbourhood in order to see how they differ Ideas from each other in terms of certain psychological attributes. Cover all the five domains. Prepare a psychological profile of each person and compare. 2. Select 5 vocations and gather information about the nature of work done by people in these vocations. Also analyse these vocations in terms of the types of psychological attributes required for successful performance. Write a report.

Weblinks http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/anastasi.shtml http://www.chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/intell.html http://www.humandimensions.org/emotion.htm http://www.emotionaliq.com/Gdefault.htm http://edweb.gsn.org/edref.mi.intro.html http://www.talentsmart.com http://www.kent.ac.uk/career/psychotests.com

Pedagogical Hints 1. To introduce the topic, teacher can initiate discussion on psychological constructs such as intelligence, personality, aptitude, values, etc. This would serve to point out the difficulty in arriving at one single, universal explanation of these constructs. 2. Teacher should draw from the experiences of the students to introduce the different psycho- logical attributes discussed in the chapter. 3. Some sample items of various tests (to be collected by the teacher) can be given to students to generate their interest. 4. Encourage students to complete the activities and also to design activities on their own either individually or in groups. Initiate discussion in the class on observations made by students on completion of the activities. 5. Students should be encouraged to relate the concepts to their real-life experiences.

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