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Psychology for IAS: Intelligence and Aptitude 228 28 VOLUME 11, NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2002

Silberg, J., Pickles, A., Rutter, M., Hewitt, J., Simo- childhood and adolescence. Developmental Lenzenweger & R. Dworkin (Eds.), Origins and noff, E., Maes, H., Carbonneau, R., Murrelle, Neuropsychology, 14, 599–617. development of schizophrenia (pp. 469–492). L., Foley, D., & Eaves, L. (1999). The influence Washington, DC: American Psychological As- of genetic factors and life stress on depression Spear, L.P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age- sociation Press. among adolescent girls. Archives of General related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 417–463. Psychiatry, 56, 225–232. Watson, C., & Gametchu, B. (1999). Membrane-ini- Sowell, E., & Jernigan, T. (1998). Further MRI evi- Walker, E., Baum, K., & Diforio, D. (1998). Devel- tiated steroid actions and the proteins that me- dence of late brain maturation: Limbic volume opmental changes in the behavioral expression diate them. Proceedings of the Society for increases and changing asymmetries during of the vulnerability for schizophrenia. In M. Experimental Biology & Medicine, 220, 9–19.

the frontal lobes are essential for A Better Look at Intelligence higher cognitive processes. Simi- J.P. Das1 larly, some dyslexic children have high IQs despite their significant Developmental Disabilities Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, difficulties in reading. Alberta, Canada Examples such as these chal- lenge the usefulness of a one-dimen- sional notion of general intelli- gence, be it conceptualized as Abstract processing, and planning as it mental energy or speed. A general- The Planning, Attention, Si- relates to language, is sug- ability view leads to different ques- multaneous, and Successive gested. tions and measures of ability than a (PASS) model is offered as an view that intelligence is made up alternative to the unidimen- Keywords of multiple and interdependent sional conceptualization of in- intelligence; PASS theory; cognitive processes. Multidimen- telligence as a general ability. reading disability sional views of intelligence are The unidimensional conceptu- suggested by the seven modules of alization has not helped re- intelligence posited by Gardner searchers and clinicians The brain consists of a great many (1983), the triarchic theory of Stern- understand variations of cog- www.numerons.inmodules that process information more berg (1985), and the Planning, At- nitive functions within special or less independently of each other. It tention, Simultaneous, and Succes- populations such as individu- seems likely that it will be easier to dis- sive (PASS) theory my colleagues als with learning disabilities, cover how one of those modules works and I have proposed. disorders of attention, or men- than to explain the functioning of the As its name suggests, the PASS tal retardation. Neither has this brain as a whole. (Frith, 1997, p. 5) theory refers to four kinds of com- conceptualization aided in pro- petence. First, planning processes gram planning for these indi- This quotation questions the va- are required when an individual viduals. PASS is a model of lidity of the notion that there is a makes decisions about how to cognitive function based on general factor of intelligence. Much solve a problem, carry out an activ- contemporary research in both as the organs of the body are spe- ity, or compose a narrative. This cognition and neuropsychol- cific and diverse in their functions, component involves goal setting, ogy and provides a theory for the brain, although admittedly as well as anticipating and moni- both assessment and interven- working as a whole, cannot be con- toring feedback. Second, attention, tion. This article reviews con- ceived to have one general intelli- or arousal, is the process that al- cepts and examples of PASS gence function. Arguments against lows a person to selectively attend theory and its application to a general factor of intelligence arise to some stimuli while ignoring oth- reading disabilities and men- both from logical considerations ers, resist distractions, and main- tal retardation. For example, and from clinical observations. tain vigilance. Third, simultaneous the article links dyslexia with a Clinically, in cases of brain dam- processing integrates stimuli into deficit in successive process- age, specific cognitive functions are groups. As a result, stimuli are ing. It also identifies the major often spared while others remain seen as whole, each piece being re- difficulties of individuals with impaired. In addition, individuals lated to the others. Fourth, succes- Down syndrome in phonologi- who have significantly damaged sive processing includes integrat- cal memory and articulation. frontal lobe functions may have ing stimuli in a specific serial Further research on successive normal IQs, despite the fact that order. For example, to understand

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English syntax, an individual has tial attention. These findings sup- and from internal sources; internal to process words in order to deter- port two of Luria’s notions: (a) a cognitive information such as im- mine their grammatical function. complex function cannot be strictly ages, memories, and thoughts be- The PASS theory was developed localized in one region of the brain, come part of the input. External in- with the intention of predicting and (b) spatial information is pro- put information can be presented and explaining normal as well as cessed in the occipital-parietal re- serially or concurrently. When the atypical cognitive functions. The gion. sensory information is sent for theory links the four processes analyses, the four central pro- with particular areas of the brain, cesses (planning, attention-arousal, following the work of Luria (1966). simultaneous processing, and suc- PASS THEORY IN BRIEF cessive processing), as well as the knowledge base, become active. The PASS theory provides a Similarly, output can occur in two NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL model to conceptualize human in- forms, serial and concurrent. LINKAGE tellectual competence. My col- Consistent with Luria’s (1966) leagues and I first presented it com- framework, the PASS components Luria (1966) described human prehensively more than 25 years are broadly associated with four cognitive processes within a frame- ago (Das, Kirby, & Jarman, 1975). At different parts of the brain (Das et work of three functional units: one that time, the model included three al., 1994). Planning is located in the that regulates arousal and atten- processes: planning, simultaneous frontal lobe. Specifically, cognitive tion, a second that codes informa- processing, and successive process- functions such as reasoning are at- tion using simultaneous and suc- ing. Since that time, we have added tributed to the prefrontal dorsolat- cessive processes, and a third that the component of attention-arousal eral cortex, whereas socially rele- provides for planning, self-moni- and elaborated the planning com- vant decision making may be the toring, and structuring of cognitive ponent (Das, Kar, & Parrila, 1996; function of the fronto-orbital cor- activities. According to Luria, the Das, Naglieri, & Kirby, 1994). tex. Planning is required when an first unit is located in the brain Over the years, we have written individual makes decisions rang- stem and its connections with the about the implications of the model ing from specific actions to general frontal lobes; the second is in the for understanding various cogni- plans such as revising life’s goals. back of the cortex in occipital,www.numerons.in pari- tive processes, such as reasoning, Planning also guides how people etal, and frontotemporal regions; memory, imagery, and language. focus their attention and use simul- and the third is located in the fron- We have also developed practical taneous and successive processes tal lobes (see the next section). applications of the model, includ- when required. Although Luria’s work was a ing the Cognitive Assessment Sys- The attention-arousal compo- blueprint for the PASS model, my tem (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997) nent is more difficult to locate. colleagues and I have also consid- and the PASS Reading Enhance- Arousal keeps people awake and ered recent neuroimaging research ment Program (PREP), a remedia- alert and is associated with arousal that has revealed a wealth of new tion program for reading difficul- activities in the brain stem as well information about the roles various ties (Das, 1999). Another successful as with inhibitory activities in the brain structures play in human application of the model is a pro- thalamus. The mobilization of at- cognition (e.g., Posner, 1993). For gram for remediating arithmetic tentional resources, however, is the instance, research has shown that difficulties, which are related to de- function of the frontal lobes and attention is divided into four sub- ficiencies in planning. Throughout closely connected to planning. processes: the engagement, mainte- the theory’s 25-year developmental Simultaneous and successive nance, disengagement, and shifting period, Luria has been an influence processing are located in the poste- of attention (Posner, 1993, p. 644). on how we have framed research rior region of the cortex. Simulta- These functions are spread over questions, designed assessment de- neous processing is broadly associ- several regions of the brain, includ- vices, and constructed interven- ated with the occipital and parietal ing the posterior parietal cortex, tion procedures. lobes, whereas successive process- frontal eye-field, and brain-stem Figure 1 is a diagram of the ing is associated with the frontal- reticular formation. The addition of PASS model, showing the basic di- temporal lobe. All four processes the parietal cortex, which regulates vision of input, processing, and must be active in the context of an spatial processing, to the functional output (Das et al., 1994). First, in- individual’s knowledge base. location of attention is necessary in put information is received from Knowledge is built upon the base order to account for aspects of spa- external sources through the senses of past experiences and includes

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can be used to determine an indi- vidual’s competence and level of cognitive functioning. It can be used, for example, to diagnose learning strengths and weaknesses, learning disabilities, attention defi- cits, mental retardation, and gifted- ness. Scores on this instrument can be used to determine whether an individual meets the eligibility cri- teria for state or federal interven- tion programs, and more generally to guide decisions on the appropri- ateness of treatments and instruc- tional programs. The CAS is an individually ad- ministered test designed for chil- dren and adolescents ages 5 through 17 years. The test consists of 12 subtests, three for each of the four PASS scales. There is also a to- tal score called the Full Scale. The tests vary in content: Some are ver- bal, some are not; some involve memory, others do not. For exam- ple, a Planning test is Matching Numbers, in which the task is to find and underline two identical three-number sequences in a row www.numerons.inof six three-number sequences (249, 371, 539, 467, 539, 749). An At- tention test is Receptive Attention, in which the task is to underline pairs of letters that are physically the same (e.g., AA, but not BA) or that have the same name (e.g., aA, Fig. 1. Diagram of the Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS) model. but not eA). In the Simultaneous Verbal-Spatial Relations task, chil- dren are presented with six draw- both formal and spontaneously ac- ics, and language. Movements in- ings and a printed question that quired knowledge. It is essential clude both gross and fine move- may be read aloud by the examiner for providing the background for ment; mimetics comprises dance, (e.g., “Show me the picture that has information to be processed. It is as music, theatrical poses, and body a triangle to the left of a circle.”). A if the PASS processes are floating language; and language includes Successive processing task is Sen- on a sea of knowledge; without the oral and written language, as well tence Repetition and Questions, in water, they cannot operate and will as graphs and signs. which the child listens to a sen- sink. Knowledge can be of two tence spoken by the examiner and kinds: tacit (spontaneous, experi- answers a question (e.g., “The ential) and explicit (formal, in- brown greened the red yellow. structed). ASSESSMENT OF PASS Who greened the red?”). The last component of the PASS PROCESSES: AN Some evidence of the usefulness model is output, which is ex- ALTERNATIVE TO IQ TESTS of this instrument is presented in pressed in behavior. Donald (1991) the following sections, which has suggested that there are three The CAS (Naglieri & Das, 1997) show how PASS can help in clari- output modes: movements, mimet- is a measurement instrument that fying the mental processes not only

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Table 1. Case studies of attention deficit disorder

Scores Case Age Country Gender Reason for referral Planning Attention Simultaneous Successive 1 12 United States Male Attention deficit disorder 115 87 110 117 2 8 South Africa Male Attention deficit disorder 98 84 110 98 of normal children, but also of chil- file for a deficit in planning and at- able in nonreading tasks as well dren and adults with reading diffi- tention-arousal. (i.e., in distal processes)? Proximal culties and mental retardation. The CAS has been used in sev- processes whose impairment could eral countries, including the result in dyslexia include phono- United States, and has aided in the logical processes, which deal with diagnosis of cognitive deficits (see the sound structure of language CLINICAL USES OF THE Table 2). None of the individuals (e.g., Wagner & Torgesen, 1987), PASS MODEL AND CAS whose scores are reported in Table and orthographic processes that 2 had a below-average full-scale IQ are essential for recognizing an ar- One possible use of CAS is to di- score, but their CAS scores show ray of letters as a word. Ortho- agnose children with attention def- clear deficits in particular cognitive graphic processes are involved in icit disorder (ADD). Such children components. These results support pronunciation and spelling of should score lower in attention the position that a general view of words in which the same spelling than in planning or simultaneous intelligence is of little value in ob- has different pronunciations (e.g., and successive processing. Table 1 taining the cognitive profiles in bead and dead). The four PASS pro- shows the CAS scores of 2 boys these cases. Obviously, a single IQ cesses are distal processes that who had been diagnosed with score by definition does not pro- could be related to dyslexia. These ADD. The scores show the pre- vide a profile; as a consequence, in- processes enable individuals to dicted pattern, confirming the orig- dividuals with cognitive deficits learn the sound system and orthog- inal diagnosis. www.numerons.inwill often not be identified by IQ raphy of their language, as well as A second example of clinical measures and will not benefit from strategies for the appropriate ap- usefulness of CAS is provided by a the diagnosis that would be af- plication of phonology and orthog- 12-year-old American boy who forded by multidimensional sys- raphy. On the basis of research sustained a closed head injury tems of cognitive assessment. based on our theory, we can distin- when he hit the dashboard of a guish between individuals who moving car (Naglieri & Das, 1997). have specific reading disability He was referred for treatment be- (dyslexics) and those who are sim- cause of behavior control problems APPLICATION TO ply generally poor readers. Indi- and poor grades in school. His IQ READING DISABILITY viduals with true dyslexia have a scores fell within the normal range, specific deficit in successive pro- between 112 and 98. In contrast, his Does the source of dyslexia lie in cessing. Their reading problems CAS scores were as follows: Plan- cognitive skills needed only in are specific: They make phonologi- ning, 73; Attention, 79; Simulta- reading-related tasks (i.e., in proxi- cal errors while reading real or neous, 100; and Successive, 110. mal processes), or does it lie in a made-up words or are slow in These scores clearly show the pro- more fundamental process identifi- reading them (i.e., are slow decod-

Table 2. Case studies of cognitive deficits

Scores Case Age Country Gender Reason for referral Planning Attention Simultaneous Successive 1 14 Spain Male School failure 69 94 76 81 2 10 United States Male Reading disability 117 118 94 81 3 16 India Female School failure 71 71 103 100

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232 Psychology for IAS: Intelligence and Aptitude 32 VOLUME 11, NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2002 ers), or are both slow and inaccu- with mental handicaps of various are both slow and inaccurate read- rate. In contrast, individuals who etiologies. A comparison of indi- ers should do poorly on all succes- are generally poor readers may viduals with Down syndrome (DS) sive-processing tests. This predic- have low Successive scores, like and individuals who have mental tion is yet to be investigated, but if dyslexics, but unlike dyslexics can retardation but not DS showed that it is in fact correct, is a deficit in have lower than average scores on DS is associated with a broad defi- successive processing still a useful the three other PASS measures. cit in successive processing. Indi- explanation for the slow-but-accu- They make phonological errors and viduals with DS have weak serial rate type of reading disability? Per- are slow decoders. But unlike dys- recall of spoken words, and it is haps while reading they not only lexics, they show difficulties in com- therefore suspected that DS is take longer to decode words, a task prehension of syntax and meaning. linked to a deficit in phonological that engages successive processing, New research using brain-neu- memory. Further, CAS tasks show but also take a longer time to disen- roimaging techniques continu- that age-related decline in attention gage attention from one word to ously advances researchers’ knowl- and successive processing is faster the next, which slows down read- edge of cognitive processes, such as in individuals with DS than in ing. This possibility can be tested reading. For example, a recent study those without DS. The majority of with a naming-time task in which (Pugh et al., 2000) demonstrated that individuals with DS develop de- the test taker is required to read a on reading tasks that required pho- mentia after age 50 and perform series of familiar words rapidly. Is nological processing, such as de- very poorly on all CAS tasks com- the slow-but-inaccurate reader termining if two made-up words pared with mentally handicapped poor in both speech-rate and nam- rhyme, normal readers showed ro- individuals who do not have DS ing-time tasks? bust connectivity between the an- (Das, Divis, Alexander, Parrila, & Another promising path for fu- gular gyrus and other areas in the Naglieri, 1995). ture research concerns the concep- back of the left hemisphere, whereas tualization of planning and its rela- dyslexics did not. However, nor- tion to efficiency in language mal readers and dyslexics showed representation. Planning is seen in similar connectivity between these DIRECTIONS FOR regulation of behavior achieved areas on reading tasks that did not FUTURE RESEARCH through the use of language. Atyp- demand phonological processing. ical individuals, such as those with Such research implies thatwww.numerons.in support- What might be some useful DS (see the previous discussion) or ing neural connections that are in- leads for further research? Each of people with congenital hearing loss tact can be utilized by dyslexics if the four processes represented in (as opposed to acquired hearing active phonological exercises are the PASS model requires further loss), should be relatively weak in not demanded of them. Appropriate investigation. For example, succes- planning complex activities to the remediation or intervention pro- sive processing contributes to un- extent that language plays a role in grams, such as PREP, that do not derstanding printed words and such planning. Studies examining teach phonics and do not require comprehending syntax. But at a how they plan and how their abil- oral reading, but still enhance suc- more specific level, can the model ity to plan can be augmented hold cessive processing, can be effective illuminate the difference between promise for testing the connection in helping dyslexics become better reading disabilities associated with between planning and language. readers. If such programs are insti- a slow rate of word reading and tuted during the developmental pe- those characterized by a high rate riod, true dyslexics can also make of phonological errors? Poor read- Recommended Reading use of compensatory mechanisms ers who are slow but not inaccurate available through the posterior should do poorly on the CAS suc- Das, J.P., Kar, B.C., & Parrila, R.K. parts of the right hemisphere. cessive-processing test that de- (1996). (See References) mands articulation, Speech Rate. Das, J.P., Naglieri, J.A., & Kirby, J.R. This test requires rapid repetition (1994). (See References) Luria, A.R. (1966). (See References) of two or three simple words 10 APPLICATION TO times. Slow-but-accurate readers MENTAL RETARDATION: should not perform poorly on DOWN SYNDROME other successive-processing tests Acknowledgments—This article reflects the ideas and writings of several collabo- (e.g., serial recall of words and sen- rators, including R.F. Jarman, J.R. Kirby, CAS has also been used to inves- tences) that do not demand fast ar- J.A. Naglieri, T. Papadopoulos, and R.K. tigate the deficits of individuals ticulation. In contrast, people who Parrila.

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Note Das, J.P., Kar, B.C., & Parrila, R.K. (1996). Cognitive Naglieri, J.A., & Das, J.P. (1997). Das-Naglieri Cog- planning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. nitive Assessment System. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing. 1. Address correspondence to J.P. Das, J.P., Kirby, J.R., & Jarman, R.F. (1975). Simul- taneous and successive syntheses: An alterna- Posner, I. (1993). Foundations of cognitive science. Das, Developmental Disabilities Centre, tive model for cognitive abilities. Psychological Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 6-123 D Education North, University of Bulletin, 82, 87–103. Pugh, K.R., Mencl, W.E., Shaywitz, B.A., Ful- Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Das, J.P., Naglieri, J.A., & Kirby, J.R. (1994). Assess- bright, R.K., Constable, R.T., Skudlarski, P., T6G 2G5; e-mail: [email protected]. ment of cognitive processes: The PASS theory of in- Marchione, K.E., Jenner, A.R., Fletcher, J.M., telligence. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Liberman, A.M., Shankweiler, D.P., Katz, L., Lacadie, C., & Gore, J.C. (2000). The angular Donald, M. (1991). Origins of the modern mind. gyrus in developmental dyslexia: Task-specific Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. differences in functional connectivity within References Frith, C.D. (1997). Linking brain and behavior. In posterior cortex. Psychological Science, 11, 51–56. R.S.J. Frackowiak, K.J. Friston, R.J. Dolan, & Sternberg, R.J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory Das, J.P. (1999). PREP: PASS Reading Enhancement J.C. Mazziotta (Eds.), Human brain function (pp. of human intelligence. Cambridge, England: Program. Deal, NJ: Sarka Educational Resources. 3–23). San Diego: Academic Press. Cambridge University Press. Das, J.P., Divis, B., Alexander, J., Parrila, R.K., & Na- Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of Wagner, R.K., & Torgesen, J.K. (1987). The nature glieri, J.A. (1995). Cognitive decline due to aging multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. of phonological processing and its causal role among persons with Down Syndrome. Research Luria, A.R. (1966). Human brain and psychological in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychologi- in Developmental Disabilities, 16, 461–478. processes. New York: Harper and Row. cal Bulletin, 101, 192–212.

Neurodevelopmental models Schizophrenia: A Neurodevelopmental propose that vulnerability to schizo- Perspective phrenia results from a disruption in forebrain development during the 1 Heather M. Conklin and William G. Iacono perinatal period. A brain lesion that Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota occurs early in development is hy- pothesized to lie dormant until nor- mal brain maturational events trig- ger the appearance of traditional Abstract Keywords diagnostic signs, typically in adoles- Diverse lines of research schizophrenia; neurodevelop- cence or early adulthood (Wein- suggest that schizophrenia is a ment; etiology; predisposition berger, 1987). Such models are sup- genetically influencedwww.numerons.in neuro- ported by reports of increased developmental disorder. Fam- intrauterine and perinatal complica- ily, twin, and adoption studies The past decade has seen a pro- tions among individuals with suggest that most cases of liferation of research findings in schizophrenia, as well as by demon- schizophrenia involve a genetic the field of schizophrenia, with strations that neurological, neuro- diathesis that is necessary but provocative developments in mo- psychological, and physical abnor- not sufficient for development lecular genetics, neurobiology, malities predate the onset of of the disorder. Histological, neuroimaging, neuropsychology, psychosis. Although this evidence neuroimaging, and neuropsy- and studies of high-risk individu- is far from conclusive, neurodevel- chological findings converge in als. Although the etiology of opmental models hold immense providing evidence for medial- schizophrenia remains enigmatic, promise as a heuristic for bridging temporal and frontal lobe dys- scientists are gaining ground in de- research in multiple domains and function that likely predates the veloping plausible models of vul- posing questions central to discov- onset of psychosis. Behavioral nerability to this disorder. In the ering the etiology of this disorder. phenomenology and neurobiol- past, most research findings have ogy suggest that dopamine provided insights into selected as- plays a crucial moderating role pects of the disorder without yield- between these structural abnor- ing a comprehensive theory that GENETIC AND malities and functional impair- has received broad-based ap- ENVIRONMENTAL ment. Recently, investigators proval. Recently emerging neuro- VULNERABILITY have used animal models and developmental models of schizo- clinical syndromes to integrate phrenia, however, are capable of Well-replicated findings from these findings into neurodevel- accommodating diverse findings family, twin, and adoption studies opmental models of schizophre- and are receiving widespread sup- indicate that there is a substantial nia that hold great potential for port among schizophrenia investi- genetic component to the predispo- yielding etiological insight. gators. sition for schizophrenia. The likeli-

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