ALCHEMY AND CHEMICAL INFORMATION IN PERSIAN AND SANSKRIT LITERATURE OF MEDIEVAL INDIA

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy IN HISTORY

BY AKHTAR HASSAN

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF DR. IQBAL SABIR

CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDY DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 2008 Dr. Iqbal SSaaaabirbirbirbir Sr. Lecturer

CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDY Department of History Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh-202002, U.P., India Phone: 0571-2703146 (O) Mobile: 09411488564

Dated : 25.11.2008

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. Akhtar Hassan has completed his

research work under my supervision. The thesis prepared by him on

“Alchemy and Chemical Information in Persian and Sanskrit Literature

of Medieval India” is his original research work and I consider it suitable

for submission for the award of the Degree of Ph.D. in History.

(Dr. Iqbal Sabir) Supervisor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of my research work and its subsequent submission in the present form would not have been possible without Almighty Allah’s grace. He created favorable situations out of nowhere and provided me with love and support of many wonderful people. Words are not enough to convey my gratitude for them. Nevertheless, it’s my duty to thank them.

Words cannot express the indebtedness I feel towards my supervisor Dr. Iqbal Sabir who selfless guidance has been most inspiring. The Chairman of my department Prof. B.L. Bhadani helped me in ways more than one, I am thankful to him.

At this moment I cannot forget Dr. I.G. Khan who trained me in History of Science. I owe a lot of the understanding of the subject to him. His wife Dr. Zulfiya Khan was forthcoming enough to share his valuable collection of research material and books. But for her kindness it would have been difficult to put together my ideas on certain topics.

Dr.Jilani, Mr. Syed Raza Imam and Mr. Alamgir rendered valuable help in explaining and translating Persian texts wherever deemed necessary. I thank all my teachers for my understanding of the discipline.

Professional assistance is a different matter and I would like to acknowledge the excellent services provided by the staff (Arshad, Bansidhar, Salman and Zubair) of Library, Department of History, A.M.U., the Maulana Azad Library, A.M.U. and INSA Library, Delhi.

God has bestowed me with a number of good friends. The help and encouragement extended by Dr. Abu Shariq and Shariq Raza have been ii

immense and is beyond expression. All of my friends and seniors helped me at various stages of my research. Being continuously motivated by Dr. Mohd. Khurshid Alam, Mr. Nasruddin Khan, Mr. Mohd. Arshad, Mr. Danish Mahan, Mr. Sharib Ali, Ms. Umama, Ms. Rasihda, Mr. Tauqeer, Miss Priya and Mr. Manav. I was impelled to accelerate the pace of my research. I cannot thank all of them enough. Special thanks are also due to Mr. Ankit Jain for providing the mode of transport.

It would have been impossible to complete my research without the support of my family particularly my parents (Mr. Syed Mubarak Nawab & Mrs. Umme Rabab) have always been sources of inspiration.

My brother Johnny stood besides me as a pillar of strength both morally and financially.

Last but not least I am thankful to my typist, Mr. H.K. Sharma for typing.

AKHTAR HASSAN

iii

ABBREVIATION

BORI Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona CUP Cambridge University Press I.C Islamic Culture IESHR The Indian Economic and Social History Review IHQ Indian Historical Quarterly IJHS Indian Journal of History of Science INSA Indian national Science Academy IOL Indian Office Library JASB Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal n.d. Not dated NISTADS National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies OUP Oxford University Press PHISPC Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture PIHC Proceeding of the Indian History Congress PLG A Catalogue of Sanskrit manuscript contained in the Private libraries of Gujarat, Kathiawad, Kacch, Sindh and Khandesh, completed under the superintendence of G. Buhler, Bombay, Fascicule-4, Government of Bombay, 1871-1873. VVRI A Catalogue of Manuscripts in the Vishvesvarananda Vedic Research Institute, compiled by Visvabandhu, Hoshiapur, 1959 CONTENTS

Page No.

Acknowledgement i-ii

Abbreviation iii

Introduction 1-11

Chapter 1 A Brief Survey of Literature 12-25

Chapter 2 Alchemy and Chemical Theories 26-59

Chapter 3 Chemical Processes and Apparatus 60-80

Chapter 4 Chemical Industries 81-131

Chapter 5 Metallurgy in Medieval India 132-166

Conclusion 167-180

Glossary 177-180

Appendices

Appendix-I 181-196

Appendix-II 197

Bibliography 198-210

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

History of science is the history of man’s efforts to understand the world around him. This he did by employing his powers of observation and logical deduction which gave rise to a whole system of empirical scholastic methodology. This remained the basic instrument of scientific investigation until society developed within itself economic, political, cultural and etiological forces conducive to the growth of a truly scientific approach.

India unlike many other great civilizations has had a long and fairly continuous tradition of science. Recorded history of its though is traceable as far back as 1500 BC, the date ascribed to the writing of the Vedas. 1 The empirical thought that the great Indian sages had developed over the centuries, reached a point of stagnation roughly by the end of the 12 th century A.D. 2

The rise and expansion of Islamic civilization form one of the greatest milestones in world history. In the course of the last fourteen centuries, Muslim philosophers and poets artists and scientists, rules and labours together created a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent. Perhaps the most striking features of medieval cultures has been the fundamental unity of their thought systems despite a vast diversity in their literature, religious and political traditions. As a matter of fact, all scientific traditions have originated and grown as a result of the natural human urge to

1 . Bose, Sen, Subbarayappa (eds.): A Concise History of Science in India , New Delhi (1972), pp,. 1-50. 2 . See the remarkably accurate observations of Al-Biruni, on Hindu Science in his Kitab-ul Hind tr. Sachau, E.C., S. Chand & Co. 1964, pp. 17-26. 2 fight biological limitations and to implicit through the use of intellect, the vast resources of nature.

Arabic science was the most advanced in the world from 8 th to the 14 th centuries. The Arab had access to the Greek Scientific heritage which was lost to the west after the fall of the Roman empire. The great works of Greece and other cultures were translated into Arabic. Along with this the Arabs borrowed the Hindu numeral system. Islamic sciences are related to the Quran, the traditions of the Prophets (Hadith), legal knowledge (fiqh), theology (kalma), poetry, and the Arabic language. The Quran introduced a new and vigorous language, Arabic, which was destined to become the international language of knowledge and culture and of sciences, in particular, for several centuries. The

Quran is a book of ilm , Allah has repeatedly commented in Quran to use Aql or intelligence and be sensible, reasonable and rational. So we find that ‘all

Muslims intellectual activity in its widest sense had its starting point in the

Quran, which gave birth to various sciences. The early Muslims extended their knowledge to profane sciences’ Islam of itself, did not offer any kind of opposition to scientific research except feeble efforts by some narrow minded theologians to check it. On the contrary, the Quran provided stimulus for scientific research since God was glorified by wonder of His creations.

The Muslim conquest of the North India plains set afoot the process of a massive inflow of scientific theories which had been developed in the

Hellenistic and later, in the Islamic civilizations. India began to attract leading 3 scholars of the Islamic world at a time when the latter was at the hight of its glory and could boast of illustrious scientists like Jabir ibn Hayyan, Ibn Sina,

Ibn Yunus, Ibn Rushad, Al-Battani, Al-Damiri, Al-Idrisi, Al-Masudi,

Nassiruddin Tusi and of course Al-Biruni whose original contribution in astronomy, trigonometry, mineralogy, meansuration etc. as well as his role as transmitted and synthesizer of Indo-Muslim scientific learning cannot be over- emphasized. 3

The exodus of leading scholars and a “persianization process was continued until the hey day of the great Mughal whose patronage promised fame and fortune. Further during the course of the four centuries preceding the establishment of the Mughal Epire in 1526 AD there had come into being an entire class of intellectuals who could claim to be of Indian origin through centuries of domicile and interbreeding. They continued to master mainly the

‘Graeco-Muslim sciences. 4 While the native Indian genius nurtured in the vedic and classical tradition, retained its distinct identity. Both these traditions continued to flourish in co-existence with their respective linguistic parameters.

The complete synthesis never took place between these two (Hindu and

Muslim) thought systems due to a radical difference in the demands placed on such basic sciences as astronomy, alchemy and medicine or was it primarily

3 . S. Maqbul Ahmad, “Al Biruni as Transmitter and Synthesizer of Scientific Knowledge”, IJHS , X(2), pp. 244-8. 4 . It would prefer to use this term as opposed to “Graeco-Arab” because the latter does not take into account the contribution of the Persian and the central Asians, The Ottomans etc. For a list of such scholars see Abdul Qadir Badauni Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh (ed.) III Also see Ain , (ed.) vol. II Blochmann ( Ain 30) 4 due to the diversity in cultural and religious institutions 5 or even to any other factor, are questions which await extensive investigation. 6 However attempts to understand each other were not wanting. Muslim scholars both independently as well as under royal instruction tried to discover the unity of sciences.

With the consolidation of Muhammadan power in India a new pattern was woven slowly but surely in the educational fabric of India. Medieval

Indian rulers have taken much interest to establish madrasah and imparting education through it which was on the pattern of central Asia and Iran in the eleventh century. The Pre-Akbari syllabi dealt largely with religious studies the elements of the Quran, the Hadith, logic argumentation, Mathematics,

Geometry, Persian prose and poetry as well as the Arabicized version of Greek philosophy or falsafa etc.

Firoz Shah Tughluq for this purpose took much interest to built a large

Madrasah at Delhi whose splendid building still stands. Ziya Barani’s description “it would seem that teaching here was mainly confined to Quran, commentary, the Prophet’s saying and Muslim law ( fiqh )”. 7 But the Sirat-i-

Firoz Shahi gives the following list of subjects which were taught at the Firozi

Madrasah. 8

5 . According to Nasr, “neither in Islam, nor India nor the Far East, was the substance of nature so depleted of a Sacramental and spiritual character, nor was the intellectual dimension of these traditions so enfeebled, as to enable a purely secular science of Nature to develops outside the matrix of traditional intellectual orthodoxy”. See S.H. Nasr, The Encounter of man and Nature: The Spiritual Crisis of Modern Man , London 91968), p. 47. 6 . See Jurssitro: “Encounter of cultures in the work of Al-Biruni”, Studies in the History of Medicine, vol. III, No. 3, pp. 161-172. 7 . Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, Ziya Barani, ed. Sayyid Ahmad Khan et al. Calcutta 1862 (reprint with index Aligarh, 2005), p. 564. 8 . Sirat-i Firoz Shahi , Anonymous (Fasamile edition) Khuda Bakhsh Library, Patna, 1999, p. 142. 5

1. Fiqh (Jurisprudence)

2. Qirat (method of recitation of the Quran)

3. Usul-i Kalam (Principles of scholasticism)

4. Usul-i Fiqh (Principles of Jurisprudence)

5. Tafsir (Exegesis)

6. Ahadis (Traditions of the Prophet)

7. Maani-o-Bayan (Rhetoric)

8. Nahv-o-sarf (syntax)

9. Ilm-i Nazar (Science of observation)

10. Ilm-i Riyaazi (Mathematics)

11. Tabi’i (Physical Sciences)

12. Illahi (Theology)

13. Ilm-i Tibb (Medicine)

14. Tahrir-o Khatt (Calligraph)

In the above syllabus other than the religious subjects even rational subjects are included but there is no mention of ‘kimiya’ in this list. Firoz

Tughluq had great interest to collect books on different fields and for this purpose he deposited a large number of books on astronomy and establishes in the Royal Library ( Kitab Khana-i Khas ) desired that these be made available to all those who wished to make use of them. 9

9 . Ibid., p. 320. 6

The Mughals maintained and extended the educational activities of the

Sultanate periods. Humayun was a bibliophile with a special interest in sciences. He encouraged the study of Mathematics, Astronomy and Geography and constructed observatories ( rasad khanahs ). A great change came upon the syllabus of the medieval institutions. When Akbar declared “No one should be allowed to neglect those things which the present time requires”. He also ordered the inclusion of subjects such as the elements of agriculture, geography, astronomy, medicine, logic, natural philosophy ( tabaiyyat ), the religious sciences and the Vedanta as well as patanjali. 10

The establishment of Madrasah and the promotion of scientific education gave the impetus to translation of Sanskrit sources into Persian and spread the knowledge among the Muslim masses also. The earliest translations of a Sanskrit work into Persian in India was that of Varahamihira’s work entitled “ Tarjuma-e-Barah ” (cir 1330 A.D.). Its translator, Shams Siraj Afif was the court historian of Firoz Shah Tughluq. It was also during Firoz shah’s reign that a Sanskrit treatise entitled yantraraj was written on the astrolable. 11

Acceptance of this work by the Hindu astronomers at Firoz Shah’s court also implied the tacit acceptance of the (Muslim) trigonometry and astronomy associated with the astrolable. 12

10 . Ain-i-Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, vol. I, p. 289. 11 . For details see Pingree, David; Islamic Astronomy in Sanskrit, Journal for the History of Arabic Science, Allepo, vol. II, No. 2, pp. 315-330. 12 . Ibid. 7

A comparative study of Unani and vedic medicinal thought was also made by Bahuwa bin Khawas Khan, a minister of Sikandar Lodi, the Madanish shifa’i Sikandarashahi , is a scholarly attempt at synthesizing the two systems of medicine. Firoz Shah Tughluq, a prominent name among the sultans take also interest in medicine, the Tibb-i Firoz Shahi , prepared under his personal supervision. 13 He also establish hospital ( daru’sh shifa ) where “the common people” were treated. Faizi, Abul Fazl’s elder brother, translated Bhaskar’s

Lilavati the famous Indian text book on mathematics, into Persian at Akbar’s court. The book became very popular and was introduced into the syllabi of the

Madrasahs. It is in this search for areas of interaction between Graeco-Muslim and Hindu sciences that of Ain-i Akbari of Abul Fazl (completed in 1598 A.D.) must be seen as a work of immense importance. Equally important in this synthesis apparently continued well with the period of early colonialism, were the works of Hakim Sharif Khan (1725-1806) who carried out extensive research on Indian pharmacology.

In technology, medieval period was much advanced. Persian sources and painting of this period gives the vivid information regarding the technology and crafts. Babur records assiduously, the details about the craft traditions in India, the fruit, the cereals, the animals, the irrigation devices (Persian wheel) and anything else, which caught his ‘foreign eye’. He also records the event when his gun-caster Ustad Quli unable to cast a large cannon barrel in one casting,

13 . Sirat-i Firoz Shahi , op.cit., p. 351. 8 and how Babur had to prevent the master craftsman from committing suicide 14 ;

So strong was the sense of failure. This incident shows that how much technology was attached with the sentiment. Akbar, who is well known taking much interest in the science and technology, he always visit to Karkhanas. He took personal care and interest in testing and grading all handguns. In matters of civil engineering one merely has to look at the entire capital that he constructed at Fatehpur Sikri and the machines that were devised for ensuring the supply of water to the uppermost stages of his palaces, as well as to his gardens in Agra. 15

Jahangir took great interest in veterinary sciences natural history as well as in astronomy. 16 Shah Jahan’s interests were focused on architecture and this has been immortalized by the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid in new Delhi. And these were just the prominent few examples we find that astronomy, mathematics, medicine, irrigation technology and architecture were advanced and also have written on these subjects. But not much have been focused on alchemy and chemistry. Some prominent writers like, Irfan Habib,

I.G. Khan, A. Rahman, P.C. Ray, Vijaya Jayant Deshpande, D.P.

Chattopadhyaya and Mira Roy have written on chemistry of medieval time but these writers have not utilized both (Sanskrit and Persian text) sources of this period.

14 . Khan, I.G., Technical Literature and the Mughal Elites, c. 1500-1700 , U.P. History Congress, 9th Session (1996), p. 3. 15 . Irfan Habib, “Akbar and Technology”, Social Scientist, Vol. 20, Nos. 9-10, Sep.-Oct. 1992. 16 . For details see, Alvi, M.A. and Rahman, Jahangir the Naturalist , New Delhi, INSA, 1972. 9

Of these Irfan Habib, I.G. Khan, A. Rahman have based their work on

Persian sources, whereas Vijaya Jayant Deshpande, D.P. Chottopadhyaya and

Mira Roy have consulted and made use of Sanskrit sources for their work. But the present thesis entitled “Alchemy and Chemical Information in Persian and

Sanskrit source of Medieval India” has attempted to refer to both Persian and

Sanskrit sources of the medieval period.

There is a large body of primary sources on the subject which is available in both the languages. The period of the study will range from eleventh to early eighteenth century. Considering this, only selected topics have been taken into account, the discussion of which is given below. The object is to delve deeper into the available sources and cut out details. This will bring out the exact status of and the changes in Alchemy and Chemistry during the period.

Considering, the nature of the study and its wide scope, the study comments in the following manner :

In the first chapter the subject is to focus on a brief survey of the existing literature in both of the languages. Rahman and Alvi’s “Science and

Technology in Medieval India – A Bibliography of Source Materials in

Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian” is a work which provides information on and location of the existing sources. Besides, there are numerous manuscripts which are available throughout the country in private collection and libraries. 10

In the second chapter “Alchemy and Chemical Theories” special emphasis has been given on the origin in China, Arabic and India, aims of alchemy, and how alchemy turns into chemistry. Different theories on matters and classification of Minerals have been discussed. Equally important is the application of Metals in various preparation for medicinal purposes. A comparison of the information in both the languages gives the clear picture of the condition and changes in this period.

The third chapter is named “Chemical Processes and Apparatus”. The chemical process plays a very crucial role in the formation of chemical compounds. Different civilizations like Chinese, Arab, Greek mention various chemical processes and their application along with the apparatus used for it, likewise the medieval Indian scientists also have discussed several chemical processes. The Persian and Sanskrit sources of the medieval period give considerable information about these processes. This chapter has been attempts to discuss and display through diagrams.

The next chapter is “Chemical Industries”. This chapter assumes a different meaning in cosmetics and perfumery, paper technology, ink, acid, alkalis, and poisons. The methods, techniques, types and the changes during the period are important issues in this regard. Gunpowder and pyrotechnics is also an important issue related to the present chapter. The information regarding the procurement of Saltpeter, the preparation of the gunpowder mixture and other application is easily available and vividly explained in the existing literature. 11

The last chapter is “Metallurgy” which occupies an important place in this thesis. The important Sanskrit and Persian texts of this period give valuable information on the various processes, techniques, purification, alloy and the important changes of the period. This type of information includes the use of ferrous, non-ferrous as well as precious metals.

Conclusively, the present study tries to bring out information on the above mentioned areas to form a clear picture of the Alchemical and chemical sciences in the period under review. It is expected that this study will help future researches by shedding light on most of the existing literature and highlight the peculiar feature of each work simultaneously. It is further hoped that the thesis will help in generating new interest on scientific issues in

Medieval India, the importance of which was advocated by Pt. Jawaharlal

Nehru in his Discovery of India.

Chapter – 1

A BIREF SURVEY OF LITERATURE

(A) SANSKRIT SOURCES

(B) PERSIAN SOURCES

Chapter – I

A BRIEF SURVEY OF LITERATURE

A number of Sanskrit and Persian works were written in India during the medieval period on Alchemy and Chemical Sciences 1 which contain information on their various aspects like metallurgy, iatrochemistry, perfume- making, transmutation, pyrotechnics, etc. Most of these texts, compiled during the period, still exist in different libraries, academic institutions and private collections in the country and abroad.

(A) SANSKRIT SOURCES:

Many Sanskrit texts of the medieval period deal with the evolutionary trends in Dravyakarma or Alchemy. Some of them supply only partial information on alchemy while others completely deal with chemistry and its branches.2 A brief account of the Sanskrit sources during the period is given below:

Nagarjuna’s Rasaratnakara is the earliest available alchemical text in

Sanskrit. 3 The author also wrote some other texts like Arogyamanjari ,

Kaksaputa Tantra , Yogasara and Yogasataka .4 The Rasaratnakara is basically

1. While the important Sanskrit texts on the subject were written between ninth and eighteenth centuries, the most of the Persian texts were compiled during the Sultanat and Mughal Period. 2. The texts having partial alchemical ideas include Tantric texts like Rasarnavakalpa , Rasakalpa and Matrkabhedatantra . 3. It is believed that this text was a part of a larger text, Rasendramangala by Nagarjuna. 4. P. Ray, History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India: Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry , Calcutta, 1956, p.116. Also see Vijaya Jayant Deshpande, “History of Chemistry and 13 a tantric text of the Mahayanist tradition and is relatively smaller than the later texts on the subject. 5 An interesting feature of this text is that some chemical processes are described in dialogue form between Nagarjuna and others.

Another important text of the period is the Rasarnava . An anonymous tantric text of Saiva Cult, it is ascribed to the twelfth century AD 6 and is quoted in Rasesvara darsana of Sarvadarsanasangraha by Madahavacharya (14 th

Century AD). 7 A relatively systematic text, Rasarnva, is divided into eighteen chapters written in versified form 8. It gives details about mercury and its purificatory processes, various apparatuses, purification of metals and minerals, and a number of alchemical processes. The last three chapters exclusively deal with transmutation of metals and physiological alchemy or elixir-making. 9

The Rasarnavakalpa is an anonymous tantra text of 11 th century AD. 10

Written in versified form, it comprises 814 verses and is supposed to be a part of another tantra text Rudrayamala . Its manuscript was first noticed by Pandit

Haraprasad Shastri who acknowledged among its contents the ‘alchemical

Alchemy in India from Pre-historic to Pre-modern Times”, in A.Rahman (ed.), History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture AD 1000-1800, OUP,New Delhi,1999,p.157. 5. The identity of the author is a subject of controversy as some believe that he is the same Nagarjuna who founded the Madhyamaka School of philosophy. See in P. Ray, op.cit., pp. 116- 117. 6. Ibid., p.119. 7. M.A. Alvi and A. Rahman, Science and Technology in Medieval India – A Bibliography of Source Materials in Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian , INSA,New Delhi, 1982. p.456. 8. Rasarnava was the first full and exhaustive text on Indian Alchemy. 9. Vijaya Jayant Deshpande , “History of Chemistry and Alchemy in India from Pre-historic to Pre-modern Times” , in A.Rahman (ed.), History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture AD 1000-1800 , OUP, New Delhi, 1999,p.159. 10. As the vss.78-207 of the text occurs in Rasarnava its translators have dated it to 11th century. See Rasarnavakalpa : (Ed.) Mira Roy and B.V. Subbarayappa, INSA, New Delhi, 1976.p.2. 14 recipes and mercurial preparations’. 11 It has details about transmutation of base metals into gold and silver. Few methods of elixir –synthesis have also been discussed. It also describes the use of herbs and their extracts in the treatment of minerals and metals for internal use. 12

Lohapaddhati or Lohasarvasva by Suresvara is a text of eleventh century. 13 It deals with the processing of iron, gold, mica, copper, etc. and their

medicinal uses in poetic form. 14 Another eleventh century text is the

Rasopanisad 15 which is considered to be one of the largest Sanskrit treatises on alchemy. It contains 18 chapters consisting of 2,500 verses. It primarily deals with the transmutation of metals and alchemical experimentation. All of the chapters are devoted to gold and silver making processes. There is a great deal of information on the use of plants and their products in alchemy. The author of the text employed a variety of crucibles in the alchemical and chemical operations. 16

Matrakabhedatantram ,17 an eleventh or twelfth century AD tantrik text, contains alchemical ideas relating to transmutation processes, preparation as

11. Shastri, Haraprasad, Catalogue of Mss, on Tantra, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, p.67. No. G8375. 12. Rasarnavakalpa : (Ed.) Mira Roy and B.V. Subbarayappa, INSA, New Delhi, 1976.p.6. 13. Suresvara was a court physician to kind Bhimapala of Padi. Cf. M.A. Alvi and A. Rahman, Science and Technology in Medieval India – A Bibliography of Source Materials in Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian , INSA, New Delhi, 1982. p.461. 14. He is also the author of Sabdapradipa , which is a dictionary and Vrksayurveda which was probably known to Sarngdharapaddhati , a work of the 14th century. 15. Sambasivasastri, K. (ed.), Rasopanisad , printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Printing Press, Trivandrum, 1928, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series No. XCII. Cf. Vijaya Deshpande, “Vangastambhanasodhanam: A Chapter on Metallurgy of Tin in Sanskrit Alchemical text Rasopanishad”. 16. The text contains a separate chapter devoted to gold and silver making processes. There is a great deal of information about metallurgy which will be dealt later. 17. See Matrkabhedatantram , edited by Cintamani Bhattacarya, Calcutta Sanskrit Series, Calcutta, 1933 15 well as powers of mercurial compounds and the rasalinga 18 . It contains 573

verses divided into fourteen chapters. It is in dialogue form between Shankara

and Chandika. This text talks about the use of shambala in the conversion of

copper into silver, process of converting mercury into bhasma . Another text,

the Rasahrdayatantram 19 of Govinda Bhagavatpada 20 (c.11 th century A.D.),

consisting of nearly 600 verses, also deals with the processing, essences and

use of mercury, mica, copper, alkalies, sulphur, salts gold, silver and

transmutation of metals. Similarly, Somadeva’s Rasendrachudamani , primarily

based on the then chemical treatises, is probably a 12 th or 13 th century AD text. 21 The Rasaprakasa-sudhakara, written by Yasodhara, is an important 13 th century text which has a great deal of information on the metallurgy of zinc. 22

Rasaratnakara 23 of Nityanatha Siddha 24 supplies information about alchemical processes, mercurial and other chemical preparations, apparatus and medical

18. The concept of rasalinga clearly implies the male-female symbolism associated with mercury and sulphur. Rasalinga in this text is dealt in the eighth chapter.

19 . Rasahrdayatantram of Govinda Bhagavatpada, edited by B.V. Subbarayappa, M.M. Sastry, B.S.Rao and S.R.N.Murthy, in IJHS, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, Vol.32 , 1997,No.1-2. 20. The author gives details about his personal life at the end of the text. He seeks blessings form Tathagata in the end and this shows that he was a Buddhist. He names Madanaratha, the king of Kirata (area adjoining modern Bhutan) as his mentor. The latter himself was an expert on mercury. Cf.P.Ray, op.cit,pp.148-49 21. See Rasendrachudamani by Somadeva, edited by Yadav Sarman, Motilal Banarasidas, Lahore, 1932. 22. See Rasaprakasa-sudhakara by Yasodhara, edited by Jadav Trikunji Acharya, Ayurvediya GranamalaNo.2, Mumbai, 1911. 23. See P. Ray, (Ed.) History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Indian Chemical Society, Calcutta, 1956. p.159. 24. Son of Sankhagupta and Parvati and author of works like Indrajala, Kamaraatna, Tantra Kosa, Rasaratnakara, Siddhakanda, Bandhayavali and Siddhasiadhanta paddhati . See M.A. Alvi and A. Rahman, Science and Technology in Medieval India – A Bibliography of Source Materials in Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian , INSA,New Delhi, 1982.p.451. 16 use of the metallic preparations. Govindacharya’s Rasasara 25 also is an important 13 th century treatise containing the details about the 18 operations on mercury. Interestingly, the author mentions opium or aphiphena which he believes is derived from poisonous ‘sea-fishes’ or snakes. 26

The Rasa Ratna Samuccaya is a very popular Sanskrit text of medieval period on Indian alchemy and pharmaceutics. It also deals with many important concepts relating to alchemy, metallurgy, pharamceutics and therapeutics.

Many details regarding metallic transformation ( Lohavedha ) and the transformations of body tissues ( Dehavedha ) are also described in this text. The methods for using metals/minerals internally for maintaining health, and preventing and curing diseases are further mentioned in this work. Apart from the above, the following most essential pharmaceutical processes considered necessary for the conversion of drug materials into dosage form are discussed:

(i) purification ( Sodhana ), (ii) incineration ( Marana ), (iii) metallic extraction

(Satvapatana ), and (iv) liquefaction ( Druti ). In addition, an well equipped pharmaceutical laboratory ( Rasa sald ) along with its employees, working divisions, apparatuses, heating devices and fuel materials is described in the text. It is a very valuable and authentic text compiled by Sri Vagbhata approximately either in the later part of the 13 th or early part of the 14 th century

A.D.27 Likewise, the Sarangadhara-samgraha 28 is also an important

25. Rasasara, (ed.)Jadavji Trikumji Acharya, Ayurvediya Granthamala No.2, Mumbai,1912. 26. P. Ray, op.cit. p.160. 27. See Rasa Ratna Samuccaya, ed. By Dr. Damodar Joshi, IJHS, Vol. 11, INSA, New Delhi, 1989, p.13 28. The author dates his work in Samvat 1420 or A.D. 1363. 17 compilation by Sarangadhara. Strikingly, this work is based on both Ayurvedic and Tantrik chemical treatises. While discussing the purification and incineration of metals the author surprisingly does not mention zinc. However, nine metals and two alloys viz. brass and bell metal (a mixture of Copper and tin) are found mentioned 29 at the end of the text.

Rasendrasarasamgraha 30 by Gopalakrishna, is a compilation based upon many tantric texts. It specially deals with the therapeutic efficacy of mineral preparations. 31 The Dhaturatnamala of Devadatta, (14 th century) is another noteworthy work devoted to the processes of killing metals and minerals. The metals are named as gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and iron.

Strangely, kharpara or calamine is taken as synonymous with jasada or zinc. 32

Similarly, Anandabharati’s 33 Anandamala 34 explains the processes for purifying mercury. It also gives information on mercurial compounds and diagrams of eight types of apparatus. His another work, Yogasastra or

Yogamala , divided into 14 chapters, is a compilation from different medical works and has information on purification of metals. 35 The Rasasanketakalika 36 by Cuda Camunda 37 is a 15 th century text comprising 357 stanzas. It deals with

29. Cf. P.Ray,op.cit., p.160 30. Rasendrasarasamgraha by Gopalakrishna (ed.) by Upendranath Sen Gupta, Dhavantari Press, Calcutta, 1912. 31. Cf. P.Ray, op.cit. p.161. 32. Dhaturatnamala of Devadatta: PLG Ms. No.60. See also,P.Ray, op.cit. p.161. 33. The author is also known as Ananda Siddha .His probable period may be 1503-1600 A.D. See, Alvi and Rahman, op.cit, p.435. 34. Alvi and Rahman, op.cit, p.436. 35. Ibid., p.436. 36. Rasasanketa-kalika of Camunda (ed.) by Jadavji Tricumji Acarya, Ayurvediya Granthamala , 6, Bombay, 1912. 37. The author seems to be a contemporary of King Rajamalla(1474-1509) of Mewad .His other works include Varnanighantu and Jvaratimtrabhaskara. See Alvi and Rahman, op.cit, p.438. 18

the medicinal preparations of mercury and metals like copper, iron and gold.

The Rasapaddhati 38 by Bindu Pandita is concerned with the preparation of

Rasakarpura or calomel.

Moreover, Another important Sanskrit text of the medieval period on

Alchemy and chemical sciences is the Rasapradipa 39 which provides us a detailed process on the preparation of mineral aids by distillation. Similarly, the

Rasakaumudi 40 of Jnanacandra Sarman belongs to the same period and both opium and mineral acids are prescribed in it.

There is yet another Sanskrit text, the Akasabhairav-Kalpa 41 which gives valuable information on fireworks in the fifteenth-sixteenth century. In the like matter, the Kautukacintamani 42 , by Gajapati Prataparudradeva 43 of

Orissa, is an important text containing valuable information on the manufacture of a special type of fireworks. There are various formulae prescribed for their preparation. The work also gives a list of ingredients of pyrotechnic mixtures.44

Sukraniti or the ‘Elements of Polity’ of Sukracharya is an important sixteenth century text which provides various gunpowder recipes. 45 Ray considered it to

38. Rasapaddhati of Bindu Pandita : with commentary of Madhava Pandita, (Ed.) Jadavji Tricumji Acharya, Ayurvediya Granthamala, Nos. 14 and 15, Mumbai, 1915. 39. Rasapradipa of Ramchandra (with the commentary of Prananath): Banaras Ms.No.111. 40. Rasakaumudi of Jnanacandra Sarman: (Ed) S.S. Pranacarya, Bombay Sanskrit Press, Lahore, 662 Lahore, 1923. 41. Akasabhairava-Kalpa, Patala 62, vide. Akasabhairava-Kalpa , an unknown source of the history of Vijayanagara by P.K.Gode, Studies in Indian Literary History , Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,Poona. Vol.II, 1954, p.133. 42. Found by P.K.Gode this text is available at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. Cf. P.K.Gode, “The History of Fireworks in India”, in Studies in Indian Cultural History , Vol.II, pp.31-56. 43. The author is famous for his works on dharmasastra like Sarasvativilasa , the author is supposed to have lived in the period (A.D. 1497-1539). 44. P.K.Gode, “The History of Fireworks in India”, in Studies in Indian Cultural History , Vol.II, pp.43-44. 45. Sukraniti of Sukracharya tr. into English by B.K. Sarkar, Sacred Books of the Hindus , No.13, Allahabad, 1914. 19

be a patch work with the addition of portions about gun powder after its introduction in India by Babur. 46

The next important work, Bhavaprakasa of Bhavamisra, is a compilation based on earlier texts like Rasapradipa , Rasendrachintamani and

Sarangadhara . 47 The treatment of phirangaroga (syphilis) with rasakarpura

(calomel ) and Chobchini (China root, Smilax china ) is also discussed therein.

Dhatukriya 48 of Rudrayamalatantra is in dialogue form and belongs to 16 th century. Notably the use of Dahajala (Burning water) for sulphuric acid is witnessed for the first time in it.49

(B) PERSIAN SOURCES

Al-Biruni’s Kitab al Jamahir fi Ma‘rifat al-Jawahir (in Arabic) is an eleventh century text which comprehensively deals with mineralogy and metallurgy. Many scholars of India and Iran have based their treatises on his work and his theories. Notable texts among them are Arais-ul Jawahir of Abul

Qasim Kashani 50 and the sixteenth century texts namely, Mohammad Fazil

Samarqandi’s Jawahar-ul Ulum-i Humayuni , Muhammad Ashraf bin Asad

Istamrari’s 51 Jawaharnama-i Humayuni and Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari. Except

46. P.Ray, op.cit. p.225. 47. The author is supposed to have lived in the time of Emperor Akbar. See,P.Ray,op.cit,p.163. 48. Dhatukriya of the Rudrayamalatanra (MS.) (vide History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India , by P.Ray, pp.276-77) 49. P.Ray, op.cit, p.163. 50. A fourteenth century Persian text. Cf. I.G.Khan, “Some aspects of Chemical technology during Akbar’s reign- A Historical and Scientific evaluation”, Proceedings of Indian History Congress , Hyderabad, 1978. 51. This work describes the use of amalgamation as a method of detecting real gold from the artificial gold made by the alchemists. Cf.I.G.Khan, op.cit, p.216. 20 for the latter text the earlier three texts show almost identical purification techniques. 52

Haft- Ahbab 53 by Qazi Hamiduddin Nagauri 54 is a treatise on Alchemy.

The narrative in the preface shows that the work was written by seven friends including Shaikh Hamiduddin. 55 The text is divided into seven chapters

(abwala, i.e. the plural of bak). Each of these chapters was written by each of these seven friends. Every chapter is further divided into four parts or fasls.

There is a description of gold (tila ), silver ( nuqra ), iron ( ahan ), zinc (jast ), lead ( sisa ) and mercury (simaab) in the text.

Maqalidu`l-kumiz 56 written by Ahmad bin Arsalan is a treatise on chemistry and alchemy. Divided into twelve babs the text deals with names of different metals 57 , methods of their sublimation, preparation of their simple and compound solutions, melting and liquefaction and preparation of their extracts.

Shapes of various furnaces have been discussed in the text. Also, shapes and methods of making of crucibles and seals have been discussed. The text also comprises of chapters on poison testing, gold testing, and preparation of artificial silver and artificial gold 58 .

52. Ibid,p.226. 53. Haft-Ahbab, Ms. No. 77 CAS, Department of History, AMU, Aligarh. 54. A Qazi by profession he died in 1295 and was buried close to the tomb of Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki. 55. The names of the friends are Nagauri, Kiyan Nath Jogi alias Saadat Mand,Shaikh Sulaiman Mandavi, Mir Sayyid Hashim Bukhari, Miran Syed Tabib Awadhi, Shakih Nasiruddin Tartuni and Maulana Sadiq Muhammad Multani. See Haft Ahbab ,.p.2. 56. Alvi and Rahman, Biblio, pp.434-35. 57. Gold, silver, copper, iron, steel, tin, lead, quicksilver, brass etc. 58. Shams and Qamar are the words used in the text for gold and silver respectively. See, Alvi and Rehman, Biblio.. p.434. 21

Adabu’l Harb wa`sh Shuja`at , written in 1229 by Fakhre Mudabbir, is a war and diplomacy manual for Iltutmish. The text lists some items as gifts to other monarchs like swords, utensils, daggers, shield, double pointed spears, arrows, bows, armors (such as coats of mail, doublets helmet shin and arm covers, cauldrons) as well as the usual items of luxury such as gems, silks, carpets, perfumes, drugs and ornaments. 59

Jami-ul Tawarikh by Rashidaldin Fadlullah contains references about various metallic articles sent by Sultan Allauddin Khalji to the Ilkhanid vazir c.1300 A.D. Another fourteenth century text of relevance is Tarikh-i Firishta , by Muhammad Qasim Firishta. 60 The text provides valuable information on gunpowder devices and their procurement. The author cites the information from Tuhfatu’s. Salatin by Mullah Daud Bidari but unfortunately the latter text does not exist.61

Baburnama or the Memoirs of Babur is yet another source of importance as it gives details about Cannon making and the techniques involved. 62 Jawahar ul ulum-i Humayuni by Mohammad Faddil bin Ali bin

Mohammad al Miskini al Samarquandi 63 , is an encyclopedia which provides information about twenty seven types of minerals, corals, glass and stones. It

59. Adabu’l Harb wa’sh shuja’at (ed.) By A.S.Khwansari, Eqbal pubs. Tehran (1346 A.H.) pp. 147-8. 60. Tarikh-i Firishta , Naval Kishore, Kanpur, 1884, vol. I, p. 290. 61. Cf. Khan, I.A., Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India , OUP, New Delhi, 2004, p.204 62. Baburnama, (tr.) by Beveridge, A.S. Delhi, 1970, pp. 536-37. 63. The literal meaning of the title of the text is pearl of sciences. The text was written during 1530- 58. 22 gives details for their recognition and medicinal properties and includes brief information about optics and alchemy. 64

The Ain-i Akbari is the third part of the Akbarnama , the official history of Akbar’s reign. Its first two volumes are devoted to purely historical facts which are arranged in chronological order. The Ain was intended to be a record of such multifarious aspects of Mughal court-life as civil and military administration, palace management, regulation of the calendar, and other such interesting details.

Abul Fazl was not a scientist but he definitely was a rationalist. 65 Born

(1551 A.D.) in a family of religious scholars ( Ulema ) he was educated in accordance with the syllabi prescribed in the Muslim madrasahs .66 Later he received further instructions in the Graeco-Muslim Sciences and soon distinguished himself as a versatile scholar.

Abul Fazl’s style is imbued with a verse characteristic of an unfathomable curiosity to know and to understand all phenomena. Like a philosopher he has a propensity to link factual statements with theoretical reasoning. Thus, while writing about calligraphy, he digresses into a discussion on the phonetics of the Arabic alphabet and further still, into the propagation of sound. Similarly while discussing mathematical geography he goes into a long

64. Jawahar ul ulum Humayuni, Ms. No. 87, Farsi Ulum, Maulana Azad Library, A.M.U.,Aligarh. 65 . For details on ‘science’ and ‘rationalism’, see Habib, Irfan: Science and Reason in Medical India”, Proc. Of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, 1982. 66 . The syllabi seem to have remained unchanged from the time of Nasiruddin Tusi (cir. 1290 A.D.). Compared Abul Fazl’s description of the education system ( Ain (N.K.) I, and Nasiruddin Tusi’s classification of the sciences in his Akhlaq-i-Nasiri . See article on the subject by Stephenson in ISIS , V, pp. 334-5. 23 explanation of the ratios and proportions and relevant Euclidean theorems. 67 In alchemy he appears more inclined to distinguish the practically useful from the merely superstitious. Elsewhere he adopts an attitude of indifference while reporting the demonology and other superstitions of the Indian people. 68

It was perhaps these abolition which qualified him for the assignment of writing the official history of Akbar’s reign. This assignment provided him with an opportunity to display his vast knowledge and versatility which was considered in medieval society to be the hall mark of a great scholars. To seek any original contribution to scientific theory in his ‘discourses’ or to look for creative potential expected of a scientist in his writings would therefore be futile. Yet, the scientific information found in the Ain is not merely a passive reproduction of the existing knowledge, on the contrary it is replete with evidences of the author’s critical faculty.

An idea of the chemical science and chemical technology discussed (and their classification) by Abul Fazl can be formed from the following table :

Broad category of the Specific nature of the Chapter/Classification as subject Information per the Ain 69

Chemical Technology On the purification On the Imperial Mint assaying, alloying and (Ain 4) minting of bullion

67 . Ain-i-Akbari, (ed.) Naval Kishore I, p. 127. 68 . e.g. his description of the liver-eater ( jigarkhor ) in which a sense of cynicism is more than evident. Ain . (translation) vol. II, pp. 338-340. Abdul Fazl also gives reasonable explanations for ‘supernatural’ phenomena such as the water turning to milk which he correctly attributes to the dissolution of upstream calcium deposits. Ain (tr. Jarret) II, p. 196. 69 . The following are titles as they appear in Blochmm’s translation of the Ain , R.A.S., Calcutta (reprint) 1965, Vol. I. 24

Chemical Technology On the preparation of On perfumes and perfumes, soaps, etc. flowers ( Ain 30)

Chemistry On the classification of On the Birth of Metals minerals (Ain 13)

Military technology Description of some On Guns- and on hand-guns and cannons cannons ( Ain 36, 37)

Mechanicals Describes the device On the manner of used for cleaning 16 cleaning guns ( Ain 38) guns at one time, the mobile floor mill, etc.

Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri or ‘Memoirs of Jahangir’ contains information about otter of roses, meteoric stones and precious stones. 70 Majma’atu’s-Sana’i by

Mir Yahya (c.1624) is divided into forty-three chapters. It particularly lays emphasis on the formulae of various chemical arts and crafts. The text deals with the art of making artificial pearls and precious stones, sword making, preparation of dyes, seven methods of processing cinnabar and various ways of coloring paper, oxides of various metals, making of various alloys, etc. 71

Bayaz-i Khushbui, an anonymous work on household management was transcribed in 1697-98. But Irfan Habib assigns the work to the first two decades of Shahjahan’s reign on internal evidence. 72 Divided into seventeen

Bab, the text deals with medicinal aids, perfumes, essences, salves, beverages, fire-works etc. 73

70. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri , (ed.) Syed Ahmad Khan, Aligarh, 1864 also see in (tr.) Alexander Rogers and Henry Beveridge, London, 1909. 71. Majma’atu’s Sanai ,IO PMC,1/1501; 2781.See, Rahman and Alvi, Biblio , p.448 72. See Irfan Habib, Agrarian System of Mughal India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1963, p. 448. 73. Bayaz-i-Khushbui , I.O. 828, Rotograph no. 194, Department of History, A.M.U.,Aligarh. 25

Itriyat-i Nauras-i Shahi 74 by Nizamu’ddin Mahmud Tarsan is an important treatise on the preparation of perfumes and scents .Divided into nine maqalas and eighteen fasls, it enumerates various animal and vegetable perfumes. Abdul-Karim’s Khulasah-i Mufidul-Insan is an encyclopedic work on medicine and chemical technology ( 17 th or 18 th century).It comprises 15 babs and contains information on preparation of various salts, perfumes, elixir, oxides of metals, polishing of swords, pyrotechnics etc. 75

An attempt has been made in the preceding pages to study and present a brief survey of literature in both Sanskrit and Persian, comprising information on Alchemy and chemistry. Several Sanskrit texts of medieval period deal with the evolutionary trends in Dravyakama or Alchemy. Amongst the texts authored by Nagarjuna Rasaratnakara in the earliest alchemical text in Sanskrit.

Rasarnava, Rasarnavakalpa are tantra texts containing information on alchemical processes. The other Sanskrit texts consisting alchemical ideas are the lohapaddhati, Matrakbhedaktantram , Rasa Ratna Samuccaya, Rasapradipa, etc. Amongst the Persian sources Haft Ahbab, Adabu’l Harb wa’sh Shuja’at,

Jami-ul Tawarikh are sources of the sultanate period containing relevant information on alchemy and chemistry. The Baburnama, Ain-i Akbari , Tuzuk-i

Jahangiri, Bayaz-i Khushui etc. are important Persian sources of the Mughal period containing rich material on alchemy and chemistry.

74. The text is dedicated to Ibrahim Adil Shah but it is difficult to trace whether he meant Adil Shah first or second. Considering this the text can be ascribed to 16th or early 17th century. See, Alvi and Rehman, Biblio,p.451 . 75. Ibid, p.431.

Chapter – 2

ALCHEMY AND CHEMICAL THEORIES

(A) ALCHEMY IN CHAINA, ARABIA (ISLAMIC) AND INDIA

(B) THEORIES ON MATTER

(C) CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

Chapter – 2

ALCHEMY AND CHEMICAL THEORIES

Alchemy flourished chiefly in the medieval period, although how old it might be difficult to say. It paved the way for modern chemistry just as astronomy began with astrology. Though the word chemistry was used for the first time by Suidas a lexicographer of the 10 th century and that time meant an alloy of gold and silver. 1 A considerable number of men who carried out this chemical operations with the ostensible purpose of changing base metals into gold these men we call the alchemists, rasavadins 2 in Sanskrit and ahle san’a 3 in Persian.

The word ‘alchemy’ as the article Al indicate, is Arabic ( Al-Kimiya ) is generally believed to have been derived from the Egyptian kemi (the black) or the Greek word chyma (black molten metal). 4

(A) ALCHEMY IN CHINA, ARABIA AND INDIA

The origin of alchemy is indeed obscure. However, Alchemy we have said flourished in the chief centres of civilization and it followed the main stream of learning. It existed in China, Egypt, Greece, Arabia, India and

Western Europe. P.C. Ray accepted the period of its maximum activity might lie between A.D. 800 and the middle of the seventeenth century. 5

1 . Thompson, C.J., Alchemy , Source of Chemistry and Medicine, p. 47. 2 . Subbarayappa, B.V., “Chemical Practices and Alchemy”, in Bose et al . A Concise History of Science in India , INSA, New Delhi, 1971, p. 313. 3 . Ain-i Akbari , Naval Kishore, I, p. 39. 4 . Encycopedia of the History of Arabic Science , Vol. 3 (ed.) Roshdi Rasheed, Routledge, London and New York, 1996, p. 854. 5 . Priyadarrajan, Ray; “Origin and Tradition of Alchemy”, IJHS , Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 2. 27

Very diverse views have been expressed by some scientists, historian of science and some historians of culture on the basis of what they understood about alchemy.

Al-Biruni who stayed in India for thirteen years and wrote on almost every aspect of Indian culture stated: Rasayana consisting of alchemistic tricks with various drugs, intended to realize things which by nature are impossible. 6

One of the species of witch craft is alchemy, though it is generally called by this name. 7

He further remarks about alchemical practices: ‘I only heard them speaking of the processes of sublimation, if calcinations, of analysis, and of waxing of talc so guess they incline towards the mineralogical method of alchemy’.

They (Hindu) have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them. They call it Rasayana , a word composed with rasa , i.e. gold. It means an art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs, and compound medicines, most of which are taken from plants. Its principles restore the health of those who were ill beyond hope, and give back youth to fading old age, so that people become again what they were in the age near puberty; white hair becomes black again, the keenness of the senses is restored as well as the capacity for juvenile agility, and even for cohabitation, and the life of people in this world is even extended to a long period’. 8

6 . Al-Beruni’s India; (tr.) Sachau, E.C., S. Chand & Co. 1964, p. 80. 7 . Ibid., p. 187. 8 . Ibid., p. 188. 28

According to Needham, alchemy had a wrong hypothesis but it accumulated valuable knowledge through experimentation, laboratory techniques and products. 9 According to Hossein Nasr 10 , the study of alchemy is a science of the cosmos and of the soul, related at once to cosmology, the process of spiritual realization and hence traditional psychology, medicine, metallurgy, chemistry and also art. That means the alchemical perspective have been directly concerned on the one hand with minerals, metals and aurification, with all that the element gold symbolizes in the natural domain. On the other hand it has also been closely associated with the question “immortality” longevity and ultimately with the acquiring of the “body of gold” or “diamond” which is also the goal of initiative techniques.

Dr. S. Mahdihassan beautifully sums the knowledge of Alchemy as “By its claims alchemy tried to make everything, everlasting man immortal, a base metal to gold. By its practical achieve it made colloidal metals as drugs of longevity. 11

Chinese Alchemy

Alchemy in China is associated with Taoism. Its basic foundation is the belief in physical immortality and the possibility of attaining it through the elixir. Historical and literary sources provide many important details, but the majority of Chinese alchemical sources is found in the Daozang (Taoist canon),

9 . Needham, Joseph, Science and Civilization in China , CUP, (1974), Vol. V, p. 14. 10 . Syed Hossein Nasar, Forward to Indian Alchemy by S. Mahdi Hassan, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1991 edition. 11 . Mahdihassan, S.A., “Critical appreciation of the Exposition of Alchemy by Ibn Khaldun”, Bull. Ind. Inst. His. Med. XV. 29 the largest collection of Taoist texts. One fifth of its about 1,500 texts are closely related to the various alchemical traditions that developed until the fifteenth century, when the extant canon was compiled and printed.

Modern study of the Chinese alchemical literature began in the twentieth century, after the canon was reprinted and made widely available in several reprints. Among the most important contributions in western languages are those of Joseph Needham 12 , Nathan Sivin 13 , Ho Peng Yoke 14 and Isbell

Robinet 15

Chinese alchemy went through a complex and not yet entirely understood development along its twenty centuries of documented history. The two main traditions are conventionally known as waitan 16 or “external alchemy” and neitan 17 or “inner alchemy”. The former, which arose earlier, is based on the compounding of elixirs through the manipulation of natural substances. Its texts consist of recipes, along with descriptions of ingredients, ritual rules, and passages concerned with the cosmological associations of minerals and metals, instruments, and operations. Inner alchemy – which is often referred to as the “Way of the Golden Elixit” ( jindan zhi dao ) –

12 , Needham, Joseph, et al., Science and Civilization in China , vol. V, Parts 2-5, Cambridge University Press, 1964. 13 . Sivin, Nathan, Chinese Alchemy : Preliminary Studies , Cambridge (Mass.) Harvard University Press, 1968. 14 . Ho Peng Yoke, Li, Qi and Shu : An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China , Hong Kong: Hong Kong university Press, 1985, Sec the Chapter entitled “Chinese Alchemy”, 15 . Robinet, Isabelle, “Original contributions of Neidan to Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques. Ed. Livia Kohn in Cooperation with Yoshinoku Sakade Ann Arbor: Centre for Chinese Studies, The University Michigan, 1989, pp. 297-330. 16 . Needham, J., op.cit., pp. 6-7. 17 . Ibid., pp. 4,7, 83-84. 30 developed as an independent discipline around the end of the Six Dynasties

(third-sixth centuries). It borrows part of its vocabulary from its earlier counterpart, but aims to produce an elixir – equated with transcendental knowledge – within the alchemist’s person.

Chinese alchemy has always been closely related to the teachings that find their main expression in the early doctrinal texts of Taoism, especially the

Laozi and the Zhuangzi . The cosmos as we know it is conceived of as the final stage in a series of spontaneous transmutations stemming from original Non- being. This process entails the apparent separation of primeval unity into the two complementary principles, Yin and Yang. Their reunion gives birth to the cosmos. When the process is completed, the cosmos is subject to the laws of cosmology. The adept’s task is to retrace this process backwards. Alchemy, whether “external” or “inner”, provides a support to do this, leading one to the point when, as some texts put it, “heaven spontaneously reveals its secrets”. Its practice must be performed under the close supervision of a master, who provides the “oral instructions” ( koujue ) necessary to an understanding of the processes that the adept performs with minerals and metals undergoes within himself.

In order to transcend space and time – the two main features of the cosmos – the alchemist must take extreme care of their correspondences to the work he performs. Space is delimited and protected by talismans ( fu ), and the laboratory ( danwu , lit. “chamber of the elixirs”) and instruments are properly 31 oriented. According to some texts, the heating of the elixir must conform to minutely defined time cycles. This system, known as “fire times” ( huohou ), allows an adept to perform in a relatively short time the same work that Nature would achieve in thousands of years – in other words, to accelerate the rhythms of Nature, Bringing time to its end, or tracing it back to its beginning, is equivalent. In either case time is transcended, and the alchemist gains access to timeless. The same is with space: its centre, where the alchemist places himself and his work, is a point devoid of dimension. From this spaceless and timeless point he is able to move along the axis that connects the higher and lower levels of being.

Among a variety of procedures that the sources describe in an often allusive way, and in a language rich in metaphors and secret names, two stand out for their recurrence and importance. The first is based on lead ( Yin ) and mercury ( Yang ). 18 In external alchemy, these two substances are refined and joined in a compound whose properties are compared to the condition of regional Oneness. In inner alchemy, lead is a cover name for the knowledge of the Dao (Pure Yang , chunyang ) with which each being is fundamentally endowed, but is obscured (i.e., transmuted into Yin ) in the conditioned state.

Mercury, on the other hand, represents the individual mind.

The second most important method, which is proper to external alchemy, is centered on cinnabar ( Yang ). The mercury contained within cinnabar (representing the Yin principle contained within Yang ) is extracted

18 . Mahdihassan, S., The Base of Alchemy , S.H.M.I. (No.1), March 1977, p. 58. 32 and newly added to sulphur ( Yang ). This process, typically performed nine times, finally yields an elixir embodying the luminous qualities of Pure Yang .

This Yang is not the complementary opposite of Yin , but, again, represents the

One before its separation into the two complementary principles.

The final object of external and inner alchemy is represented as the preparation of an elixir usually defined as huandan (lit., “Reverted Elixir”).

This expression, recurring in the whole literature, originally denotes an elixir obtained by bringing the ingredients back to their original condition through repeated cyclical operations – an operation comparable to the process that the adept performs within himself with the support of the alchemical practice. The word dan (“elixir”) also denotes cinnabar, suggesting that the process beings and ends on two corresponding points along an ascensional spiral. This synonymy also shows the role of cinnabar as a central symbol in external alchemy.

In inner alchemy, the central role of cinnabar is taken up by lead, which represents original Oneness and is a synonym of “gold” ( jin ).

Islamic Alchemy (Arabia)

After Mohammad (S.A.W) had established his religion, Arabs rapidly over the near East, North Africa and Spain. They became interested in Greek

Science and the translated the Syriac manuscripts including those on alchemy into Arabic. According to Ibn al Nadim, Islamic alchemy began with the 33

Umayyad Prince Khalid ibn Yazid. 19 Khalid learned alchemy in Alexandria under the supervision of a certain Marianos or Morienos, who had been a student of Stephen. 20 But the greatest alchemist before the rise of modern chemistry was Jabir ibn-Hayyan (also known as Geber in the west) an eight century Baghdad alchemist who was the pupil of sixth shites Imam, Jafar al-

Sadiq. 21 Jabir’s central concerns were said to be the principle of the “balance” 22

(Mizan ) system of numerical relationships between elements in substances, as well as the four elemental natures of things; heat and cold dryness and humidity. 23 He stressed the importance of experiment and made notable advances in the theory and practice of chemistry. Jabir adopted the sulphur and mercury in the formation of metals. 24 He was well acquainted with the usual chemical operations. He established his own laboratory and described a great number of experiments which resulted in the discovery of spirit of wines, mercuric chloride, nitric acid and other mineral acids. It is narrated that Jabir served the life of a slave girl of Yahya bin Khalid Barmaki by means of an elixir. 25 Jabir books are full of technological innovations, such as the

19 . Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (ed.) James Hastings, Edinburgh, T & T. Clark, Charles Scribner’s Sons, Vol. I, 1908; Latest impression 1974, p. 289. 20 . Encyclopaedia of the History of Arabic Science , Vol. 3 (ed.) Roshdi Rashed, Routledge, London & New York, 1996. 21 . Jafar al Sadiq is the son of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir, who was born around 80/700 and died around 148/765. He lived in Medina and was recognized as an authority on the hadith. According to Arabic sources, he was the teacher of Jabir. An abundant pseudo-epigraphic literature has been attributed to him, including Wasaya (Parenetic advices) and books on the Quran verses used as amulets and in geomancy. Jaladaki points out an alchemic attributed to him. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science , op.cit., p. 864. 22 . Howard R. Turner, Science in Medieval Islam , OUP, 1999, p. 191. 23 . See infra, p. 24 . Syed Hossein Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam , Suhail Academy Lahore, Pakistan, 1968, pp. 266-267. 25 . A substance that is supposed to have the power to change base metals into gold or to bring about this agent was named aliksir (Elixir) by the Arabian alchemists and tincture or philosopher’s stone by the European alchemists. Cf. Aftab Saeed, Study of Muslim Alchemy in the Medieval Ages and some valuable chemicals transmitted to modern chemistry” IJHS , 27(3), 1992, p. 263. 34

production of cast iron, steel, dyeing, leather and fabrics. The works attributed to Jabir are very large in number but most important are Kitab al-Mulk, Kitab al-Mawazin, Kitab al-Riyadhat, Kitab al-Zibaq al-Sherqi and Kitab al-

Rahmat .26 These works exhibit a fairly advanced stages of chemical sciences.

The next most important figure in Islamic alchemy was Abu Bakr

Mohammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi (Rhazes). The great ninth century physician al-Razi involved himself deeply in alchemy, with Jabir, he was responsible for initiating the transmutation of alchemy into chemistry. His most important worse are The Book of Secrets (Kitab al Asrar), The Book of the Secret of

Secrets and Liber de Aluminibus et Salibus which is available only in Lain. 27

The interest of al-Razi lies particularly in his practical chemistry. His Sir al- asrar gives for the first time a clear division of chemical substances used different tools which serve for melting substances ( li-tadhwid ): hearth ( kur ), bellows ( minfakh awziqq ), crucible ( bawtaqa ), etc. and also tools for the preparation of drugs ( li-tadbir al-aqaqir ). The cucurbite and the still with an evaculation tube ( qar aw-anbiq dhu-khatm ), goblets ( qadah ) flasks ( qarura ), rose water flasks ( ma wardiyya ) cauldron (marjal aw tanjir ), earthen ware pots varnished on the inside with their lids ( qudur wa makabbat ), waterbath or sand- bath ( qadr ), oven ( al tannur ) etc. 28 His detailed description of chemical laboratory equipment flasks, funnels, and furnaces began to resemble those of

26 . Ibid. 27 . Al-Bakhit, M.A. et al., History of Humanity from 7th to 16th century , UNESCO, 2000, p. 107. 28 . Kitab al Asrar , partially translated by Stapleton et al. in “Chemistry in Iran and Persia in the Tenth century A.D.” Memoirs A.S.B., VIII, No. 6, p. 370. See also in Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science , op.cit., p. 868. 35 modern time. Al-Razi’s chemical knowledge was applied by him to medicine, and thus he might be considered the ancestor of iatrochemistry. 29 Ibn Sina, commonly called Avicenna (A.D. 980-1037) was not a chemist this most extraordinary and versatile scholar of acute mind did not believe in alchemical transmutations. 30

In the fourteenth century, the historian, sociologist and philosopher Ibn

Khaldum took a long look at alchemy and delivered a firmly negative verdict, demonstrating that alchemy is harmful to people and that its efficacy has never been proved. 31

The science of chemistry as practiced in the west after medieval times owes more to Muslim alchemy.

Indian Alchemy

Alchemy made its appearance in the fifth or sixth century A.D. under twin aspects. Pursuit of the elixir of life and attempts to transmute base metals into gold. 32 In the next seven or eight centuries, Indian alchemy attracted a large following due to its association with Tantrism .33 According to the

Tantras, the body can be made undecaying and immortal by the use of mercury

(rasa ) and its preparation by yogic breathing and exercises, as well as by use of gold prepared by the transmutation of base metals. Tantric treatises, therefore,

29 . History of Humanity , op.cit., p. 107. 30 . Elspeth Whitney, Medieval Science and Technology , Greenwood Press, 2004, pp. 152-53, 160-61, also See in History of Humanity, op.cit., p. 107. and Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science , vol. 3, pp. 875-79. 31 . Turner, op.cit., p. 191. 32 . Al-Bakhit, M.A. et al., History of Humanity from 7th to 10th century , UNESCO, 2000, p. 106. 33 . Ray, P., “Origin and Tradition of Alchemy”, IJHS , 1967, Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 36 abound in alchemical recipes and medicaments for longevity. The Tantric cult is thus characterized by a curious admixture of alchemy, spells incantations, magic, superstitious beliefs, grotesque and revolting rites on the one hand and by speculative, metaphysical and esoteric phases of spiritual aspirations on the other. The philosophy of the Tantric cult may be compared to that of Chinese

Taoism. 34 It seems likely that the male-female concept in Indian alchemy came from China, where alchemy was based on the Yin and Yang and where cinnabar was considered the main ingredient of the elixir of immortality.

P.C. Ray in his History of Hindu Chemistry has given a list of some 32

Tantric alchemical treatises with the names of their author. 35 We merely notice that Alberuni speaks of Nagarjuna who lived about 800 A.D. and occupies a position in Indian mercurial alchemy 36 comparable to that of Jabir ib Hayyan in that of Islam. His book Rasaratnakara gives a number of receipes for transmutation of base metals into silver and gold. 37 It describes many chemical processes like extraction of zinc, mercury and copper, preparation of crystalline red sulphide of mercury. Rasahridaya (11th century A.D.) Rasendrachudamani by Somadeva (12 th /13 th century A.D.), Rasaprakasasudhakara by Yasodhara

(13 th century A.D.) and Rasakalpa (13 th century A.D.) are other important tantric treatises of the period, which deal largely with chemistry and alchemy.

But after the end of Tantra period which is also called the period of “mercury”

34 . Needham, Joseph, op.cit., pp. 9-11. 35 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 16 36 . Al-Beruni’s India, op.cit., p. 189. 37 . Ibid. 37 immediately succeeding the Iatrochemical period of India (1300 A.D. to circa

1550 A.D.). 38 This period is something more practical and tangible. During the iatrochemical period a number of Rasayans were made using metals, non- metals and plant products. The aim of this period was not to get elixirs for longevity and immortality rather devoted their chemical pursuits to the alleviation of disease. 39 The transmutation of metals are totally absent in this period. 40 The word purification, fixation and incineration of mercury and other metals were started from this period. The important sources of this period are

Rasa Ratna Samuccaya (14 th century A.D.), Rasamanjari of Satinatha,

Rasapradipa etc. Different Persian sources of Medieval time of India also gives information regarding Alchemy.

Haft Ahabab 41 is a treatise on Alchemy. The narrative in the preface shows that the work was written by seven friends: Hamiduddin Nagauri, Kiyan

Nath Jogi (title Saadatmand ), Shaikh Sulaiman Mandari, Mir Sayyid Hashim

Bukhari, Miran Syed Talib Awadhi, Shaikh Nasiruddin Tastuni, Maulana Sadiq

Muhammad Multani. These were perhaps the great alchemist of his time, and wrote much on mercury different metals.

Tarikh-i Firozshahi state about a sufi politician of the 13 th century, named Sidi Maulana, developed lot of political clout in the time of Sultan

38 . Ray, P., History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India , Calcutta, 1956, p. 158. 39 . Deshpande, V.J., “History of Chemistry and Alchemy in India from Pre-historic to Pre-modern Times”, in History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture , AD 1000-1800 (ed.) A. Rahman, OUP, 1999, p. 160. 40 . Ibid. 41 . Haft Ahabab , MSS 77, CAS, Department of History, A.M.U. Aligarh, folio 3-4. 38

Jalauddin Khalji. He built a large khanqah where hundreds of people were fed by him everyday. The tankas found in his house looked so bright as if they had been brought from the mint that very moment. 42 He did not accepted anything from the people but spent so lavishly that they suspected him of possessing the knowledge of kimiya va simiya (alchemy and natural magic). 43

Shaikh Abdul Haqq Mahaddith Dehlavi in his Akhbar ul Akhyar writes during the description of Shaikh Bahauddin Jaunpuri (ob. 947 A.H./1540 A.D.) that there came a sufi to Jaunpur in those days whose name was Shaikh

Hussain. He had the knowledge of kimiya and used to prepare gold. 44

Abul Fazl’s acceptance of alchemical principles is evident from the tone of his opening remark in his description of “curing” the base metals into gold and silver. He writes “some practical craftsman (or alchemists) are of the opinion that the metal called tin ( risas ) is silver in the state of leprosy, and mercury is a paralytic (form of silver, that lead is burnt and paralytic gold, while bronze is crude gold (They say that alchemist), like the doctor can by the use of elixirs, restore the diseased metals (to gold and silver) in accordance with the principles of similarity and opposition”. 45 Similar doubt is evident in

Abdul Qadir Badauni’s Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh where in the author enquire into and their rendered dubious the popular belief that one Shaikh Nasiruddin of Hindaun 46 had the power to turn copper into gold. 47

42 . Barni, p. 207. Also Badauni, (tr.) Ranking, I, p. 233. 43 . Siyar-ul Auliya , Amir Khurd (trs.) Quddusi, pp. 246-47. 44 . Akhbar-ul Akhyar (Urdu tr.) by Subhan Mahmood and Muhammad Fazil, Part IV, Deoband, Makhtab-i Danish, n.d., p. 2-7. 45 . Ain-i Akbari , Naval Kishore, Lucknow, 1883, p. 39. 46 . Then a pargana town in the Sarkar, and Suba of Agra ( Ain-i Akbari , ii, 183). 39

Ain-i Akbari also relates a story telling of the alchemical beliefs of the

Hindus. It states 48 : learned Hindus assert that a stone is met with in this country which when touched by any malleable metal turns into gold and they call it paras. They relate that before the time of Bikramajit there reigned a just prince named Raja Jai Singh Deva who passed his life in deeds of beneficence. Such a stone was discovered in that age, and became the source of vast wealth. The sickle of a straw-cutter by its action was changed into gold. The man not understanding the cause thought some damage had occurred to it. He took it to a black-smith to have it remedied, who divining its properties, took possession of it, and amassing immense wealth, garnered a store of delights. But his natural beneficience suggested to him that such a priceless treasure was more fitted for the reigning prince, and going to court he presented it. The Raja made it the occasion of man good deeds, and by means if the riches he acquired, completed a fort in 12 years. One day he had a festival on the banks of the river, Narbdah and Promised to bestow a considerable fortune on his Brahman priest. As he had somewhat withdrawn his heart from worldly goods, he presented him with this stone. The Brahman from ignorance and meanness of soul, became indignant and threw the precious treasure into the rive, to his subsequent eternal regret. Its depth there prevented his recovering it, and to this day that party if the river has never been fathomed”.

In conclusion we find that the objectives of Indian alchemy being, as in

China, the search for “immortality drugs” the materials used were consequently

47 . Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh (tr.) George S.A. Rankingh, vol. III, reprint 1990, pp. 161-62. 48 . Ain-i Akbari , (tr.) Jarret, vol. III, p. 208. 40 different from those of Arab alchemy. In effect, the Hindu alchemists were pre- occupied with mercury, the precious metals and vegetable matter. In connection with their interest in vegetable matter, Al Biruni makes a rather significant observation in his Kitab-ul Hind . He observes that Indian alchemy was similar to Arab alchemy but its objective was the restoration of health and the rejuvenation of the aged. It ( rasayan ) means an art which is restricted to certain operations drugs and compounds most of which are taken from plants”.

(B) Theories on Matter

The history of the doctrine on matter spreads over several centuries in

Antiquity. The first monistic principle expressed in Rigveda Samhita (cir.

1500-1000 B.C.), the oldest literary record of vedic Age, wherein water is mentioned as the primary elements. 49 The empirical thought process which developed in the subsequent period of about five centuries led to the formulation of the five elements (Pancabhutas) theory. Earth, air, fire, water and a fifth element, space were the logical components of this theory which also led to the inevitable conclusion that a primordial element was an essential principle. Water, earlier believed to be primordial in the Rigveda Samhita was described in the Upanishads as a material element that partook, with other material forms in the creative process of the manifest world. In the Taittiriya,

Aitararya and Maitri Upanishads, atman (soul) appears as the primordial

49 . Rigveda Samhita quoted by SubbarayappõC B.V., “The physical world: views and concepts”, vide Bose, Sen, Subbarayappa (eds.): A Concise History of Science in India , New Delhi (1971), pp. 455-456. See also Anuradha Khanna “The Notion of five Elements and its impetus to the traditional sciences in Ancient India” in A. Rahman, ed, Science and Technology in Indian Culture – a Historical Perspective , NISTADS, New Delhi, 1984, p. 107-109. 41 element from which space ( akasa ), air ( vayu ), fire ( agni ), water ( ap ) earth

(prithvi ) from the earth herbs; from herbs, food; from food, semen, from semen, the person ( purush) came forth in evolutionary progression. 50

The development of the theory of elements in Greek philosophy bears a striking similarity with that taking place in India. 51

The early Greek thinkers attempted to give a rational interpretation of the natural occurrences. By about the fifth century B.C.; the Greek thinkers had developed a theory of four elements: earth, fire, water and air. This concept may have been transmitted from the much older Indian philosophy.

Thales of Miletus (c. 624-565 B.C.) thought that water was the

‘substance’ or primal matter which its behaviour in changeable forms of vapour, ice and moisture in living being proved its generative quality. 52

Following on, another Milesian philosopher, Anaximander (cir. 612-575

B.C.) rejected the idea of water being the primordial element, introducing, at the same time, a primary element which by virtue of its infinite subtleness alone, had the capacity to bring into being the limitless variety of matter. To this he gave the name, apeiron . Aperion was infinite. In it, all elements were supposed to pre-exist in a state of primitive chaos and were activated through a process of separation. 53

50 . Cf. Taittiriya Upanishad II, 21. Ibid. p. 456. See also S.N. Sen, “Transmission of Indian Sciences to the Greeks and other Neighbouring Countries” BNISI, No. 21 (1962), pp. 19-20. 51 . It is probable that Sumer and Akkad (Babylon), where a system of cosmic elements existed as early as the 3rd mill BC, was the common source of the five element theory for India, Greece and China S. Mahdihassan’ Interpreting China Cosmic elements, S.H.M. (New Delhi) II, No. 4, pp. 289-90. 52 . Sambursky, S., The Physical world of the Greeks , London, pp. 14-15. Also Taton, R. (ed.) A General History of Science, Medieval and Ancient Science , London (1963), p. 184. 53 . Taton, R., op.cit., p. 185. 42

Another philosopher, Ananimenes, regarded “air” ( Pneuma ) as the primordial matter. He thought that the process of condensation or rarefaction caused transformations of the primary substance into various others. In his elaboration of the functional properties of air, he conceived of air as symbolizing both space and dimension. 54

Heraclitos of Epheseus (c. 540-575 B.C.) 55 regarded ‘fire’ as the

Primordial element. This was because fire was thought to be the most active agent of change. He held that the whole world was in a flux of change and change alone was real. He also stressed that every substance was born out of the forces of destruction and regeneration. Matter existed or underwent transformation under a constant pressure of the two opposing forces. “the upward path to fire” and “the downward path to earth”. Empedocles (c. 50-430

B.C.) synthesized the preceding Greek hypotheses on matter by adding earth and enunciated a clear-cut ‘theory of four elements’. He said all earthly phenomena could be explained in terms of combinations of the four elements earth, water, air and fire. He called them the ‘roots of the world’. The four elements combine and separate, and it is these combinations and separations that constitute the processes of the physical world. This two opposing forces

(combinations and separations) which he called love ( Philotes ) and conflict

(neicos ). The alternating ascendancy of these two forces governed the cyclic phases of evolution and dissolution of the world. 56

54 . Subbarayappa, B.V., In Concise History of Science in India , pp. 458-460. 55 . Sarton, George; A History of Science , Harvard (1950), pp. 238-240. 56 . Ibid., pp. 246-248. 43

Aristotle (cir. 384-322 B.C.) made the final synthesis of the Greek ideas on theory of elements. Adopting the Empedocles theory of four elements, he threw fresh light on the mode in which the elements became manifest in the world of perception. To him, all the four elements were different aspects of a primary matter which he called protyle with each aspect displaying different qualities. The potential forms contained in the protyle became manifest under the effects of the four fundamental qualities (hotness, coldness, wetness and dryness). These qualities were never met with by themselves but in pairs. The presence of each one of these pairs characterized a particular element. 57

Aristotle’s theory of the four elements in most aptly explained by the following diagram. See Fig. (A) 58

Fire

Hot Dry

Air Earth

Wet Cold

Water

57 . Sarton, G., op.cit., pp. 515-516, Taton, ., op.cit., p. 231. 58 . Pedersen, O. and Pihl, M., Early Physics and Astronomy : A Historical Introduction , London (1974), p. 146. 44

Aristotle’s explanation for the cyclical rhythm in natural phenomena

(which were believed to imitate the cyclic cosmic phenomena) in contrast to earlier reasons given by Ananimenes, Heraclitos and Empedocles was based on his theory of ‘wet’ and dry ‘exhalation’. According to this theory, heat causes water to evaporate, mix with air and then to rise upwards in the form of “wet exhalation”. This wet “exhalation” rises into the atmosphere of air and on cooling condense into water or freezes into hail stones and came down as rain, hail, snow or dew. Similarly earthy parts get heated and, mixed with air, constitute a ‘dry exhalation’. The dry exhalations could combine with wet exhalations within the earth’s wombs and give birth to minerals and metals. It could also become heated and force its way through the earth’s crust and cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. 59

It was in this aphoristic form that the Greek philosophy on matter had reached the Arabs in the 8 th -9th centuries A.D. This was the period when

Muslim scholars were engaged in acquiring the knowledge of their predecessors and had undertaken massive translation work of the existing

Greek, Indian and Mesopotamian works. 60

The Arabs and the Persians did more than merely reproduce Greek philosophy in their works. They scrutinized, commented upon, reformulated and elaborated it to its most intricate, logical, ramifications. Through the hand

59 . For some excellent queries raised by 13th and 14th century scholars on Aristotle’s doctrines, see Grant, Edward (ed), A Source book on medieval Science , Harvard (1974), pp. 199-210. 60 . Although Syriac and Hebrew translations of Greek works were available in the 8th cent. A.D., it was only in 835 AD that the Abbasid Caliph established a Baitul Hikmat at Baghdad to improve as well as organize the translation of Greek, Syriac, Hebrew and Indian works into Arabic. Max Meyerhoff, on the transmission of Greek and Indian Science to the Arabs, I.C.X(i) pp. 17-29. 45 of al-Kindi, Jabir, al-Razi, ibn Sina, Abul Qasim Iraqi, the Ikhwan us-Safa,

Nasiruddin Tusi and others, the element theory attained to a perfection never before.

Al-Kindi (cir. 830 A.D.) pointed out contradictions in the Aristotelian theory. If air, he said, was hot and dry, then how could a ‘wet exhalation’, on rising into the atmosphere (the sphere of air) be expected to condense into rain, snow or hail. In his commentary, al-Kindi examined the Greek view of the primary qualities. He explained these as principles distinct from cognizable phenomena coldness and hotness were comprehended as relative attributes of elements. Air was hot in relation to water but cold in relation to fire and so on. 61

Most of the Arabic alchemical works have been attributed to one by name Geber or Jabir-ibn Hayyan. His contribution was the elaboration of the

‘sulphur mercury theory’ and its application to the explanation of the birth of the seven metals.

Jabir admits the Aristotelian theory about the composition of matter, earth, water, air, fire but he develops its along a different path. First, there are four elementary qualities, or natures: heat, cold, dryness, humidity. When they get together with a substance they form compounds of the first degree, i.e. hot, cold, dry, wet. The union of two of these qualities gives:

Hot + dry + substance = fire

61 . Cf. Rasa’il al-Kindi al alsafiyya , II, p. 91 vide, Taton, R.; op.cit., p. 394. Abul Fazl also uses these relative terms, Ain-i-Akbari , Naval Kishore, vol. I, pp. 37-38. 46

Hot + wet + substance = air

Cold + wet + substance = water

Cold + dry + substance = earth

With the metals two of the natures are external and two internal. For instance lead is cold and dry externally, gold is hot and wet externally, cold and dry internally. The sources of these natures are sulphur and mercury, not ordinary sulphur and mercury but hypothetical substances of which the two last the closet form. But Jabir’s teacher Jafar al Sadiq, reputed Aristotle’s theory of the four classical elements and discovered that each one is made up of different chemical elements: ‘I wonder how a man like Aristotle could say that in the world there are only four elements - earth, water, fire and air. It contains many elements. Each metal which is in the earth is an element”. 62

Jabir writes, about the sulphur mercury theory that “the metals are all, in essence, composed of mercury and coagulated with sulfur. They differ from one another only because of the difference of their accidental qualities, and this difference is due to the difference of their varieties of sulphur, which in turn is caused by variation in the earths, and in their exposition with respect to the heat of the sun in its circulation. 63

62 . Research Committee of Strasburg University, Imam Jafar Ibn Muhammad Al-Sadiq, A.S. The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher, translated by Kaukal Al Mirza, 2000. htt://en.wikipedia.org/Alchemy and chemistry in Islam 63 . Holmyard, E.J. (ed.) The Arabic Works of Jabir Ibn Hayyan, vol. I, part one (Paris, Preutner), p. 54. 47

When mercury and sulphur combine to form one single substance, it is thought that they have changed essentially, and that an entirely new substance has been formed. The facts are otherwise, however both the mercury and the sulphur retain their own natures, all that has happened is that their parts have become attenuated and placed in close approximation to one another, so that to the eye the product appears uniform.

If one could devise an apparatus to separate the parts of one sort from those of the other, it would be apparent in its own permanent natural form, and has not been transmuted or changed. We say, indeed, that such transmutation is not possible for natural philosopher”. 64

There are so many Sanskrit sources of medieval time but unfortunately they are not mention related to the origin of metals. These sources gives only mythological origin of different metals. 65

Two distinct scientific tradition was existing in the sixteenth century when Abul Fazl compiled the Ain-i-Akbari . The Indian tradition written and studied in the Sanskrit language and the Islamic tradition in Persian and Arabic.

Abul Fazl was undoubtedly well versed in both. He must have acquired the knowledge of Indian scientific thought from the numerous Brahmin, Jaina and

64 . From one hundred and twelve books, translated by E.J. Holmyard in “Chemistry in medieval Islam”, Journal Society of Chemical Industry 1923, vol. 42, p. 388, and in “The Identity of Geser”, Nature, vol. III (Feb. 10, 1923), p. 192. Syed Hossein Nasr; Science and Civilization in Islam , Suhail Academy Lahore, Pakistan, 1968, pp. 266-67. 65 . According to ancient texts gold is said to be the semen of god Agni (fire). It is said in Rasendra Cudamani that one god Agni saw the young and beautiful wives of the Saptarisi (the seven sages) and got excited. He discharged his semen which on falling on the earth got converted into gold. Cf. Damodar Joshi translated Rasa Ratna Samuccaya and he has given description of each metal, IJHS , vol. 23, No. 2 (1989). p. 236. 48

Buddhist scholars who adorned the Mughal court as well as from the books of al-Biruni. He dwells extensively on the various Indian theories on the cosmic element in the third volume of the Ain-i Akbari .66 However his description of the Indian system is rather in the nature of a report than an enunciation of his own convictions. 67

He thus begins his description of “Genesis of Metals” ( Ain-i-Paidaish-i-

Filizzat ) contains the Aristotelian theory of four elements of all matter and natural phenomena. Abul Fazl’s also reflect the acceptance of minor variations such as those found in al-Kindi. Abul Fazl writes “the creator has manifested” the four basic elements. Fire is absolutely warm dry light. Air is relatively warm, moist, light. Water is relatively cold, moist, heavy. Heat causes lightness, moisture imparts heaviness to bodies. Wetness senders the body easily separable while dryness prevents divisibility. These four elements are manifested in four ways heavenly phenomena (such a rain, snow, hail etc.), minerals, vegetables, and animal life. 68

The Aristotelian theory of wet and dry exhalation is also find in the Ain and Abul Fazl states, “from the heat of sun and its effect, the watery particles become light and mix with the airy particles 69 and rise up. This mixture is

66 . Ain-i-Akbari , Naval Kishore, Lucknow III, p. 83 onwards. 67 . For two excellent observations of the 11th and 17th cents. See Sachau, E. (ed.) Al-Biruni’s India , S. Chand and Co. 1964 reprint, pp. 40-49 and Constabl, A. (ed.) Travels in the Mogul Empire (1656-1668) by F. Bernier, S. Chand & Co. 1968, pp. 337-338. 68 . Ain-i Akbari (ed.) Sir Syed, Sir Syed Academy, A.M.U. (2005), pp. 26-27, (tr.) Blochmann, H, Calcutta (1923), p. 40. 69 . Abul Fazl repeatedly uses the term ajza which can also be interpreted as ‘atom’. Here it only signifies ‘small particle’. Steingass, A Comprehensive Persian, English Dictionary (1st edition) 1973, p.18. 49 called bukhar (vapour or steam). The earthy particles mix with the airy particles and rise upward. This mixture is called dukhan (a gas or smoke) 70

Several philosopher call both of the above mixtures bukhar, but if it contains watery particles, they call it ‘wet vapour’ ( bukhar-i-abi ) and if the mixture contains earthy particles, it is called ‘gaseous’ or dry vapour ( bukhar-i-dukhani or bukhar-i-khushk ).

The two mixtures produce above the surface of our earth, to give clouds, wind, rain, snow and the like while below the surface they produce earthquakes, streams and minerals. 71

Abul Fazl ends this theory with the Islamic modification of Aristotle’s belief that the dry and wet exhalation of moist and dry parts of all living beings 72 . While explaining the birth of the seven metals Abul Fazl also incorporates Chinese doctrine of Yin-Yang duality (similar to the Aristotelian theory of wet and dry exhalation) and Jabir’s theory of the union of the male and female principles of sulphur and mercury. The evident show that the major portion of Kitabul Shifa of Ibn Sina is copied by Abul Fazl on the birth of metals. 73

When in a mixture of bukhar (vapour) with dukhan (smoke), the former is greater in quantity, then on complete combination and ripening due to the

70 . Blochmann wrongly translated bukhar as ‘gas’ and dukhan as ‘vapour’, Ain-i Akbari (tr.) Calcutta 1923, p. 40. See in Steingass, op.cit. p. 158 and p. 504. 71 . Ain-i-Akbar i, (ed.) Sir Syed, p. 27. 72 . Nasr, S.H., Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, Conceptions of Nature and Methods used for its study by the Ikhwan al Safa, Harvard Univ. Press, 1964, p. 246. 73 . See Ibn Sina’s enunciation of this theory in Nasr, S.H., op.cit. p. 246. Also see tr. of Kitab al Shifa by Holmyard and Mandeville, vide Grant, Edward, op.cit., pp. 570-571. 50 heat of the sun, mercury (quick silver) comes into being. And since no part of it is free of the dry exhalation (dukhan), dryness is felt in it and it does not stick to the hand but flees from it. If the mixture is of equal parts, a tenacious greasy moisture is produced. At the time of fermentation (synthesis), air particles enter and the coldness causes the whole (mass) to contract. 74 This mass is inflammable. If the dukhan and the greasiness are a little in excess, sulphur will be produced, in colour either red or yellow or blue white. If the proportion of the dukhan is large and that of greaseless, arsenic will be produced which is red and yellow (arsenic disulphide and trisulphide). And if the quantity of the bukhar is greater pure, black and white bitumen 75 will arises after the mixture gets solid. Since in all, cold was the causes of the contraction, they can be melted, and on account of the prevalence of greasiness and tenacious moistness, they are also inflammable, though, on account of the moistness, not malleable.

“Although mercury (quick silver) and sulphur are the only component parts of the seven bodies (metals). There arise various forms from a difference in purity, or from peculiar circumstances of the mixture or from a variety of the action of the component parts of each other. Thus silver will result when neither of the two components is mixed with earthy particles, when they are pure and perfectly united, and when the sulphur is white, and less than the

74 . Aristotle’s and later Ibn Sina’s theory had clearly stated this point. See Sarton, G., op.cit. pp. 515-516. 75 . Blochmann wrongly translates ‘naft’ as naphta. It was actually bitumen which was called Naft. The colours in the original version are black and white (siyah wa Safaid) and not black and yellow. See Ain-i-Akbari (ed.) Sir Syed, p. 27. 51

mercury (principle) or when both are in equal proportions; the sulphur is red, and capable of imparting colour, gold will originate. Again under similar circumstances, if both contract after the mixture but before a complete union has been effected. Kharchini76 will be produced. This metal is also called ahanchini and seems really to be raw gold; some say it is a kind of copper.

Again, if sulphur also be impure, and mercury the larger component, with an additional power of burning, copper will result. And if the mixture is not thorough and the mercury in greater amounts, tin will be produced, some say that the purity of the components is essential. If both components be of an inferior type closely mixed, and if the earthy particles of the mercury have a tendency of separating, and the sulphur has the inherent powers of burnings, iron will result. And if under similar conditions the mixture is not perfect, and the mercury quantitatively greater, lead will come into existence. These seven metals are called the “seven bodies ( ajsad al saba ), mercury is called the mother of the bodies, and sulphur, the father of the bodies. Mercury is also called the spirit ( ruh ) while arsenic and sulphur are the soul ( nafs )77 (of the bodies). 78

(ii) Classification of Minerals

The classification of minerals was a major matter of interest among

Greeks, Arab and Persian chemists such as Theophrastos, Jabir Ibn Hayyan,

76 . Kashani’s Arais ul Jawahir … (14th century) p. 240 and Ashraf bin Asad’s Jawaharnamah (16th cent.) pp. 246-247. The Ajaibul Mukhluqat …. Zakariyya al-Kazvini (cir 1275 AD) rielies heavily upon the Jabirian mercury sulphur theory to show that Kharsini was a mineral. Only its uses (i.e. from making mirrors, arrow heads and fish hooks) are correctly described. See also Stapleton et al. ‘Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the 10th century AD”, MASB , vol. VIII (No. 4, p. 410. 77 . Blochmann, Wrongly translated nafs as “pivot of life”, op.cit., p. 41. 78 . Ain-i-Akbari (ed.) Sir Syed, pp. 27-28, Naval Kishore, p. 39, Blochmann, H. (tr.), op.cit., pp. 40- 41. 52

Zakariya al-Razi and Ibn Sina and their efforts helped greatly in the development of scientific method and of Chemistry. Also in Indian history of

Science both Hindus and Muslims classified minerals on the basis of what they understood to be the nature of minerals.

This system of classification had been evolved by Theophrastos (cir. 372-

288 B.C.) who was assigned the study of minerals by his teacher, Aristotle.

Theophrastos wrote the first comprehensive treatise on the origin and classification of minerals entitled De Lapidus .79 According to Theophrastos

‘Stones’ were minerals which had an earthy origin since they could be crushed to an earthy powder. Metals on the other hand, were minerals of a ‘watery’ origin since they could be melted on heating.

In effect, this use of characteristic reactions to fire for purposes of classification was the first formal application of a chemical criterion in mineralogy. Physical criteria such as hardness and malleability were also codified by Theophrastos. Gems were classified by him on the basis of colour, transparency, luster, fracture and hardness. These criteria are valid to this day. 80

Theophrastos’ ideas were also influenced by the pseudo-scientific sources such as Babylonian religious beliefs and primitive Greek folklore and his lapidus also refers to the planetary affiliations of minerals. 81

79 . Sarton, G., A History of Science , Harvard (1952), p. 560. 80 . Ibid. 81 . Ibid. 53

Rational science co-existed with irrational doctrines even after the period of transmission of Greek learning to the Islamic world. Rational philosophers such as Ibn Sina chose to underplay or ignore irrational beliefs while others such as Kazvini, who had probably copied from ancient cosmological texts gave them undue importance. 82

The Arabs begun to take interest in learning of alchemical practice from the 7 th century onward arose the need for more specific classification of both organic and inorganic substances.

Thus Jabir ibn Hayyan classified the minerals with which alchemy deals into three classes 83 , each having certain specific qualities, based on the predominance of one of the natures:

(i) Spirits ( arwak ) i.e. substances which evaporate completely on heating.

The ‘spirits’ are five in number, sulphur, arsenic, mercury, ammonia and

camphor.

(ii) Metals ( ajsad ), i.e. substances which may be hammered, possess a

luster, produce a sound, and are not “mute”, like the ‘spirits’ and

‘bodies’. The metals include lead, tin, gold, silver, copper, iron and

kharini (Chinese iron).

82 . Nasr, S.H., Science and Civilization in Islam , Suhail Academy, Lahore, Pakistan, 1968, p. 256; also see in Sherwood Taylor, Alchemists , Paladin (1976), pp. 70-73. 83 . The Ajaibul Makhluqat Wamharaib ul Maujudat (cir. 1275 A.D.) contains a verbatim copy of the section on cosmology of an earlier, synonymous text, which classified minerals on the basis of the ‘sex’ and other attributes of their related planets. See Kazvini, Zakaria ibn Mahmud . Encyclopedia of Islam (New Edition). 54

(iii) The ‘bodies’ i.e. the inorganic minerals ( ajsam ) which are neither

fusible or non-fusible, not malleable and could be pulverized.

Metals ( ajsad ) were further defined as those fusible substances in which the proportion of soul (the nafs i.e. oily property of the mineral) and spirit (i.e. ruh , the gaseous, volatile principle) is perfect and does not increase nor decrease in proportion to the amount of inert matter. 84

Al-Razi 85 was the first great encyclopedists of Islam. He wrote on all manner, of medical and surgical subjects, on philosophy, alchemy mathematics, logic, ethics, metaphysics etc. Zakariya al-Razi wrote many works on medicine and alchemy but the best known is Kitab al-Asrar . A classification in the Kitab al-Asrar of al Razi (d. 914) in which terrestial elements are divided into the following six classes86 :

(i) The spirit ( al-arwah ) Mercury, Salammoniac, arsenic sulphate (orpiment

and realgar), sulphur

(ii) The Bodies ( al-ajsad ) – Gold, Silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, Kharsini

(iii) The stones ( al -ahjar ) – Pyrites ( marqashita ), iron oxide ( daws ), zinc

oxide ( tutiya ), azurite, malachite, turquoise, haematite, arsenic oxide,

lead sulphate ( kohl ), mica and asbestos, gypsum, glass

84 . Jabir, Ustugus al-Uss (tr.) Husain, Stapleton et al., A.S.B (VIII, No. 6), p. 395 and Sherwood Taylor, Alchemist, p. 71. 85 . Not to be confused with great theologian of the same name Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606/1209). For Razi the chemist, Cf. Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition), vol. VIII, pp. 474-478. 86 . Kitab al Asrar , Partially translated and incorporated by Hidayat Husain et al., in chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the 10 th century AD, Memoirs A.S.B., VIII, p. 370 55

(iv) The vitriols ( al-zajat ) – Black, alums ( al-Shubub ), white ( qalqadi s),

green ( qalqand ), yellow ( qulqutar ), red

(v) Borax ( bawariq )

(vi) Salts ( al-amlah )

There were four spirits, two volatile and incombustible (mercury and sal- ammoniac) and two volatile and combustible (sulphur and arsenic).

The Bodies (ajsad ) were the usual seven viz. gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, led and kharsini (possibly a poisonous metal said to have come from

China). 87

Stones ( ahjar ) were thirteen in number. Some of which are identified as magnesite ( maghnisiya ), iron oxide ( daws ), zinc oxide ( tutiya ) and malachite

(dhana ) etc.

Al Razi also identified six Vitriols, notable among which were irons sulphate ( qalqadis ). Among the “boraces” he identified sodium tetraborate

(natrum ), tangar (cruder form of natrum), goldsmith’s borex, etc.

Eleven salts (Amlah ) were also identified among which he named common salt, nafti (bitumen salt), hindi (rock salt) and bidi while the Sanskrit sources identified five or six types of salts. Five kinds of salts are described in charaka. 88 These are Sauvarchala (nitre), Saindhava (rock salt), vit (black salt), audbhida (vegetable salt) and Samudram (sea salt) whereas Rasa Ratna

87 . Needham; V (ii) p. 233. 88 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 62. 56

Samuccaya 89 mentioned six types of salts, viz. Samudram (lit. derived from the evaporation of sea water), saindhava (rock, salt), vidam Sauvarchala, Romaka and Chulika lavana (Salammoniac).

Al Razi classifies alum as a stone and salt ammoniac as a spirit. Salt- ammoniac is practically universally classed as a spirit by the Arabs, Ibn Sina being the only exception so far as we are aware. 90 While al Razi’s system of classification was based on the first formal inclusion of taste and solubility among the criteria. His system also indicates an attempt to provide a pharmacological basis to mineral classification.

Ibn Sina (980-1037 A.D.) classified minerals into four broad categories, namely:

(i) Stones ( ahjar )

(ii) Fusible substances ( Dhaibat )

(iii) Sulphurs (the inflammable kabarit )

(iv) Salts ( Amlah )

The difference in properties, he attributed to the difference in the strength of the substance from which they were made, e.g. the material of metals was believed to be an aqueous substance united so firmly with an earthy substance that the two could not be mutually separated. 91

89 . Rasa Ratna Sammuccaya (tr.) Dr. Joshi, Chapter X, verse 73, p. 466, IJHS , INSA (1989). 90 . Gant, Edward (ed.) A Source book in medieval Science, Harvard, 1974, p. 570. 91 . Nasr, S.H., Introduction to Islamic Cosmological doctrines , Harvard, 1964, p. 246. Also Holmyard and Mandeville (ed. and tr.) Kitab ul Shifa (section on physics), vide Edward Grant (ed.), A Source Book in Medieval Science (ed.) op.cit., p. 569. 57

Another important source for the system of classification adopted by

Abul Fazl was al-Biruni’s Kitab ul Jamahir (cir. 1030 A.D.). 92 This book is considered to be one of the best works on medieval mineralogy. It contains descriptions of minerals and metals from all over Asia, Europe and Africa. In this treatise the author treats as criteria not only the colours, odours, hardness, but also exact quantitative criteria such as weight per unit volume and loss in weight in water of the various substances. 93

The Ain-i Akbari , we notice that Abul Fazl was familiar with the original

Aristotelian concepts and Ibn Sina modified it and consequently Abul Fazl writes “Minerals are of five kinds:

(i) those which do not melt on heating on account of their dryness such as

rubies .

(ii) Those which do not melt on heating due to their “wetness” such as

mercury (quick silver).

(iii) Those which melt but are not inflammable or malleable such as copper,

alum .

(iv) Those which be melted are inflammable, but not malleable e.g. sulphur.

(v) Those which melt are malleable, but not combustible e.g. gold. 94

92 . Pub. Dairat ul Maarif ul Osmania, Hyderabad (1355 A.H.), also Al-Biruni’s Kitab al Jamahir (tr.) Shaheed Hakim Mohammad Said et al., J.P.H.S. , vol. XLIX, No. 2. 93 . Razaullah Ansari, S.M., “The Physical Researches of Al-Biruni”, I.J.H.S. , X(2) 1975, pp. 198- 209. 94 . Ain-i-Akbari (ed.), Naval Kishore, I, pp. 38-39, also see (tr.) Blochmann, H., p. 40. 58

Abul Fazl’s classification of minerals on the basis of melting and malleability also reflect clearly Graeco-Arab influence. He writes “A body is said to melt wherefrom the union of the inherent principles of dryness and moisture its particles are movable. A body is said to be malleable when it possesses the ability to extend in such a manner as to yield a longer and wider surface without, however either separating a part from it or adding part of it”. The latter definition particularly specific and more scientific.

Abul Fazl perhaps due to his knowledge of the ‘Hindu’ Rasashastra has introduced a fifth category consisting of a single mineral, namely mercury. The characteristic ascribed is that it does not melt on account of “wetness” being its predominant quality. This is an interesting synthesis of an Arab doctrine (on the aquosity of metals) 95 with the Hindu chemical doctrines where in mercury enjoyed great prestige. 96

Mineral chemistry in India probably gained importance only after its relevance in Rasashastra (mercury chemistry) had been established. Following the exchange of ideas with Persia and China and developed through the experiments of Nagarjuna, the 9 th -10 th century alchemist and his protégés, abrupt growth of information on minerals is evident in the Rasa Ratna

Samuchhaya , a 13 th -14 th century text which broadly divides the minerals in the following manner :

95 . Cf. Kitab ul Shifa , vide, Grant E. (ed.), op.cit., pp. 569-71. 96 . The Muslim philosophers classified mercury amongst the metals ( ajsad ) mainly because it could be amalgamated with other metals without changing their ‘metallic’ character. Another reason was the fact that mercury represented a part of mercury-sulphur theory on the birth of metals. For information on Hindu mercury chemistry, see Ray, P., History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India , pp. 158-200. 59

(i) Rasas e.g. mica, copper, pyrites ( makshika ), calamine ( rasaka ), bitumen

(adrija ) and others like vimala, Sasyaka and Vaikranta .

(ii) Uprasas (inferior chemicals), such as alum, orpiment (arsenic trislphide,

haritala ), realgar (arsenic disulphide), Salammoniac (ammonium

chloride) and cinnabar Lingular , mercuric sulphide).

(iii) Gems, such as rubies, diamonds etc.

(iv) Metals such as gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead etc. 97

Apparently the Hindu alchemists classified minerals in order of their utility in alchemy and itrochemistry.

In conclusion it may be said that Abul Fazl was fully aware of the advances in scientific philosophy of his day. As such, he represented in the truest fashion, the intelligentsia of the medieval times. In the exposition of the theory of elements done with extreme accuracy and brevity, he remained truly an Avicennian, Jabirian and Aristotelian thought. On the other side Hindu sciences were not upto the mark, Sanskrit sources are silent on the origin of metals. Some sources give only mythological origin of metal which is not scientific at all.

97 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 166.

Chapter – 3

CHEMICAL PROCESSES AND APPARATUS

(A) DISTILLATION

(B) SUBLIMATION

(C) BLEACHING

(D) FERMENTATION Chapter – 3

CHEMICAL PROCESSES AND APPARATUS

The chemical process plays a very crucial role in the formation of chemical compounds. Different civilizations like Chinese, Arab Greek mention various chemical processes and their application along with the apparatus used for it, likewise the medieval Indian scientists also have discussed several chemical processes. The Persian and Sanskrit sources of the medieval period give considerable information about these processes. This chapter attempts to discuss and display through diagrams. Some such chemical processes such as distillation, sublimation, bleaching and fermentation.

(a) Distillation

Distillation (the process of heating a liquid to form vapour and then cooling the vapour to get it back to liquid form), is a very old process dating back to the first or second century AD. Many modern scholars including Diels,

Nevgebauer and Sarton agree that the process and apparatus of distillation of liquids was not known in classic antiquity. 1 The early Alexandrian alchemists like Maria the Jewess, Comarius, Hermes, Cleopatra and possibly

Agathodaemon, however, invented and employed the apparatus of distillation and sublimation among other things. 2

1 . Forbes, R.J., A Short History of the Art of Distillation : From the Beginnings Upto the death of Cellier Blumenthal, Leiden, p. 13. 2 . Ibid., p. 19. 61

With the development of Arab Alchemy the interest in chemistry grew.

It led to the development of distillation for it was the best method of purifying the chemical substances. The development of the glass industry in Iraq resulted in better vessels and distillation apparatus for the Arab alchemists. 3 Renowned scientists Zakariyya al Razi, Jabir ibn Hayyan and Abu Abdullah al-Khwarizmi were the prominent Arab alchemists involved in the experiments involving the process of distillation. References to distillation in Arab alchemical literature are numerous. 4 Abu Abdullah al-Khwarizmi in his Mafatih-ul ulum (1976

A.D.) described the tripartite apparatus which consisted of the distilling flask

(qara) and the alembic, ambix or al-ambiq 5 was the tube carrying the vapours into the receiver or qabila .

The process of distillation was probably known to the ancient Indians.

P.C. Ray suggests that the three vessels (made of coarse, red, sand clay with lime and broken bricks), excavated from the late Saka-Parthian periods at

Sirkap, insinuate that the process of distillation and condensation was known to the ancient Indian in the first century A.D. 6 Nagarjuna is said to have distilled metallic zinc from its carbonate. 7 Rasarnava mentions the distillation of alum

3 . Ibid., p. 31. 4 . Ain-us-San’ah wa Aunussa’ah (Aid to the workers and Essence of the Art) by Abdul Hakim…. Al Khawarizmi at Kathi (1034 A.D.) MS. in Raza Library, Rampur. Tr by Hidayat Husain. Zakariyya ar Razi’s Kitab Sirr al-Asrar tr. H. Hussain etc. in Mem A.S.B. VIII (6), p. 378. 5 . An alambic (from Arabic al-ambiq ) is an alchemical still consisting of two retorts connected by tube. Technically, the alembic is only the upper part (the capital or still head), while the lower part is the cucurbit, but the word was often used to refer to the entire distillation apparatus. The alembic was developed circa 800 A.D. by the Arabic alchemists, Jabir ibn Hayyan, its modern descendant (used to produce alcohol) is the post still. The word as most alchemical terminology comes from the Arabic; alambiq “still” ultimately from the Greek ambix “cup”. 6 . Ray, P., History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India , p. 80. 7 . Ibid., p. 130. 62 or Saurashtri .8 Rasa Ratna Samuccya talks of the distillation of green vitriol. 9

Rasapradipa provides us a detailed process for the preparation of mineral acids by distillation. 10

There is a description of the apparatus for the purification of mercury by sublimation and distillation in the third verse of the second chapter of

Rasahridya tantram . The dipika yantram was the apparatus used for the process called as Adhahpatana 11 or downward distillation. This apparatus consisted of “two vessels placed one over the other mouth to mouth, the neck of the upper one sliding over that of the lower with their junctions luted with a composition of suitable materials”. 12

Ninth chapter of Rasa Ratna Samuccaya mentions three important equipments used in the process of distillation viz. Patana yantra, Triyak patina yantra and Dheki yantra.

The Patana yantra consisted of a pot filled with water with an inverted pot of larger size over it. The neck of the pots were sealed with dough (made of lime, mandur or iron oxide/rusted iron, phanita or jaggery and mahisi ksira or buffalo milk) and the inside bottom of the upper vessel smeared with the substance. When heated from outside the vapours of substance fall into the water of the lower one. Thus, the process is completed 13 (Fig. A)

8 . Ibid., p. 138. 9 . Ibid., p. 229. 10 . Ibid., p. 162. 11 . Rasahrdaya tantram , ed. B.V. Subbarayappa et al., INSA, New Delhi, S. 49. 12 . Ibid., p. 147. 13 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya (tr.) Damodar Joshi, INSA, New Delhi, Chapter IX, Verses, 6-8, p. 341. Ray, P., op.cit., p. 189. 63

Figure A : Patna Yatnram

Tiryak Patana Yantra was made of a vessel with a long tube inserted in an inclined position which enters the interior of another vessel with cold water which acts as a receiver. The mouths of the vessels and joints are luted with clay. The vessel with the chemicals is heated and the process of distillation takes place which is called as tiryak patanam. 14 (Fig. B).

14 . Ibid., verses, 10-12, p. 342. 64

Distillate receiving tube

Rough Mercury

Purified mercury

Figure B : Tiryak Patana Yantram

Dheki yantra is another important apparatus mentioned in the Rasa

Ratna Samuccaya. Two vessels are used in this apparatus. One end of a

bamboo tube is inserted just below the neck of an earthen pot consisting of

mercury. Its other end is fixed in a vessel called Kamsya samputa (made of two

bell metals vessels) containing water and both ends are sealed. Mercury when

heated starts distilling into the water through the tube and is transferred to the

Kamsya samputa .15 (Fig. C).

15 . Ibid., verses 17-19, p. 342. 65

Distillate receiving hollow tube Rough Mercury

Among the Persian sources, Ain-i-Akbari provides vivid details of the

process of liquor and perfume distillation. However, Irfan Habib, has argued

that the term Chaka nidam (lit. to fall drop by drop) used by Ziauddin Barni in

Distilled his Tarikh-i Firozshahi (written in 1357 AD) was used for distillation. He used Mercury the dictionary Miftahul Fuzala as the term finds no mention in the dictionary of

Steingass. 16

Figure C : Dheki Yantram

Ain-i Akbari gives the method of preparing arrack and its distillation

after fermentation through three ways. 17 Abul Fazl’s descriptions of distillation

processes, including that of liquor distillation, seemingly avoided by earlier

writers perhaps due to the religious prohibition.

In the first method of distillation the fermented liquor is put into brass

vessels in the interior of which a cup is put so that the liquor does not flow into

it. The vessels are then covered with inverted lids fastened with clay 18 and the

lid is kept cool by pouring water. The vapour reaches the cold lid, condense

16 . Irfan Habib, “Medieval Technology: Exchanges between India and the Islamic World” in IJHS , 35.3, p. 268. 17 . Ain-i Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, H., vol. I, p. 74. 18 . Blochmann, I., p. 74 writes ‘Clay’ but the Persian text edited by Naval Kishore, I, p. 88 used the word Khamir or kneaded flour. 66 and falls as arrack into the cup. Forbes identifies this method with that employed by the Bhils. 19 (Fig. D).

Cold water

Drop of alcohol

Purified alcohol

Figure D : Apparatus constructed from Abul’l Fazl’s description in the Ain-i Akbari . This apparatus is ‘Mongol’ type 20

In the second method the same vessel is closed with an earthen pot fastened with clay and field with two pipes with free ends of the jar (in cold water) attached with them. The vapour through the pipes will enter the jars and condense. This method is strikingly similar to the Tiryakapatana yantra mentioned in the Rasa Ratna Samuccaya (Fig. E).

19 . Forbes, op.cit., p. 54. 20 . Cf. Irfan Habib, “Joseph Needham and the History of Indian Technology”, IJHS, 35.5 (2000), p. 268. 67

Figure E : Still of the ‘Gandhara’ type 21

While in the method an earthen vessel is filled with liqor and fastened to a large spoon with a hollow handle. The end of the handle is attached to a pipe leading into a jar and the vessel is covered with a lid filled with cold water. The condensed arrack flows through the spoon into the jar. When distilled twice the arrack becomes strong and is called Duatasha or twice burned. 22 (Fig. F)

Figure F : Apparatus of Arab-Italian Type

21 . Ibid., p. 269. 22 . Blochmann, I, p. 74. 68

Joseph Needham has examined the stills used in the above mentioned methods as the Mongol, the Chinese and the Hellenistic types respectively. 23

Irfan Habib has some reservations on the identification of the second still which he calls Gandharan. He calls the third one as the “medieval Italian-Arab still”. 24

Ain-i Akbari also provides information on distillation of a perfume called Chuwa . The text defines it as “distilled wood of aloes”. Fine clay is mixed with cotton or rice bran thrashed. This mixture is put into a small bottle coated with clay and small piece of aloe wood is put in it. After keeping the wood wet for a week another vessel with a hole in the middle is placed on a three legged stand. The neck of the little bottle is inverted and passed into the vessel by placing a cup full of water at the bottom of the vessel so that the mouth of the bottle reaches the surface of the water. A gentle fire is ignited on the top of the vessel. The condensed vapour of the wood of aloes is collected from the surface of the water. It is washed with plain and rose water to remove the odour of smoke. We are also informed that one ser of wood aloes is capable to yield two to fifteen tolas of chuwa .25 There is a reference to a perfume known as Barjat in the text. It is to be distilled in the same manner as chuwa 26 .

Bayaz-i khushbui also mentions the same process but interestingly it ascribes it

23 . Irfan Habib, “Joseph Needham and the History of Indian Technology”, in IJHS , 35, 3 (2000), p. 268. 24 . Ibid. 25 . Ain-i Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, H., p. 86. 26 . Ibid., p. 80. 69 to Shaikh Farid. 27 Finally, it seems that the distillation apparatus in these two later Persian text did not witness any large scale improvement over those described in the thirteenth and fourteenth century Sanskrit alchemical texts.

(b) Sublimation

The changing of solid directly into vapours on heating, and of vapours into solid on cooling is known as sublimation. Sublimation is little mentioned in histories of chemical technology. The first western description of process of obtaining metallic mercury from cinnabar by the method of sublimation is generally attributed to Dioscorides (c. +50), who said that cinnabar was heated on an iron sucer contained in a pot and covered by another pot. 28 The natural cinnabar was perhaps the single most important raw material used by the

Chinese alchemists but it is very much difficult to know exactly when they first began to convert cinnabar to mercury, but Needham accepted that this process must have been started at least during the warring states period and the first textual mentions come form the beginning of Former Han (2 nd century). 29

Al-Razi (in Latin Rhazes) in his book Sirr-al Asrar gives the clear description of sublimation 30 (al-tasid ) of mercury with the two methods. One for the “Red” and other for the “white”. In subliming it, there are two secrets, one the removal of its moistness, and the other to make it dry, so that it may be

27 . Bayaz-i Khushbui , I.O. Library 828, rotograph no. 194, CAS, Deptt. of History, A.M.U. Aligarh, p. 9 fol a-b. 28 . Taylor, F. Sherwood, A History of Industrial Chemistry , Heinemann, London, 1957, p. 52. See also Forbes, R.J., A Short History of the Art of Distillation , Brill, Leiden, 1948, p. 17. 29 . Needham, J., Science and Civilization in China , CUP, 1980, vol. V, part 4, p. 45. 30 . Holmyard, E.J., History of Technology , 2, 738. 70 absorbent. The removal of its moisteness by either of two processes. After triturating it with what is sublime it, heat it over a gentle fire in a phial luted with clay and then triturate and (again) heat it, doing this 7 times till it completely dries. Then sublime it and heat it gently and palce it in the aludel.

Over the aludel there should be an alembic of green pottery, or glass, with a short wide spout, for the purpose of distilling all the moisture that is in the mercury. Under (the spout) is placed a dish.

In place of this alembic, covered properly adjusted on the head of the aludel. It should have a hole large enough for the head of a large needle to enter. In this (hole) is placed a woolen lamp-wicks, with one end of the wick hanging down into the dish. So that all the moisture that is in the mercury may be distilled. Then remove it (the alembic) and replace it by the cover which covers its top completely, and lute the joint. A better way (than using an alembic) is to have a hole in the cover of the aludel large enough for the little finger to enter. This hole is kept open until the substance appears in the form of dust, either white or black, by which you learn that the moisture has come to an end. Then the hole is closed with a properly fashioned stick bound round with a rag. 31

Jabir ibn Hayyan stated that the substances with which mercury is sublimed are Alum, Vitriol, Sulphur, Lime (powdered) Brick, Glass, Ashes of

Gallnuts, Oak ashes…; and, of Waters, Vinegar, Water of vitriol, “Water of

31 . Cf. Syed Hossein Nasr; Science and Civilization in Islam , Suhail Academy, Lahore, 1968, pp. 270-71. 71

Sal-ammoniac”, “Water of alum” and the “Water of quicklime” (and sulphur). 32

Al-Razi further gives the method of sublimation of mercury for the

“white”. He states “take of mercury that has been coagulated 1 ratl (lb), and bruise it with an equal quantity of white alum, the like quantity of salt, and the like quantity of ashes. Next sprinkle vinegar over it, after placing it on a [flat stone mortar], and triturate it thoroughly for three hours a day, one hour in the morning, one hour at noon, and one hour in the evening. Then place it in a phial covered with clay. Close the head of the phial, and place it on hot ashes in an oven which has just been used for bread making.

Leave it there for one night and in the morning transfer the substance to the pot of the aludel, after (again) triturating it. Place powdered salt at the bottom of the aludel. Adjust the alembic. Previously mentioned above the aludel, and (thus, by heating), remove the moisture from the substance. Then replace the alembic by a cover; and lute the joint; but first light a small fire beneath it, till its moisture has been removed by the gentle fire. Fit the cover to it and heat it (the aludel) for one hour with a gentle fire. Then increase the fire to a moderate degree. Keep the fire burning 12 hours for each salt (of the substance); and whenever the ring of the cover gets heated, stop the fire, lest the substance that is on the shelf be spoilt and burnt. (this is continued) until the whole has sublimed. Then bring back the sublimate to the residue, triturate, and

32 . Stapleton, R.F. et al. “Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the tenth century A.D.”, Memoires of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal , Vol. VIII, No. 6 (1927), pp. 385-293. 72 again sublime it. This is done thrice. Then take burnt bones, which are procured from furnances, poured them thoroughly, and triturate the sublimate with an equal quantity of these burnt bones for an hour. Sublime it in this way thrice, adding fresh bones each time. It will come out the third time white, dead, and absorbent. At one end of the cover there should be a hole, large enough for a large needle to enter, in which you insert a stick, bound round with cotton.

Take this out once an hour, and drop the sublimate that is on it (onto the shelf).

When, on removing it, then see no more sublimate on it, stop the fire, and let it

(the apparatus) cool. Then collect what is on the shelf after gently breaking the joint Moisten and soften what has collected with castor oil, and place it in a luted phial. Place this in a pot of ashes and close the mouth of the phial with (a piece of) wool. Burn a fire under the pot, in order to remove the moisture.

When this has occurred, seal up the mouth of the phial and heap ashes over it.

Over the ashes small pieces of charcoal are placed, by which a fire is lit on the top. In this way the substance will coagulate in the phial like (the metal used to make) a Chinese mirror. When this is attained, project 1 dirham of it on to 20 dirhams of copper. Then it will penetrate into it and function most effectively. 33

Sublimation of camphor was also an important indigenous aromatic of great antiquity in Chinese culture. 34 The chips of camphor tree wood were renewed twice daily, and the camphor was carried upwards in the steam to condense like snow in the inverted earthenware jars above, whence it was

33 . Cf. Syed Hossein Nasr, op.cit., pp. 271-72. 34 . Needham, op.cit., p. 47. 73 collected by hand every ten days. 35 Sublimation of camphor was also carried out in India, southeast Asia and by the Arabs. The 9 th century text of Al-Kindi contains several recipes for the purification of camphor by sublimation. 36

Ain-i Akbari gives vivid reference on camphor and the detail description of making it using sublimation process. The camphor tree is a large tree growing in ghauts of Hindustan and in China. Camphor is collected from the trunk and the branches during the winter. The camphor within the tree looks like small bits of salt, that on the outside rise resin. If often flows from the tree on the ground, and gets after sometime, solid”. 37 Abul Fazl further states that

“the camphor which is made of zurumbad by mixing it with other ingredients, is called chini or Mayyit camphor. While Zurumbad is finely pounded, and mixed with sour cream of cow or buffalo; on the fourth day they put fresh cream to it, and beat it with the hand till foam appears, which they take away.

With this they mix some camphor, put it into a box, and keep it for sometime in the husks of grains or, they reduce some white stone to fine powder, mix it at the rate of ten dirhams of it with two dirhams of wax and half a dirham of oil of violet, or oil of Surkh gul . The wax is first melted, and then mixed with powder, so as to form a paste. They then put it between two stones, and make it thin and flat. When it gets cold, it looks like camphor, bits of which are mixed

35 . Ibid. 36 . Ibid., p. 49. 37 . Ain-i Akbari , op.cit. I, pp. 83-84. 74 with it”. 38 Thus we find that Abul Fazl was familiar with the sublimation process.

The simplest form of vessel for this purpose was used. Two vessels are adjusted so that the neck of the one fits into that of the other. The junction of the necks is luted with a composition made of lime, raw sugar, rusk of iron and buffalo’s milk. This inverted pot is known as patna yantram 39 in Sanskrit. The other apparatus which is the modification of the above apparatus in which “the bottom of the upper vessel is smeared with the substance, the vapour or essence thereof condensing into the water of the lower one. Heat is applied on the top of the upper vessel by means of the fire of dried cow dung”.40 (Fig. G)

Figure G : Adhaspatana Yantram

38 . Ibid., p. 84. 39 Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , op.cit., Chapter IX, verse, p. 40 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 189. 75

Needham accepted that the inverted pot must be considered very old and it is surprising that the alchemists in ancient China made no use of it 41 , but the

Indian specially Hindu scientist perhaps used it since ancient time and that was continued till medieval time which is frequently found in Sanskrit sources.

Another vessel used for sublimation is Dipika yantra 42 though this yantra resembling with the Patna yantra .43 But in China, a vessels which made of pottery or metal, and having removable lids are illustrated in Chinese alchemical book what is called a ‘mercury vessel’ – hung ting in a sung book.

So we find that the medieval Indian sources give much information on sublimation and also about apparatus.

(c) Bleaching

Bleaching is a chemical process for whitening materials. The most important industrial uses of bleaching are in the treatment of textiles. Prior to the application of any dye to the woven cloth, it was washed and bleached. The bleachers belonged to a particular caste in India who washed clothes in order to earn their livelihood. The bleachers used lime and some others local ingredients to boil their cloth, took it to a nearby river or pound, beat it vigorously on a stone slab with a beetle. Tavernier (1667) emphasizes the use of lemon in bleaching cotton. 44 He says the people of Kasimbazar used to bleach silken

41 . Needham, op.cit., p. 44. 42 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , op.cit., Chapter IX, verses 17-19, p. 342. 43 . Needham, op.cit., p. 45. 44 Tavernier, Travels in India, 1640-67 (tr.) V. Ball, London, 1889, vol. II, p. 5. 76 fabrics with a lye made of the ashes of the plantain. 45 A variety of soap called

Iraqi , was considered by most effective in washing clothes bright white. 46

When the cloth was intended for dyeing, then khar or carbonate of soda 47 was used for bleaching. Shikarpuri used sulphur and the people of Patna used kundri (a local root) and Abraq (mica) which gives a lustrous finishing to the cloth, were used as bleaching agent. 48 Roques in his account of the 17 th century cloth printing in India refers to “half bleaching”.49 The Beauticus MS of 1734 tells us that rice water and lime were customarily used in bleaching ordinary cloth. 50

Bleaching for permanent prints needed another process. For this purpose, impure carbonate of soda and infusion of finely powdered myrobalan weighing one and a quarter pounds, bahera (Terminalia ballerica) four ounces, galls of tamarinsk articulate four ounces, bel one and a half pounds, was prepared in castor oil. This infusion sufficed for twenty pieces of cloth measuring five and one third yards by thirty eight inches. The cloth was dipped in this and then dried repeatedly for many days. Finally the cloth was smoothened preliminary to printing. 51

45 . Ibid., II, p. 3. 46 . Mirat, 369 Cf. O.P. Jaggi, Science and Technology in Medieval India , vol. VII, p. 154. 47 . Ain-i Akbari , I, p. 478. 48 . Naqvi, Hameeda Khatoon, Urban Centres and Industries in Upper India (1556-1803) , Asia Publishing House, Bombay-1, 1968, p. 157. 49 . Quoted in Paul R. Schwartz, tr. Printing on Cotton at Ahmedabad in India in 1678, p. 7. 50 . Ibid., p. 10. 51 . Liotard, 132-33, Quoted in Naqvi’s book, op.cit., pp. 174-75. 77

(d) Fermentation

From ancient times intoxicating drinks have been prepared with the application of fermentation and used in India as in other parts of the world. The

Harappans two thousand years ago appear to have known the process of alcoholic fermentation and their distillation. 52 Different sources both in

Sanskrit and Persian gives the reference of this technique.

The word for the fermentation is known as kinvan in Sanskrit and khamir in Persian. The Ramayana has four methods 53 while according to

Charaka nine sources containing sugar were employed for fermentation. These were sugarcane juice, guda (jaggery), molasses, honey, coconut water, sweet palmyra sap and mahua flowers. 54

The description of alcoholic fermentation in Kautilya’s Arthasastra 55 are also found. He gives the seven kinds of liquors described are: Medaka, prasanna, asava, arista, maireya and madhu .

Medaka is prepared form the fermentation of rice; prasanna from the fermentation of flour with addition of spices and the fruits of Putraka (a species of tree in the country of kamrupa). Asava is the liquor derived from the fermentation of sugar mixed with honey. Jaggery mixed with powder of long

52 . Mahdi Hassan, S., Distillation assembly of pottery in ancient India with a single item of special construction, Vishveshvaranand Indological Journal , 1979, vol. 17, p. 246. 53 . Acharya, K.T., “Alcoholic Fermentation and its products in Ancient India”, IJHS , 26(2) 1999, p. 124. 54 . Ibid. 55 . Shama Sastry, R., Kautilya’s Arthasastra , Westeyan Mission Press, Mysore, 2nd ed. 1923, pp. 143-146. Kangle, R.R., The Kautilya Arthasastra 1972 (2nd ed.) Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, Repr. 1986, vol. 2, pp. 154-156. Ray, P., History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India , Calcutta 1956, pp. 56-57. 78 and black, pepper or with the powder of triphala (mixture of Terminalia chebula ; Terminala beleric and Phyllanthus emblica ), when fermented, forms maireya . Fermented grape juice is termed madhu . The preparation of different kinds of arista for different diseases can be learnt from the physicians.

The liquor of sugarcane and Mahuwa were perhaps easily available during the medieval period. The Ain-i-Akbari gives the clear information, how to make the liquor with the method of fermentation.56 Abul Fazl said that sugarcane was used for the preparation of intoxication liquor, but brown sugar was better for this purpose. 57 There were various ways preparing it, but he gives the only one method which is as follows :

“Babul 58 bark mining it at the rate of ten sers to one man of sugarcane, and put three times as much water over it, then take large jars fill them with the mixture, and put them into the ground, surrounding them with dry dung from seven to ten days are required to produce fermentation. It is a sign of perfection, when it has a sweet, but a stringent taste. When the liquor is too be strong, they again put to the mixture some brown sugar, and sometimes even drugs and perfumes, as ambergris, camphor etc. They also let meat dissolve in it. This beverage, when strained may be used, but it is mostly employed for the preparation of arrak”. 59 The these arrak after fermentation were distilled with three methods 60 which I have already discussed above (under distillation).

56 . Ain-i Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, H., p. 73. 57 . Ibid. 58 . A species of acaic, the kikar of the Punjab. 59 . Ain-i Akbari , op.cit., p. 73. 60 . Joseph Needham mentioned these methods as the Mongol, the Chinese and Hellenistic types respectively. 79

Further this text gives the information of Mahuwa’s liquor. “The Mahua tree resembles the mango tree; its wood is used for building purposes. The fruit, which is also called Gilaunda , yields an intoxicating liquor”. 61

The most common and perhaps the cheapest during the medieval period was the tari or juice of coconut palm or date which get after fermentation. Ain gives the reference to tari as :

“The tarkul tree, and its fruit, resemble the coconut palm and its fruit.

When the stalk of a new leaf comes out of a branch, they cut off its end and hang a vessel to it to receive the out flowing juice. The vessel will fill twice or three times a day. The juice is called tari; when fresh it is sweet; when it is allowed to stand for some time it turns subacid (after fementation and is inebriating”. 62

Some superior kinds of wines were imported from countries like

Portugal and Persia during the medieval time. 63

Ain 25 of Ain-i Akbari provide information about bread making and refers a kind of bread called chappati . But the other kind of breads which was prepared by coarsely pounded flour, left to ferment for two or three days to take a dough bread which is also prevalent in modern society perhaps this bread was also known during the medieval India.

61 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit., p. 75. 62 . Ibid., p. 75. 63 . Jagg, O.P., Science and Technology in Medieval India , vol. 7, Atma Ram & Sons, 1981, Delhi, p. 189. 80

Thus, the information in the preceding pages throws light on the various chemical processes involved. The Persian and Sanskrit sources are rich warehouses of information on those chemical processes. Considerable amount of material is to be found in these sources on various chemical processes such as distillation, sublimation, bleaching and fermentation and their use for many practical purposes.

Chapter – 4

CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

(A) GUN POWDER AND ITS APPLICATIONS

(i) Composition

(ii) Recipes

(iii) Application

(B) PREPARATION OF ACIDS, AKALIS, INKS, POISONS

(C) PAPER TECHNOLOGY

(D) COSMETICS AND PERFUMES

Chapter – 4

CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

The medieval period saw the development of chemical industries at a considerable large scale. The gunpowder industry brought about a revolutionary change in the Indian scenario during the medieval period. The

Persian and Sanskrit sources of medieval period enlighten us about the ingredients such as saltpeter, sulphur and charcoal used for making of gunpowder and also discuss its various recipes and application for military purpose and making fireworks. These sources are also a rich store house for providing information on preparation of acids, both organic and mineral acids, alkalis, preparation of ink and poisons and several chemical components used for making them. A great deal of information on paper technology, cosmetics and perfumes soap manufacture has also been dealt by the medieval texts.

(A) GUN POWDER AND ITS APPLICATION

The gun powder technology brought a revolutionary change in the existing socio-political structures around the world. The Chinese are generally regarded as the harbingers of this technology by inventing gunpowder through mixing saltpeter, sulphur and carbonaceous material in as early as ninth century

A.D. 1 There is a great deal of information on the subject in the Chinese military compendia. The earliest mention of gunpowder is found in Wu Ching Tsung

1 . This is given in a reference in a Taoist book which asks the alchemists not to mix these materials with arsenic as it may burn down their building and cause serious injury. Cf. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China , Vol. V, Part 7, p. 1. 82

Yao (collection of the Most Important Military Techniques), written under the orders of the Emperor Sung (1040 to 1044 AD) by an official named Tseng

Kung Liang. 2

It is only in the late thirteenth century that we get the first reference of gunpowder in the European texts. 3 Liber Ignium ad Comburendos Hostes

(Book of Fires for the Burning of Enemies), supposed to have been written by

Marcus Graecus 4, is often regarded as Arabic in origin. 5 An Arabic text named

Kitab al Furusiya wa’l-Munasab al-Harbiya written by Hasan al-Rammah

Najm al-Din al-Ahdab in about 1280 A.D. is believed to be the source of Mark the Greek’s Liber Ignium. Further, Partington noticed some traces that point towards the Chinese origins of the Arabic text itself. 6 Roger Bacon on the other hand is famous for texts like Secretum Secretorum, Opus Maius, Opus Minus,

Opus Tertium and Epistola de Secretis. 7 Opus Maius and Opus Tertium refer to experiments which hint that explosion may have been witnessed by the writer. 8

It seems that he had a sample of Chinese crackers in his possession. His recipes however were not sufficient to produce any pyrotechnical reaction. 9

In the Indian context there has been a lot of doubt regarding the earliest reference of gunpowder. The issue started with Elliot’s note on the subject

2 . Ibid., pp. 18-19. 3 . The important names in this regard are Marcus Graecus or Mark the Greek and Roger Bacon. 4 . While there have been many interpretations regarding the identity of the writer Needham thinks that he was just a name for the collection. 5 . Needham, p. 39. 6 . Cf. Partington, J.R., A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder , Cambridge, 1960, p. 202. 7 . Needham, pp. 47-8. Interestingly, he wrote his formulae and recipes in a cryptic form. 8 . Ibid., p. 48. 9 . Vernard Foley and Keith Parry, in Defence of Liber Ignium , Journal of the History of Arabic Sciences , Vol. 2 and 3, pp. 1718. 83 entitled, “On the Early Use of Gunpowder in India”.10 He gave an account of the arguments forwarded by Elphinstone, Halhed, Carey, Marshman, Johnson and others who tried to situate the use of fire-arms in Ancient India. 11 He concludes his account by saying : “Fire-arms of some kind were used in the early stages of Indian History”. 12 Most importantly he stated that, “this destructive agent [saltpeter] appears to have fallen into disuse before we reach authentic history”. 13

On the other hand, P.C. Ray seriously doubted the ancient origins of the use of gunpowder in Indian warfare. He is of the view that “the first record of the use of cannon and gunpowder in Indian warfare is in the memoirs of Baber

(Babur)”. 14 Later on P.K. Gode found references to fireworks in a fifteenth century Sanskrit text called Kautukacintamani by Gajapati Prataparudradeva of

Orissa. The text provides details about the various ingredients of pyrotechnic mixtures.15

Recently, Vijaya Deshpande asserted that the firearms were first mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts like Rigveda, Atharavaveda, Arthasastra,

Manusmriti and Dasakumaracharita. 16 She found a reference of an Indian

10 . Elliot, H., History of India as Told by its Own Historians , Vol. VI, Appendix A, pp. 455-482. 11 . Ibid., pp. 470-474. 12 . Ibid., p. 481. 13 . Ibid., p. 482. 14 . Gode, P.K., ‘Use of Guns and gunpowder in India from A.D. 1400 onwards’, in Studies in Indian Cultural History , Vol. II, Collected Works Publication Committee, Poona, 1960, p. 44. Also see Khan, I.A., Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India , OUP, New Delhi, 2004, p. 17. 15 . Gode, P.K., “The History of Fireworks in India”, in Studies in Indian Cultural History , Vol. II, p. 44. 16 . Written by Dandin in sixth century A.D. it discusses about magic powder ( Yogachurna ). 84

Buddhist monk visiting China in AD 664 with ample knowledge of saltpeter.

She, however, maintains that perhaps it was not used as an ingredient in the gunpowder mixture. 17 It is a verse in the Sanskrit alchemical text

Rasopanishad (11 th -12 th century AD) which narrated the preparation of a gunpowder mixture. 18 But then she also acknowledges that it is rather difficult to say whether the Indians knew about gunpowder mixture as used in fire-arms before the fifteenth century. 19

Using the fifteenth century dictionary Sharafnamah-i-Ahmad Muniari

M. Akram Makhdoomee read the term kushk-anjir 20, mentioned in Adab al- harb wa'l shuja'ah by Fakhr-i Mudabbir as modern day cannon. He also used an eighteenth century work, Bahar-i Ajam by Tek Chand Bahar which defines the same term as an instrument of war worked with gunpowder. He concluded that the use of gunpowder was known “much earlier than the fourteenth century”. 21 I.A. Khan haas criticized Makhdoomee for ‘a serious flaw in the methodology’. 22 He ascribes the earliest textural reference about pyrotechnics based on gunpowder in the Delhi Sultanate to a qasida composed by Amir

Khusrau. 23

17 . See Vijaya Jayant Deshpande, “History of Chemistry and Alchemy in India from Pre-Historic to Pre-Modern Times” in A. Rehman ed., History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture AD 1000-1800 , New Delhi, OUP, 2000, p. 141. 18 . Ibid., p. 141. 19 . Ibid., p. 143. 20 . It is mentioned in Adab al-harb wa’l shuja’ah by Fakhr-I Mudabbir belonging to Iltutmish’s reign. 21 . Makhdoomee, M.A., ‘The Art of war in Medieval India’, in Islamic Culture , Vol. XI, No. 4, p. 475. 22 . He argues that Makhdoomee attributed fifteenth century meaning to the terms belonging to thirteenth and fourteenth century texts. See, I.A. Khan, gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India , OUP, New Delhi, 2004, p. 210. 23 . The qasida was composed in the praise of Jalal al-Din Firoz Khalji in 1290-6. A hawai or rocket is mentioned in the qasida which could only work with the use of gun powder. L.A. Khan, op.cit., p. 18. 85

COMPOSITION : (A) INGREDIENTS

The basic ingredients of gunpowder are saltpeter, sulphur and charcoal.

All of these components were easily available in the Indian subcontinent in

Ancient India. 24 There is ample amount of information in both Sanskrit and

Persian texts of this period on this issue. We shall be dealing with all the three components one by one with special emphasis on their reference in the

Sanskrit and Persian sources.

Saltpeter:

Saltpeter, the first basic component, was easily available through lixiviation and crystallization in Gangetic India. 25 It was also obtained from soil efflorescence in Bengal during the rainy season. 26

Basically, the Sanskrit sources provide information about saltpeter as one of the ingredients in the transmutation of metals. Rasarnava mentions the use of saltpeter or Sauvarchala in the transmutation process. The text explains the use of saltpeter with other substances to make a vida (mixture) to kill all metals.27 Later in the text there is a reference to the killing of gold with the help of saltpeter along with other components. 28

24 . Asitesh Bhatacharya, “Gunpowder and its Applications in Ancient India”, in Brenda J. Buchanan, ed., Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A Technological History , Ashgate, Hampshire, 2006, p. 45. 25 . Elliot, H.M., History of India as Told by its Own Historians , Vol. VI, Appendix A, pp. 481-82. 26 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 228. 27 . Rasarnava , chapter IX, verse 2-3. Cf. P. Ray, ed., History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India , Indian Chemical Society, Calcutta, 1956, p. 139. 28 . Rasarnava , Chapter XI, verse 83-86, Cf. P. Ray, op.cit., p. 139. 86

Rasahridaya 29 by Govinda Bhagavat and Rasa Ratna Samuccaya by

Vagbhata refer to Sauvarachala or saltpeter in the category of six salts. 30 It is in Katukacinatamani by Gajapati Prataparudradeva that we find the use of saltpeter as an ingredient in gunpowder mixture. The term used for saltpeter in the text is Yavakshara . It also mentions Panchakshara or five kinds of salt. 31

Verses 201-202 of Sukraniti, a sixteenth century treatise by Sukracharya, mention the use of Saltpeter in the formation of fire-powder. 32 Further, in the same text, verse 203 and verses 206-08 provide the recipes for the use of fire powder in guns and pyrotechnics respectively. 33

In the Persian sources too there is a considerable amount of information on saltpeter but it is scattered. Adat ul-fuzala 34 , written by Qazi Khan Badr

Muhammad Dharwal at Jaunpur during 1419-20 A.D. and Sharaf-nama-i

Ahmad Munairi 35 compiled by Ibrahim-i Qawam Faruqi during 1457-64 AD, explain shora or saltpeter in different ways. 36 Abul Fazl's famous work Ain-i

Akbari provides interesting information about Saltpeter and its uses. There is a

29 . Chapter IX, Rasaridaya , Ibid., p. 148. 30 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya by Vagbhata, edited with English translation by Damadar Joshi, in IJHS INSA, New Delhi. 31 . Gode, P.K., Studies in Indian Culture History, Vol. II, Collected Works Publication committee, Poona, 1960, pp. 43-44. 32 . Cf. Ray, P., op.cit., p. 225. 33 . Ibid., p. 225. 34 . Maulana Azad Library, A.M.U., MS, Univ. Farhang Lughat, No. 5. 35 . This text is preserved in the Maulana Azad Library, A.M.U. and Aligarh under the title Farhang-Ibrahimi , Habibganj Collection 53/22. 36 . While Adat ul Fuzala calls it as “salt derived from earth which is at times used for throwing naft (naft andazi )”, the Sharafnama-i Ahmad Munairi calls it “saline earth from which salt is separated. Fire workers are known to use it and it is also used in pyrotechny ( atishbazi )”, Cf. Khan, I.A., op.cit., pp. 211-12. 87 reference to the use of saltpeter as a coolant. 37 Significantly enough the use of saltpeter as the base matter for gunpowder and the latter's use in wars and ceremonial fire works. The text also mentions the subah of Berar as the area from which saltpeter was procured. 38

Bayaz-i Khushbui, an anonymous text of Shahjahan’s reign contains vivid details about the use of shora in gunpowder. Particularly, its thirteenth

Bab is exclusively devoted to atishbazi (firworks or pyrotechnics), wherein various recipes and the quantity of shora along with different ingredients are elucidated. 39

The traveler accounts also shed some light on the procurement of

Saltpeter. The Remonstrantie of Francisco Pelsaert, a Dutch factor posted in

India from 1620 to 1627, provides information on the procurement of

Saltpeter. 40 4V The author states that Saltpeter was found naturally near Agra in the periphery of 10 to 40 kos. The method of its extraction has been explained in detail. Further, the author gives the quantity of Saltpeter produced in Agra as a probable 5,000 to 6,000 maunds per annum. 41

Sulphur: Sulphur is the second basic ingredient of gunpowder. The Sanskrit sources possess interesting information on the origin of Sulphur. The texts like

Rasarnava, Rasarnavakalpa. Rasahrdayatantram, Rasa Ratna Samuccaya,

37 . Ain-i Akbari , translated by H. Blochmann, Vol. I, Low Price Publication, Delhi, 2001, p. 58. 38 . Ain-i Akbari , Vol. 2, p. 239. 39 . Bayaz-i Khushbui , I.O. 828, Rotograph no. 194, Department of History, A.M.U., Aligarh. 40 . Jahangir’s India : The Remontrantie of Francisco Pelsaert , tr. by W.H. Moreland and P. Geyl, IAD Oriental Series No. 8, Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli. 41 . Ibid., p. 36. 88

Katukacintamani and Sukraniti provide detailed account of its ‘origin’42 , varieties. properties, purification and method of its uses.

Out of the above mentioned sources only Rasa Ratna Samuccaya provides a comprehensive account of Sulphur and its uses. It gives a mythological origin of Sulphur by claiming that it originated from the menstrual discharge of goddess Parvati at Sveta dvipa and came out of the churning of milk ocean Ksira Sagara as gandhak along with nectar. 43 Damodar

Joshi interprets goddess Parvati as nature. Sveta dvipa as Sicily, churning of ocean as volcanic eruptions and menstrual discharge as the molten materials from the volcano. 44 The text mentions four varieties of Sulphur based on colour viz., white, yellow, red and black. Verses 12-15 of the third chapter in the text provide this information and are being quoted below:

“On the basis of colour it [Sulphur] is of four types, i. e., white, yellow, red and black. The white variety is called khatika which is good for lepana

(pasting) and loha marana (converting metals to ashes). That which is yellow in colour is called amala sara. The same is called Sukapiccha also. It is considered best for rasakarma and rasayana karma, both. The sulphur is called sukatunda and is good for dhatuvada vidhi (alchemical processes/purposes). The black variety of sulphur is rare. If available it can destroy senility/ageing process and may cause death”. 45

42 . These texts trace a mythological origin of Sulphur. 43 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya of Vagabhatta, ed. & tr. Damodar Joshi, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, 1987. 44 . Ibid., p 115. 45 . Here dhatuvada vidhi specifically implies the use of sulphur in transmutation of metals. Ibid., p. 97. 89

According to the author Sulphur possessed a superior rasayana

(rejuvenating) property and was known to have a sweet taste. The text mentions two types of impurities. The insoluble impurities from the first type while the soluble impurities form the second one. For purification the Rasa

Ratna Samuccaya advises to melt sulphur with cow's ghee and pour it in milk or other extractives through a cloth. When repeated several times this process yielded pure sulphur. Purified sulphur was to be used both externally and internally for the treatment of skin disorders. Hot in effect it could stimulate digestive fire, remove toxins and improve vigour and strength. It could also impart potency to mercury and lessen its toxicity. Curing of skin diseases, improvement in digestion. removal of toxins, the removal of bacteria and worms, are some of the other uses of Sulphur mentioned in the text. For internal use purified sulphur or its oil form or druti had to be used. 46 Rasarnava too mentions that any metal could be easily killed by sulphur. 47

Verses 336-337 of Rasarnavakalpa recommend the use of sulphur according to the prescribed rules as its otherwise nectar like qualities can change into poison. 48

The Persian sources like Ain-i Akbari and Bayaz-i Khushbui give information about the procurement and uses of sulphur. While the earlier source sheds light on its uses in metallurgy the latter highlights its importance in pyrotechnics. Ain-i Akbari mentions that mines of Sulphur are found in

46 . Ibid., pp. 97-99. 47 . Rasarnava , Book IV, Chapter VII, Verses 138-142. Cf. P. Ray, op.cit., p. 138. 48 . Rasarnavakalpa , Mira Roy and B.V. Subarayappa eds., INSA, Delhi, p. 84. 90

Bengal. 49 Bayaz-i Khushbui mentions the use of gugird or sulphur in the preparation of fireworks.50

Charcoal: The third basic ingredient of gunpowder is Charcoal. India being immensely rich in flora, charcoal was produced from different varieties of trees each having its distinct quality. Few texts name the plants whose charcoal was used in the preparation of gunpowder. Rasa Ratna Samuccaya informs us about charcoal or kokilas. The verse 18 of the seventh chapter gives three synonyms of charcoal viz. Sikhitra, pavakocchista and angara. It defines the kokilas as the burning charcoals extinguished by itself without water. 51 Katukacintamani of Gajapati Prataparudradeva of Orissa written in the early sixteenth century mentions two types of charcoal for pyrotechnic mixtures. The first type of charcoal is called Angar 52 or the charcoal made of bamboo, pine, willow, etc. in the text. The second type is Arkangaar or the charcoal prepared from the wood of the Arka .53 It is from the verses 201-202 of Sukraniti written by Sukracharya in the sixteenth century that we come to know about the use of the plants Arka

(Calotropis gigantea) and Snuhi (Euphorbia nerrifolia ) for the preparation of charcoal.54 Thirteenth bab of the Bayaz-i Khushbui mentions the use of zughal

(a live coal) as different from angisht (charcoal) an ingredient in a gunpowder recipe.55

49 . Ain-i Akbari , Blochmann, tr., Vol. II, p. 132. 50 . Bayaz-i Khushbui , op.cit. , folio b, p. 149. 51 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya (tr.) Damodar Joshi, p. 294. 52 . Gode, P.K. maintains that the materials used in this type of charcoal are also mentioned in the Chinese text Wu Pei Chih . 53 . P.K. Gode, ‘The History of Fireworks in India between AD. 1400-1900, Studies in Indian Cultural History , Vol. II, Collected Works Publication Committee, Poona, 1960, pp. 43-44. 54 . P. Ray, op.cit., p. 225. 55 . Bayaz-i-Khushbui , op.cit., passim. 91

Gunpowder Recipes:

Most of the sources of this period provide various recipes for the preparation of a gunpowder mixture. Rasopanisad narrates the preparation of

Sphotaka or explosive mixture. The author mentions the heating of various salts 56 with alkalies and the addition of wax and sulphur to form an explosive mixture. 57 The Katukacintamani of Gajapati Prataparudradeva has a section on the manufacture of specific fireworks which was discovered by P.K. Gode.

Gode asserts that the text contains formulas for the preparation of fireworks like Kalpavrakshabana, Chamarabana, Chandrajyoti, Champabana,

Pushpavarti. Chhuchhundrirasabana, Tikshananala and Pushpabana. 58 Gode mentions the use of the following materials in the manufacture of fireworks in the text: Sulphur (gandhaka), Saltpeter (yavakshara), Charcoal (angara), Steel and Iron powder (tikshna loha churna and loha churna), copper carbonate

(jangala), yellow orpiment (talakam or harital), ochre (garika), wood of

'khadire' tree (khadiram daru), hollow bamboo piece (nalaka), wick (bartika), five salts (pancha kshara), lodestone (akhupashan), pulp of castor seeds

(aranda majja), mercury (sutam), rice paste (annapista), tin or lead (naga), charcoal from the 'arka' wood (arkangara), cow's urine (gomutra) and cinnabar

(vermilion).59

56 . Sea-salt, black-salt, saline-salt, ammonium chloride, Romaka and potassium nitrate were the mentioned salts. 57 . Cf. Vijava Javant Deshpande, “History of Chemistry and Alchemy in India from Pre-historic to Pre-modern Times”, in A. Rahman (ed.), History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture AD 1000-1800 , OUP, New Delhi, 1999, p. 141. 58 . P.K. Gode, ‘The History of Fireworks in India Between A.D., 1400-1900, Studies in Indian Culture History , Vol. II, Collected Works Publication Committee, Poona, 1960, p. 43. 59 . Ibid., pp. 43-44. 92

Sukracharya’s Sukraniti or the ‘Elements of Polity’ gives enough indication about the presence of the knowledge of manufacturing gun-powder by providing recipes of the same. The verses 201-202 of the text describe the method by which it was produced. The author advises to powder and mix five palas 60 of saltpeter, one pala of sulphur and one pala of charcoal .61 Thereafter, the mixture needed to be mashed in the juice of various plants and garlic, dried in the sun and grinded to obtain the fineness of sugar. This resulted in the production of firepowder. Further, the verse 203 suggests adding six or four palas of saltpeter instead of five palas to produce fire-powder for a gun with the proportion of other substances remaining the same. 62

Bayaz-i-Khushbui discusses in detail the method of preparing cannon balls for tufung and top . It also provides eighty seven gun-powder recipes for use in pyrotechnics. The exact measurements and quantities of various ingredients to be used are vividly explained in the text. Most of the recipes mention the use of four basic ingredients in various proportions. They are shora (saltpeter), gugird (sulphur), zughal (live coal) and faulad (powder of iron/steel). The quantities of these ingredients differ to give varied results in terms of the sound and smoke created after the explosion. While the quantity of shora remains more or less the same at 10-12 misqal , the other ingredients vary. The standards used for weight in the text are misqal and dirham . A misqal was equivalent to 4.23 grams. 63 Some important recipes are Ayar-i- Tarakak,

60 . According to Rasa Ratna Samuccaya one pala consisted of four tolas. See Rasaratna Samuccaya , tr. Damodar Joshi, p. 469. 61 . This kind of charcoal was prepared from the wood of Calotropis gigantean and Euphorbia nerifolia by destructive distillation. 62 . P. Ray, op.cit., p. 225. 63 . Vide E.S. Kennedy ed. and tr. Al-Biruni’s Kitab Tahdid al-Amakin , Beirut, 1974, p. 3. 93

Ayar-i Gule Sadbarg and Ayar-i Tutak Andarkafas. Unlike other recipes each of these three recipes is followed by directions to bring desired results by change in the proportion of the ingredients. To prepare the recipe of Ayar- i

Tarakak, the text advises to use two dirham of gugird (sulphur), one daram of shora (saltpeter) and two darams of angisht (charcoal). The note given below the recipe states that the loudness of the result depends upon the quantity of paper in the mixture. Its range is same as of Ayar-i Hawal. 64 The recipe of

Ayar-i Gule Sadbarg includes ten darams of shora , ten darams of gugird and seven dirham of angist. The text also gives a detailed method to prepare this mixture. The text advises to increase the quantity of anyone of the ingredients in order to produce more smoke. In case less smoke is desired the quantity of anyone of the ingredients may be decreased. 65 The preparation of Ayar-i-Tutak

Andarkafas needs ten dirham of shora , 13½ dirham of angisht, six dirham of gugird , twelve dirham of faulad , three dirham of nakhudgugird . All the ingredients are to be mixed in vinegar and dried in the sun. This process is to be repeated ten times and the mixture is to be covered and stored in a container.

Gugird is to be mixed fifty times and grinded. It should be grinded five hundred times. The container or kafas is to be coiled with an iron wire and two pieces of wood are to be placed on its top to form a wheel. On ignition the wooden pieces soar in the air and the firework display is witnessed. This recipe is also called Ustad-i-Awaz Baghdadi .66

64 . Bayaz-i-Khushbui , p. 141 folio (b). 65 . Ibid., p. 149 folio (a) 66 . Ibid., p. 151 folio (b). 94

Gunpowder Application

The Sanskrit and Persian sources of the period enumerate the varied applications of gunpowder. Broadly, these can be classified into two types :

(a) Military applications

(b) Fireworks

(a) Military applications

The uses of gunpowder as weapon of war was an important phenomenon in military operation during medieval time. There were many firearms were used but three weapons like ban, cannon and guns were most important.

Ban :

The term Bana to denote an arrow first appeared in the Sanskrit text during the 15 th century. 67 Irfan Habib 68 point out that the term ban or its

Sanskritized version bana was of obscure origin which came to be adopted first in Sanskrit usage and then in the Persian writings to mean a rocket during the period its use as a weapon of war became increasingly common.

The gunpowder based device, the hawai is reported being frequently used in military operations by the rulers of Malwa, Gujrat, Delhi and Jaunpur.

We find many references to tir-i Hawai (rocket arrow) or Huqqa (round vessel). 69 But from the end of 16 th century onward, it came to generally referred

67 . Khan, I.A., Gunpowder and firearm, warfare in Medieval India , OUP, 2004, p. 26. 68 . Ibid., p. 26. 69 . Masir-i Mahmud Shahi , Shaihab Hakim (ed.) Hasan Ansari, Delhi, 1968, pp. 57, 86, 121, 123. Tarikh-i Firishta , vol. I, p. 228. 95 to India as ban. The ban/fir-i hawai consisted of an iron tube filled with gunpowder which on being ignited could be made to fly towards a target.

In the 16 th century the ban came to be widely used all over India down to the late 18 th century. The Afghan rulers, the Lodis and later the Surs also frequently relied on this weapon in their siege operations. The description of accidental explosion at Kalinjar in 1545 which caused to imply the presence of a large number of rockets in the Afghan camp on that occasion. The massive use of bans by the Mughals during Akbar’s reign can be gauged from the Ain-i

Akbari .

In Ain-i Akbari we came across a list of weapons used by the Mughal army. In that list ban comes as item No. 77. 70 Akbarnama had also made some casual remarks on rockets as follow : “ Kahak Banha (rockets) which are a kind of fire works being discharged against the imperial army and that one of them fell among thorn bushes and made such a noise that one of the enemy’s most notable elephants got alarmed and by companion produced a great route among the foe”. 71

This ban (rocket) was a Chinese innovation while I.A. Khan accepted that it came to West Asian and North India with the Mongols 72 and Irfan

Habib 73 accepted that Bans have been introduced in India directly from China.

70 . Ain-i Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, H., p. 119. 71 . Akbarnama (tr.) Beveridge, H., 2nd edition (revised) Calcutta, 1939, vol. III, p. 79. 72 . Khan, I.A., op.cit., p. 19. 73 . Irfan Habib, ‘Changes in Technology in Medieval India’, Studies in History , Vol. II, No. 1, p. 32. 96

Cannon :

Use of cannon in India prior to 1526 is an interesting debatable topic.

But it is well known fact that Babur was the first who used cannon in the battle of Panipat. I.A. Khan who has traced the evidence of early use of cannon from the surviving Persian sources of medieval India. He accepted that the missile throwing weapon known during the second half of the 15 th century as rad or

Kaman-i rad was actually a cannon. 74

P.K. Gode has also tried to establish that in the second half of the 15 th century, cannons were being already used in Gujrat, Malwa and Kashmir. 75

The Mughal artillery underwent massive modernization during Akbar’s reign. 76 The greatest single factor in this direction was the inventive genius of

Shah Fat’hullah Shirazi who joined Akbar’s court as Sadr in 1583. It was this inventive genius who invented 17-barrelled cannon as well the portable cannon, and not, as Abul Fazl had written, Akbar, who invented the above cannons or any of the other mechanical devices ascribed to him. 77 The seventeen barreled cannon probably consisted of 17 barrels welded together and having an inter-connected fuse which enabled all 17 barrels to fire successively. This invention, the forerunner of modern machine gun, was till

74 . Khan, I.A., “Early use of Cannon and Musket in India, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient , Vol. XXIV, Part II, 1980, pp. 163-4. 75 . Gode, P.K., “Manufacture of Fire Arms in India” in Studies in Indian Cultural History , Vol. II, Poona, 1960, pp. 10-30. 76 . For an excellent study of Shah Fathullah Shirazi’s mechanical and military innovations, see Alvi and Rahman, Shah Fathahullah shirazi – A Sixteenth Century Indian Scientist , INSA, 1968, pp. 4-16, 30-32. 77 . Ibid., p. 30. 97 recently believed to have been used for the first time by Napolean III in the

Franco-Prusian war of 1870. 78

On the contrary Abul Fazl, Nuruddin Bakshi (author of Tabaqat-i

Akbari ) and Shahnawaz Khan ( Maasir ul Umara ) have all identified such a cannon to have been in Akbar possession. 79 The other novelty was the protable cannon 80 which was made up of five parts screwed one into the other. Mounted ordinarily on a light carriage, the parts of gun could be separated and easily carried on top of a hill and rejoined for use.

The Ain also mentions smaller cannons which could be carried on the backs of elephants (i.e. gajnal ) and those carried by infantryman (i.e. narnal )81 .

Bayaz-i Khushbui also give informations regarding of cannon ( top-o- tufang ) and cannon ball. 82

Guns :

When handguns were first introduced in India is not known with any measure of certainty. But Bbur’s tufangchis at Bajaur (1519) and Vijayanagar forces at Raichur (1520) used handguns with great effect in siege operation in

India. 83

78 . Alvi and Rahman, op.cit., p. 13. 79 . Alvi and Rahman, op.cit., pp. 30-31; Ain , Naval Kishore I, p. 143. 80 . Ibid., p. 10. 81 . Ain-i Akbar , Nabal Kishore, I, p. 145. 82 . Bayaz-i Khushbui. 83 . Baburnama , (tr.) Beveridge A.S., London, 1969, p. 368 and Fernao Nuniz cited by Robert Sewell, A forgotten Empire, p. 327. 98

Abdul Fazl begins his chapter on handguns ( Ain Banduq ) by comparing the older method of making gun-barrels with the newer one. The former method had involved the rolling of a sheet into a cylinder and welding the edges together lengthwise with the result that the barrel would leak along the welded joint if more than the normal amount (1/4 to 1/3 of the barrel full) gunpowder was used. The method prescribed in the Ain consisted of the rolling of a sheet of iron in an oblique direction so that a roll of iron, several folds thick, was obtained. This roll (or barrel) was then heated so as to cause the folds (of iron) to weld together firmly. Barrels were also made by taking cylindrical pieces of iron, heating them and piercing them with pointed rods.

“Three or four such pieces (when secrewed or welded together) make one gun

(barrel)” 84

The shorter barrels were reported to be 1¼ yards in length while the normal size of a barrel (of a hand-gun) was, according to Abul Fazl, two yards.

Barrels were subjected to severe quality control and Abul Fazl informs us that after filling the barrels upto 1/3 their length with powder, they are fired off. If there is no leakage (tarawish) along the barrel, the barrel is subjected to another text. 85 After fixing the butt and placing the completed piece on the special stand, which minimized the recoil, the gun was loaded with powder and the bullet was fired at a target. “If the ball issued in a crooked line, the barrel was

84 . Ain-i Akbari , Sir Syed, p. 88, Naval Kishore I, p. 143. Many scholars have erred in their interpretation of this innovation in barrel making. Pant, G.N. Studies in Indian Arms , New Delhi, 1972, p. 174; Irvine, W. : Army of the Mughals , New Delhi (1962), p. 139. This innovation is attributed to Fat’hullah Shirazi by Y.A. Khan: “The Educational System in Medieval India”, I.C. XXX, pp. 106-126. 85 . Ain-i Akbari , Naval Kishore, I, p. 144. 99 heated and straightened by means of a rod introduced into it. 86 Even the weight of the bullet (ball) was specified at a maximum of 15 tanks (approx. 60 gram) 87 for larger pieces. The barrels were adorned by the engraver (suhangar) 88 after which the wooden support and the design of the butt were determined. The fact that two or more types of hand-guns were in use in Akbar’s army is indicated by this mention of variation in butt design.

The Ain also gives an interesting reference to a new type of gun namely the wheel-lock. This gun could be “fired off without a match, by a slight movement of the cock”. 89 This mechanism, known as the buttonlock, had a cock connected by a spring to a button, in place of a trigger. The powder in the priming pan was ignited by the sparks that flew from a pyrite stone fixed just where the cock struck. 90 From Abul Fazl’s description of gun-making, it is obvious that this imported mechanism was rapidly assimilated by the Mughal armourers and Akbar was personally supervising the manufacture of button lock guns in his armoury. 91

The gun, once completed was marked with several interesting data. On it were inscribed the weight of the finished iron, the place from where the iron was supplied, the name of the workman, the place where the gun was made, the data, and its number. Accessories such as the ranrod and the ramrod housing

86 . Ibid., p. 144. 87 . Since 1 tanka = 4 masha approx. and 1 masha = 1 gm approx. See Jarrett, III, p. 16n. 88 . Blochmann, I, (1963), p. 121, translates it as ‘filler’. 89 . Ain-i Akbari , Naval Kishore I, p. 144, Blochmann, H., p. 120. 90 . Lugs, J., Firearms: Past and Present , Vol. I, Granville, London, p. 14. 91 . Ain-i-Akbar , op.cit., I, p. 145. 100

(Pargaz ) were also a part of the regular piece. 92 Apparently, Akbar showed personal interest and tested the guns at every stage in their assembly and finishing. However, he could only have done so far the guns made for his personal use. 93

Habib a maker of fireworks or guns, who (first) manufactured muskets in Kashmir, lived in Zainul Abadin reign and had no rival in his art. 94

(b) Fireworks:

The bana (rocket) was predominant among the fireworks produced in medieval India. P.K. Gode traces the earliest reference of bana or rockets to

Katukachintamani .The text mentions eight important types of fireworks and most of them were banas. Kautuka- Cintamani provides formulae for the preparation of banas.

Akasabhairava-Kalpa spells out three banas viz.Bana-vrksa, Camaraka and Bana. One meaning assigned to Bana-vrksa is the hanging rockets discharged from trees while the other meaning suggests of the rocket producing tree-like formations with different heights.95

Thus, it seems pretty clear from the foregoing discussion that the early use of bana was limited to pyrotechny. The Persian source Tarikh-i-Firoz

Shahi of Afif also mentions the use of hawai or rocket in fireworks meant for the celebration of the Shab-i Barat festivities at Delhi at the behest of the

92 . Ibid. 93 . Ain-i Akbari , Naval Kishore, I, p. 145 (tr.) Blochmann, H., 1965, p. 121. 94 . Tabaqat-i-Akbari , Khwajah Nizamuddin Ahmad (tr.), Brajendra Nath (ed.) Baini Prasad, p. 657. 95 . Mira Roy, Pyrotechnics , p. 329. 101

Sultan Firoz Tughluq. Afif calls the firework as Hawaiha-i gulrez anbarbez mi bakht or ‘flower scattering rockets’ which seems an improvisation in pyrotechny. 96

Compiled in A.D. 1467-8 Maasir-i Mahmud Shahi is a chronicle of the

Khalji kingdom of Malwa which describes the display of fireworks at Mandu.

I.A. Khan considers that the above mentioned display was not of naptha but pyrotechny propelled by gunpowder. 97

Akasabhairava-Kalpa mentions the use of Syandanakrti- daruyantra- visesan as a firework in the form of a wheel ignited by daru or gunpowder. 98

Katukachintamani cites the various pyrotechnics that included fireworks other than bana. 99 Bayaz-i Khusbui refers to numerous fireworks that were in used seventeenth century. 100 The Chapter on Atishbaazi in the text gives the following fireworks Ayar-i-gul, Ayar-i-gul-i Nui-digar, Ayar-i-Tez Amal, Ayar- i-Gule Mahtab, Ayar-i Gule digar, Ayar-i Gule Nargis, Ayar-i- Aftab etc.

(B) PREPARATION OF ACIDS, ALKALIES, INKS, POISONS, ETC.

ACIDS:

The Encyclopedia Britannica defines acid as, “any substance that in water solution tastes sour, changes the colour of certain indicators (e.g. reddens blue litmus paper), reacts with some metals (e.g. iron) to liberate hydrogen,

96 . Afif, Tarikh-i Firuz Shahi , ed. Maulavi Vilayat Husain (Calcutta, 1890), pp. 365-7. 97 . Khan, I.A. Gunpowder Technology in India A.D. 1250-1500. the Indian Historical Review , p. 25. 98 . Mira Roy, op.cit., p. 329. 99 . Gode, P.K., op.cit., p. 43. 100 . Bayaz-i-Khushbui , I.. 828, Rotogrpah No. 194, Department of History, A.M.U. Aligarh. 102 reacts with bases to form salts, and promotes certain chemical reactions (acid catalysis)”. 101 That acids formed an important chemical industry is evident from the information available in both Sanskrit and Persian texts of the period.

The important texts in this regard are Rasarnava, Rasa Ratna Samuccaya,

Rasapradipa, Rasakaumudi, Ain-i Akbari and Khulasah-i Mufidu’l - Insaan.

The Sanskrit sources of this period indicate that acids were produced from either plants or minerals. B.V. Subbarayappa divides them into organic and mineral acids accordingly. 102 The organic acids included citrons like tamarind, pomegranate and other plant products. While there is no direct reference to mineral acids in earlier texts still it is highly probable that the alchemists involved in transmutation processes were aware of the acidic properties of various minerals.

Organic Acids: Rasa Ratna Samuccaya furnishes names of various acids “well suited for the purification, dissolution and killing of mercury and the minerals”. 103 Amlavetasa, Jambira, Nimbu, Bijapuraka, Cangeri, Canakamala,

Amalika, Kola, Dadima, Ambastha, Tintidika, Naranga, Rasapanika,

Karavenda along with others are included in Amlavarga (group of sour drugs).

Canakamla and Amlavetasa are considered to be of good quality with the former being considered the best.

Ain-i Akbari provides the name of Amalbet, a sour fruit which had acidic quality. This quality is illustrated with the example of the vanishing of a steel

101 . Encyclopaedia Britannica ; Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., Chicago, 1973, Vol. I, p. 63. 102 . Subbaravappa, B.V., Chemical Prctices and Alchemy: A Concise History of Science , INSA, Delhi, p. 307. 103 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , tr. by Damodar Joshi, Chapter X, verses 83-86. 103 needle when pierced in the fruit and disappearance of a white shell when immersed in the juice of the fruit. 104 It mentions Chuk was an acid produced from the boiling of Orange and Lemon juice. The text informs that its production was prevalent in Subah of Oudh. 105

Mineral Acids : As discussed above the earlier texts do not describe the preparation of mineral acids. Rasarnava and Rasa Ratna Samuccaya refer to the distillation of alum and green vitriol respectively still there is no evidence of the resultant acid being used as a solvent in both of the texts. 106

Rasakaumudi of Madhava, a 16 th century text describes the preparation of mineral acids. Rasaratnapradipa of Govindadasa is an iatro-chemical text of the same period. It describes the process of preparing a mineral acid called

Sankhadravaka or one which dissolves conch-shells. The ingredients used in its preparation were alum, green vitriol, sal-ammoniac, saltpeter, borax, rock-salt and sea-salt. P.C. Ray opines that the earlier texts used the term dravaka as a solvent and not mineral acid. It is the Ain-i- Akbari which mentions the use of rasi (aqua fortis) in the refining of silver. This indicates that the regular application of mineral acids in chemical operations. Rasi was a kind of acid prepared from ashkhar or impure carbonate of soda 107 and saltpeter. Much earlier in 8 th century, a muslim alchemist named Jabir or Geber who discovered the nitric acid. He describes as follow :

104 . Ain-i Akbari , tr. Blochmann, Vol. 1, p. 76. 105 . Ain-i Akbari , tr. Blochmann, Vol. 2, p. 183. 106 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 229. 107 . Ain-i Akbari , tr. Blochmann, Vol. I, p. 25. 104

“Let us distil a pound of Cyprian virtial (iron or copper sulphate), one and half pound of saltpeter, a quarter of pound of alum, and obtain the water

(acid). This water dissolves metals very well. Its effect will be even greater by adding a quarter of a pound of salmiac (sal ammoniac) to it (aqua regia). 108 So we find that in India Persian sources give the reference of aqua regia but the

Sanskrit text not mentioned the best quality of mineral acid like aqua regia”.

ALKALIS :

The term alkali has been defined by Encyclopaedia Britannica as, “any of the soluble hydroxides of the alkali metals i.e. Lithium, sodium, Potasium,

Rubidium and Cesium. Alkalies are strong bases that turn litmus paper from red to blue; they react with acids to yield neutral salts; and they react with acids to yield neutral salts; and they are caustic and in concentrated form are corrosive to organic tissues”. 109

Ksara is the term used for alkali in the Sanskrit texts. The method of preparing ksara was recognized in Ayurveda as one of the ten important arts

(kala ). Both Charaka and Susruta provide valuable information about the different varieties, techniques of preparing bara and its uses. 110

A great deal of information about preparation of alkalies, various varieties and their uses have been dealt by medieval texts like

Rasahrdyatantram, Rasarnava, Rasarnavakalpa, Rasa Ratna Samuccaya and

Ain-i Akbari.

108 . Aftab Saeed, “Study of Muslim alchemy in the Medieval Agas and Some Valuable Chemicals transmitted to Modern Chemistry”, JJHS , 27(3), 1999, p. 263. 109 . Encyclopaedia Britannica : Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., Chicago, 1973, Vol. I, p. 272. 110 . Ray, P., op.cit., pp. 62-63. 105

Rasahrdyatantram of Govinda Bhagavatpada cites three alkalies viz. sarijikakshara (natron) , yavakshara and tankana (borax). It gives the technique of yielding a type of alkaline bida (flux) for the jarana (digestion of the bolus) process of mercury. 111

The verses 35-36 of the fifth chapter in Rasarnava provide the names of borax. trona (natron) and yavakshara (carbonate of potash). 112

Rasarnavakalpa's verse 370 mentions four alkalis viz. kadali, apamarga, sesamum and makshika (sea-salt). 113

Rasa Ratna Samuccaya too provides the names of three ksaras, yava ksara (carbonate of potash), sarjikaksara (natron or torna ) and tahkanaksara

(borax). Five alkali containing drugs viz. palasa ksara, muskaka ksara, yava ksara, suvarcika ksara and tila naladbhava ksara are collectively called

Ksarapancaka in the text. 114 Ain-i Akbari informs that the alkalis tangar

(borax) and ashkhar-i kufta (natron) were used in the extraction of silver from the ashes. 115

INK :

Ink is such a tiny word, of three letters, but it has played such a important part on the stage of world history.

111 . Rasahrdavatrantram , ed. B.V. Sdubbarayapa et al ., INSA, New Delhi, Vol. 32, pp. 62-63. 112 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 137. 113 . Rasarnavakalpa , tr. Mira Roy & Subbarayappa, INSA, New Delhi, p. 87. 114 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , tr. D. Joshi, INSA, New Delhi, Chapter X, verses 74-75, p. 466. 115 . Ain-i Akbari , op.cit., p. 27. 106

Fluid or paste of various colours but usually black or dark blue, used for writing and printing was prominent since antiquity. Its greatest impact was to spread knowledge in the form of the printed words. The ancient Egyptians and the Chinese, both developed ink at approximately the same time around 2500

B.C. 116 In classical times a mixture of one parts of gum and three parts of carbon black was used. 117 Chinese ink was a mixture of two parts of soot, twelve parts of gum one part of glue and one part of khalkantos was used. 118

The ink used in early India since at least from the 4 th century B.C which was an admixture of several chemical components. 119 Later in the first century

A.D, Greek writers clearly mentioned that 'Indian ink' ( Indickon milon ) was exported from the India port of Babarikon. Pliny in the second century A.D compared this to some of the best inks made in Rome in during his times. 120

Needham observes that the art of ink making in India was borrowed from China 121 although indigenous efforts in this direction cannot be denied.

There are many Sanskrit and Persian sources of medieval times which mentioned about the use of ink. The Sanskrit word fro ink is Mashi and Sayahi in Persian. Generally we find that the ink was of two types 122 : (i) Fugitive and

(ii) Permanent.

116 . Britannica, vol. vi, p. 318. 117 . Forbes, J., Studies in Ancient Technology , pp. 236-238. 118 . Ibid., p. 237. 119 . Banerji, Suresh Chandra, A Comparison to Sanskrit Literature , Motilal Banarsidas, ISBN, p. 673. 120 . Sircas, D.C., Indian Epigraphy , Delhi, 1965, p. 74. 121 . Needham Joseph, Science and Civilization in China , CUP, 1978, Vol. 5(i), pp. 236-7. 122 . Mira Roy, “Paper and written Communication” in Chemistry and Chemical Techniques in India (ed.) Subbarayappa, B.V., Vol. iv, Part I, PHISPC, 1999, p. 315. 107

The former was exclusively used for writing letters and related recording; the latter was used for writing Manuscript and for calligraphy which is still survives in different libraries. The permanent type of ink was a compound of lamp black and other ingredients. Permanent ink was prepared as black ink which are as follows: Firstly, resin of papal tree was ground finely, mixed with water and kept for sometime in an earthen pot, then boiled with a quantity of finely powdered borax and lodhara strained through cloth and then mixed with lamp black obtained from the soot of burning sesame oil in an lamp. 123

Manasollasa of Abhilasitartha in tumani written by somadeva 124 in the

12 the century A.D mentioned lamp black for making black colours, or kahhala. Haritala or vermilion was used to paint yellow and letters or portions to be detected from manuscripts. The formula for black golden, silvers and red ink were also known. The recipe for ink was given in Rasa Ratnakara 125 of

Nityanatha Siddha, an alchemical treatise of the thirteenth century.

The following ingredients are necessary for making indelible black ink.

1. the three myrobalans,

2. eclipta alba,

3. yellow berveris,

123 . Ibid. 124 . Vijaya Jayant Deshpande, “History of Chemistry and Alchemy in India from Historic to Pre- Modern Times” in History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture AD 1000-1800 (ed.) A. Rahman, OUP, 1999, p. 146. 125 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 235. 108

4. semicarpus and cardium marking nut,

5. oleander nericum adorum,

6. bob – a variety of gum,

7. kahhal or lampblack

8. Copper vessel.

The indelible character of the ink is obviously due the use of marking nuts and myrobalans. This kind of water proof ink was used in Malabar 126 and other parts of the country. The next important source which also give the method of making ink is Lekhapaddhati . This text had it in the following way. Soot and lotus petals were ground together in a copper vessel, then resin, gum and water were added drop by drop. 127 In the fifteenth century Abdur Razzak (1442) 128 referred to the use of a white producing soft stone which was cut in the form of kalam and used for writing on black surfaces. It has been stated this colour was durable for long time and writing with this contrivance was held in high esteem. During the Mughal times different colours of ink was common because we get a number of manuscript and painting.

We get indirect information from the Ain-i Akbari 129 of Abul Fazl, though this text do not mention the preparation of ink, but clearly mention on the nature of colours and the arts of writing and painting. Abl Fazl writes: “White

126 . Vijaya Jayant Deshpande, op.cit., p. 146. 127 . Lekhapaddhati , Collection of Sanskrit documents of eight (?) and thirteenth centuries, made in the fifteenth century, ed. C.D. Dalal and G.K. Shrigondekar, Baroda, 1925, p. 95. 128 . Major, R.H., India in the 15th Century Hakluyat Society , Reprinted by Deep Publications, Delhi, 1974, p. 25. 129 . Ain-i-Akbari , (tr.) Blochmann, H., p. 102. 109 and black are believed to be the origin of all colours. They are looked upon as extremes, and as the component parts of the other colours. Thus white when mixed in large proportions with an impure black, will yield yellow; and white and black, in equal proportions, will give red. While mixed with a large quantity of black, will give a bluish green. Other colours may be formed by compounding these. Besides, it must be borne in mind that cold makes a juicy white body, and a dry body black; and heart renders that which is fresh black, and while that which is dry. These two powers (heat and cold) produce, each in its place, a change in the colour of a body, because bodies are both qabil , i.e. capable of being acted upon, and muqtaza , i.e. subject to the influence of the heavenly bodies (chiefly the sun), the active origin of heat”. 130 The next important source of is Adatul Kitab 131 written by Abdullah B. Hasan who lived in India during the reign of Akbar. He wrote a short treatise on the preparation of ink.

POISONS :

Poison has been used by humans from time immemorial in various forms. The ancient Indian texts contain considerable amount of information on various poisons. The medieval Indian Sanskrit and Persian texts like

Rasarnavakalpa, Rasa Ratna Samuccaya and Haft Ahbab provide information on the medicinal applications of poison.

130 . Ain-i Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, H., p. 102. 131 . Adatul Kitab , ASB PMC, Curzon Collection/431 cf. Rahman and Alvi, Science and Technology in Medieval India – A bibliography of source Material in Sanskrit and Persian, INSA, New Delhi, p. 431. 110

Susruta divided poisons into two classes viz. vegetable and animal with the mineral poisons along with others being included in the former. The medieval text Rasarnavakalpa cites the method of preparing antidotes. Sulphur with the solution of Punarnava (Boerhavia diffusa) had qualities of an antidote according to the text. 132 The solution of Punarnava contained potassium nitrate and other salts of potassium. 133 The antidote prepared by mixing Sulphur and butter (prepared from cow milk) had qualities of destroying the venom of snake or poison (garala) .134 This text also contains information on the preparation of

Visodakakalpa (poisonous water), its properties and use. Poisonous water had three kinds viz. red, yellow and black. The three kinds of poisonous water in order of the effectiveness of poison were red, yellow and black. Further, the poisonous water removes the odour of sulphur and destroys the fragrance of musk. 135

The text further elaborates the use of poisonous water for attaining dehasiddhi or rejuvenation. The poisonous water needs to be kept in the hollow portion of bitter gourd before taking it in a palasa leaf. It is then to be mixed in water with the juices of three myrobalans. After taking it out of the bitter gourd it is to be carefully covered with the leaves of palasa and deposited in heaps of paddy for three weeks. Pills of one sana in weight need to be prepared after grains of sasti variety of paddy are crushed with the poisonous water and

132 . Rasarnavakalpa , tr. Mira Roy and B.V. Subbarayappa, INSA, New Delhi, p. 87. 133 . Ibid., p. 125. 134 . Ibid., p. 87. 135 . Ibid., p. 113. 111 mercury and goat’s milk is mixed. The text states that the pills prepared through this process if taken along with milk for one month leads to dehasiddhi. The user “becomes free from wrinkles and grey hair, attains an appearance like that of a sixteen year old boy”. 136

Verses 89-90 of Rasa Ratna Samuccaya spell out the names of five drugs of visa varga (group of poisonous drugs) as Srhgika, Kalakuta,

Vatsanabha, Kritima and Pita which it considers best for Rasa karma. This group of drugs could be used for the processing of mercury and its solidification. But, its consumption can prove fatal.

The verse 91 of the same text enumerates the drugs belonging to the group of sub-poisonous drugs or upa-visa varga. The drugs of this group include Langali, visamusti, karavira, jaya, nilaka, kanaka and araka. 137

Haft Ahbab gives the process of detoxification of mercury. The text identifies seven kinds of poison in mercury. According to the text each of these are called kanchali (by Indian hakims) or ubbek. The text further spots out seven characteristics of every kanchali which need to be removed. Sulphur and khast (brick powder) are mixed with mercury. This leads to the detoxification process which the Indian hakims called maghakaran. 138

Ain-i Akbari informs us about a poisonous flower kaner. It has a special quality that, “whoever puts it on his head is sure to fall in battle [quarrel]”. 139

136 . Ibid., p. 114. 137 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , op.cit., p. 467. 138 . Haft Ahbab , op.cit., folio 4a. 139 . Ain-i Akbari , vol. I, . 91. 112

(c) PAPER TECHNOLOGY

The term paper is supposed to have been derived from Egyptian

Papyrus. It is called kaghaz in Persian and kagad in Sanskrit (a late addition). It was originally manufactured and used in China as early as 105 AD. 140 It reached Asia, Africa and finally Europe by the twelfth century.141 There are various opinions on the advent of paper in India. S.A. Ghori and A. Rehman argued that paper came to India during the Arab invasion of Sind in the eighth century AD. 142 P.C. Ray however pointed out that the technology of its manufacture was brought to India in the tenth-eleventh centuries through Nepal probably by Chinese pilgrims. 143 P.K. Gode opines that the first appearance of paper in India was confined to the thirteenth century. 144 Moreover, Alberuni in the eleventh century remarked that the Hindus did not use paper. Instead, they wrote on palm leaf in the south and on the bark of the bhurja or tuz 145 in the central and northern India. 146

Hence, it appears that the paper-making industry came in India with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanat at the beginning of the thirteenth century. It was Amir Khusrau who first pointed about the manufacture of Damishqi or

Shami paper at Delhi .147 Barani mentions that when Balban got certain royal

140 . Derry and Williams, Short History of Technology , Oxford, 1960, p. 232. 141 . Irfan Habib, “Technological changes and Society (13th and 14th Centuries), pp. 19-20. 142 . Ghori, S. and Rahman, A., “Paper Technology in Medieval India”, IJHS , Vol. I, Part I, pp. 133-37. 143 . Ray, P.C., op.cit., pp. 234-35. 144 . Gode, P.K., Studies in Indian Cultural History , Vol. III, p. 7. 145 . Tuz was also used as a cover for bows. 146 . Alberuni’s India , tr. E.C. Sachau, London, Vol. I, p. 171. 147 . Amir Khusrau, Qiran us Sadain , ed. Muhammad Ismail, Aligarh, pp. 177, 228-30. 113

orders cancelled then the papers on which they were inscribed were washed instead of being torn up. This implies that the production of paper was meager. 148 However the famous fourteenth century sufi work, the Khairul

Majalis, i.e. the malfuzat of Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh of Delhi, informs that the sweet-meat sellers of Delhi could pack their products in paper for their customers. 149 Citing from Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi of Shams Siraj’Afif. Ghori and

Rahman have argued that paper-mills might have been erected by Firoz

Tughluq. This was possible because scholars, poets and artisans were given royal patronage and several new industries were introduced in India. To reinforce their argument they quote Abu Hamid al-Gharnati (a contemporary of

Afif). He said that “the paper made at Balkh favourably compared to that of

Iraq, Khurasan and India”. 150

Tarikh-i Kashmir refers to the establishment of a paper industry in

Kashmir by Sultan Zainaul Abidin (1417-1467). The sultan during his stay at

Samarqand is said to have brought a number of skilled artisans in various trades which included paper makers and book binders. Soon, enough the

Kashmiri paper earned a reputation for its excellent quality. The later half of the fifteenth century witnessed the production of quality paper from the pulp of rags and hemp with lime and bleaching soda added for whitening in

Kashmir. 151 According to B.V. Subbarayappa the chemical analysis of various

148 . Barani, Tarikh-I Firuz-shahi , Bib. Ind., p. 64. 149 . Hamid Qalandar, Khairul Majalis , ed. K.A. Nizami, Aligarh, p. 203. 150 . Cf. S.A.K. Ghori and A. Rahman, “Paper Technology in Medieval India”, IJHS , Vol. 1, NO. 2, 1966, p. 135. 151 . Tarikh-i Kashmir (MS. in Habibganj Collection, A.M.U. Library) vide Ghori and Rahman, op.cit., p. 135. 114 samples of medieval paper shows that cotton rags and flax was used in their preparation. Wood pulp was also used. While the ash content of these papers ranged from 4-9% starch or gum was also used for sizing purposes. 152 Tarikh- i Farishta mentions paper among the various gifts which Sultan Zainul Abidin sent to Sultan Abu Said of Khurasan in return to the latter’s gift of Arab horses and camels of good breed. 153 There are no details about the paper making industry in Ain-i Akbari. It only refers to tuz or the bark of a tree as the writing material. 154 Mufallid or book binder and rangrez 155 or dyer were two kinds of craftsmen mentioned in the text bearing some relation to the paper-making industry. Abul Fazl also remarks that “good paper” was manufactured at Rajgir in the Sarkar of Bihar. 156

Khulasalu’t Tawarikh of Sujan Rai informs about the various brands of paper produced in Sialkot during or shortly before Jahangir’s reign (AD

1605-1627).This suggests the existence of paper making industry. Man

Singhi, Nim Harir and Khasah-i Jahangiri are specially mentioned as fine, white, clean and stout brands. The writer praises the paper made at

Azimabad town in the province of Bihar. He writes, "The paper made here is fine”. 157

152 . Subbarayappa, B.V., “Alchemy and Chemical Practices in India”, in A Concise History of Science in India , INSA, p. 343. 153 . Tarikh-i Farishta , Nawal Kishore Press, Lucknow, Vol. II< p. 344. 154 . Ain-i Akbari , tr. Jarret, Vol. II, p. 354. 155 . Ain-i Akbari , tr. Jarret and Sarkar, Vol. II, p. 164; Nawal Kishore, Vol. II, p. 117. 156 . The text calls rangrez a person who stains the paper with different colours. 157 . Sujan Rai, Khulasatu’t Tawarikh , MS Subhanullah Collection, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh, Cf. Ghori and Rahman, op.cit., p. 137. 115

Mirat-i Ahmadi gives information about the Ahmedabadi paper which was known for its extreme whiteness and glossiness. The author says, “Although Daulatabadi and Kashmiri papers are of fine quality, yet in point of whiteness and luster the two varieties cannot compete with

Ahmedabadi paper”. 158

Bayaz-i Khushbui also refers to the Sialkot paper. 159 The text also provides detail about the method adopted for thickening and starching the paper in order to make it crisp. Fine quality white rice was rubbed twice with edible salt before being washed and then it was put under water for three days and nights to make soft so that it could be meshed with fingers.

After rinsing and clean water added, the mixture was placed on a fire to boil and stirred until thickened. After cooling, the paste was spread on a clean wooden block and evenly spread with a piece of white cotton cloth. It has to be covered with kirpas (hemp) before being exposed to the sun and the process repeated on the reverse side of the sheet of paper. While the paper was still moist the seals were imprinted and well-defined distinct marks were made. 160 Alrady discussed in the section on Gun powder, the text also mentions the use of ordinary paper in the manufacture of fireworks or atishbazi .161 Several folio of the source provides information on the

158 . Mirat-i-Ahmadi, p. 18. 159 . Bayaz-i Khushbui, 121a-b. 160 . Bayaz-i Khushbui , 119b-120a. Quoted by Hamid Khatoon Naqvi, Urban Centres and Industries in Upper India , p. 258. 161 . Ibid., 140a, 141a, 147a. 116 method of dyeing papers in various shades. 162 Majmatus Sanai of Mir

Yahya (c. 164) talks about the various ways of colouring paper. 163

(D) COSMETICS AND PERFUMES

Cosmetics and perfumery have always served the aesthetic pleasures from time immemorial. The science of cosmetics and perfumery and the art of applying were widely studied and practice.d This art fulfilled three necessities of human life, namely religious merit, worldly prosperity and sensual enjoyment. The Sanskrit and Persian texts of the period have a great deal of information on the subject. There are specialized texts on the subjects as well as scanty references. Some important texts of interest are

Gandhasara of Gangadhara, Gandhavada (anonymous), Rasaratnakara of

Nityanatha Siddha, Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri of

Jahangir, Bayaz-i-Khushbui (anonymous), Itriyat-i Nauras-i Shahi of

Nizamuddin Mahmud Tarsan.

P.K. Gode, in his article on Indian Science of Cosmetics and

Perfumery , refers to two Sanskrit treaties on the subject, believed to be composed some time between A.D. 1200 and 1600 on the basis of earlier texts, and were composed A.D. 500 and 1000. The two treaties recovered by him are : (1) Gandhasara by Gangadhara and (2) Gandavada by an anonymous author, with a commentary in Marathi. 164

162 . Ibid., 111a, 121b-123b. 163 . Cf. Alvi, M.A. and A. Rahman et al. (1982). Science and Technology in Medieval India – A Bibliography of Source materials in Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian , New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, p. 448. 164 . Gode, P.K., Studies in Indian Culture History , Vol. I, Visveshvaranand vedic Research Institute, 1961, p. 3. 117

The treaties Gandasara by Gangadhara contains three chapters. 165

Chapter one (91 verses) explains the technical processes and terminology of scents and perfumes. Chapter second (392 verses) gives recipes for the preparations of different perfume products, such as Gandhodaka (scented water); Gandhataila (scented oil); Snanjalam (perfumed water for bathing);

Mrgaraja (production of artificial musks); Dhupa (incense); Vartti (incense sticks); Uddhulana (perfumed powder); Niryasa (preparation of artificial fragrant material); etc. Third chapter gives a well classified list of aromatic ingredients to be used for the preparation of cosmetics and perfumes.

There are the classification of aromatic substances in terms of eight vargas or categories in the Gandhasara :

(i) Patra Varga (leaves) – Holy Basil leaves etc.

(ii) Puspa Varga (flowers) – Saffron, Campaka flowers, Clove etc.

(iii) Phala Varga (fruits) – Peeper, nutmeg, Cardamom etc.

(iv) Tvak Varga (barks) – Bark of Camphor tree, bark of cloves tree etc.

(v) Kastha Varga (woods) – Sandal wood, fir wood etc.

(vi) Mula Varga (roots) – Nutgrass ( Cyperus rotandus ), pavonia odorate

(vala) etc.

(vii) Niryasa varga (exudations) – Camphor etc.

(viii) Jiva Varga (organic products) – Musk, honey, lac, ghee etc.

165 . Ibid., p. 7. 118

The text describes six processes 166 for the preparation of perfumes, viz :

1. Bhavana – mixture of fragrant powders with liquid

2. Pacana – digation of materials.

3. Bodha – tempering or revatalising the perfume.

4. Vedha – further development of bodha or strengthening process.

5. Dhupana – sterilize with aromatic vapours of incense, etc.

6. Vasana – preparing scents with perfumes of flowers

P.C. Ray observed that the process described are quite systematic, and appear to be based more or less on a knowledge of physico-chemical principles. 167 The next important Sanskrit sources is Rasaratnakara of Nityanatha Sddha, assigned by scholars to the 13 th century A.D. This text clearly deal with the preparation of cosmetics and perfumes. These are Sandal, Camphor, Kasturi,

Kumkum, Hingula, Vermilion, etc. 168 Amir Khusrau mentions in Ijaz-i

Khusravi of gulguna and ghaza (red colour with women painted their faces) and sufaida (hair powder) which may be taken as articles of cosmetics.

Women used collyrium on their eyelids to enhance their grace and beauty. 169 Hasan Nizami refers to Surmai-i Chashm (collyrium) and Gulguna

(paint to redden the face). 170 Hindus always adorned their head with a beauty

166 . Ibid. 167 . Ray, P., History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India: Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry , Calcutta, 1956, p. 238. 168 . Gode, P.K., op.cit., p. 89. 169 . Rashid, A., Society and Culture in Medieval India , p. 56. 170 . Vide Askari, S.H. in P.U.J., 1963, Vol. 18, p. 124. 119 mark (Tilak). He further tells us about the use of perfumes like musk, ambers, itr (a kind of perfume), ud (yellow wood) and argaja (the name of perfume of yellowish colour compounded of several ingredient).171

Perfume making and scented water was a well organized industry during the Mughal period. The Ain-i-Akbari (1590), the magnum opus of Abul Fazal of the royal court of Akbar gives an account of scents as well as their prices which ranged from half a rupee per tola for Zabad to 55 rupees per tola for

Sandalwood .172 Akbar had lots of interest in perfume therefore he created a special department called Khushubu-khana for religious motives. Abul Fazal state that the Court hall was continually scented with ambergris, aloe wood and lignum etc. which was daily burnt in golden and silver censers. Akbar constantly perfumes his body and the hair of his head with odoriferous oil.

The text has details of the aromatic ingredients, including the use of rose water for the preparation of different kinds of perfumes. 173

(i) Santuk : It was used for keeping the skin fresh

Zabad (civet) : 1½ tola

Chuwa : 1 tola

Chambeli essence : 2 masha

Rose water : 2 bottles

171 . Taj-ul Ma’asir , P.f. 91a. 172 . Ain-i-Akbari , (tr.) Blochmann, H., vol. I, pp. 78-93. 173 . Ibid., p. 79. 120

(ii) Argaja : It was used in summer for keeping the skin cool.

Sandalwood : 3 ser

Iksir and mid : 2 tola

Chuwa : 2 tola

Violet root : 1 tola

Champhor : ½ masha

Rose water : 11 bottles

(iii) Gulkama : Ambergris : 1 tola

Ladan : ½ tola

Musk : 2 tola

Ud : 4 tola

Iksir : 8 tola

Put all the ingredients into a porcelain vessel mix with it a ser of juice of the flower called gul-i-surkh 174 and expose it to the sun, till it dries up. Wet it in the evening with rose water and with the extract of the flower called Bahar , and pound it again in Samaq 175 stone. Let it stand for ten days, mix it with the juice of the flower called Bahar-i-Naranj (orange flower) and let it dry. During the next twenty days, add occasionally some juice of the blank.

174 . Gul-i Surkh in Persian is a pink fragrant rose that blooms in springs. 175 . Summaq (vide Sumaq) is the hardest kind of marble. 121

Rayhan (also called black Nazbu )176 , a part of this mixture is added to the preceding.

(iv) Ruh-afza : Aloewood : 5 ser

Sandalwood : 1¼ ser

Ladan : 1¼ ser

Iksin, luban and dhup : 3¼ tola of each

Violet root: 20 tola

Ushna , called in Hind chharila : 10 tola

Mix al the ingredient till it gets tenacious like syrup. Four bottles of rose water pour into this syrup, for making into discs dry it in the sunlight. This disc

(tikiya ) was burnt in censers and smell very fine. It was generally used for court hall.

(v) Abirmaya:

Aloewood : 4 dam

Sandalwood : 2 dam

Violet root : 1 dam

Sumbultib : 3 dam

Duwalak : 3 dam

Musk : 4 tola

176 . Sweet basil. 122

Ladan : 4 dam

Bahar-i-Naranj: 7½ dam

Grind them all together and boil over a slow fire in 10 bottles of rose water.

When cooked, they are poured into molds and left to set it into the shade.

(vi) Kishta : Aloe wood : 24 tola

Ladan, luban and sandalwood: 6½

Iksir and dhup : 2 tola of each

Violet root and musk : 2 tola

1 tola ushna mix with 50 tola refined sugar and boil gently in two bottles of rose water. It is made into discs. It smells very fine when burnt and is exhilarating.

(vii) Bukhur : Aloe wood and sandalwood: 1 ser

Ladan: ¼ ser

Musk : 2 tola

Iksir : 5 tola

Mix all these with two sers of refined sugar and one bottle of rose water over a slow fire.

(viii) Fatila : Aloewood : 5 ser

Sandalwood : 72 tola

Iksir and ladan : 20 tola each 123

Violet root : 5 tola

Luban : 10 tola

Refined sugar: 3 tola

Mix with two bottles of rose water and make into tapers.

(ix) Abir iksir: Sandal wood : ¾ ser

Iksir : 26 tola

Musk : 2 tola and masha

Pound it and dry it in the shade.

(x) Barjat : Aloe wood : 1 ser

Ladan : 5 tola

Musk : 2 tola

Sandalwood : 2 tola

Luban : 1 tola

Camphor : ½ tola

Barjat was distilled like Chuwa , I have already discussed about the distillation process of Chuwa under the topic of ‘distillation’. This distillation process was first developed by two talented Arab chemists, Jabir ibn Hayyan (born 722

A.D.) and Al-kindi (born 801 A.D.) established the perfume industry. Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be 124 collected in the form of water or oil. 177 Al-kindi, however, was the real founder of the perfume industry. He carried out extensive research and experiments in combining variety of scent products (which contained 107 methods). He elaborated a vast number of ‘recipes’ for a wide range of perfumes. 178 The industry’s products were exported, being sent for instance from Damascus and

Jur to other Muslim countries and even as far east as India and China. Almost all the ingredients (like amber, musk and rose water etc.) which were used in the given recipes of Al-kindi, are almost found in the Ain-i Akbari . According to Pelsaert, “They studies night and day how to make exciting perfumes and efficacious preserves, such as mosseri or falroz containing amber, pearls, gold, amboa, opium and other stimulants”. 179

The Ain-i-Akbari also presents an account of natural perfumes under fifteen heads 180 :

(i) Amber – It grows at the bottom of the sea. It is of various colours: the

white is the best and the black is the worst.

(ii) Ladan – from the tree found in the island of Cyprus and Cheops.

(iii) Camphor – tree grows in India and China. It is collected from the trunk

and the branches.

177 . Taylor, F. Sherwood, The Alchemists, Paladin , p. 72-74, also see in Al-Bakhit, M.A. (ed.) History of Humanity , vol. IV from 7th to 10th century, UNESCO, 2000, pp. 96-119. 178 . Aftab Saeed, “Study of Muslim Alchemy in the Medieval Ages and Some Valuable Chemicals Transmitted to modern Chemistry”, JHS , 27(3), 1992, p. 772. 179 . Pelsaert, F., Remonstraitic or Jahangir’s India, tr. by W.H. Moreland and P. Goyl, Cambridge, 1925, p. 65. 180 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit., pp. 83-87. 125

(iv) Zabad (civet) – also called shakh . The Zabad was brought from the

harbor town of Sumatra from the territory of Achin.

(v) Gaura – from the animal resembling the civet, also found in Achin.

(vi) Mid – resembles the Gaura, but of inferior quality.

(vii) Ud - wood of aloes.

(viii) Chuwa - a distillate from lignum aloe.

(ix) Sandalwood - called in Hindustan as Chandan. The tree grows in China,

but planted in India during the Akbar reign. It is of three kind.

(x) Silaras (storex) - a tree gum of Syria, both liquid and dry varities.

(xi) Kelumbek -- a tree from Zeerabad, its pars finely powdered and mixed

with other perfumes.

(xii) Malagir - similar to Kelumbek.

(xiii) Luban (frankincense) - a tree gum from Java, and

(xiv) Azfarut-tib (scented snail) - resembling shells collected from the nest of

an animal.

(xv) Sugandh gugala (bdellium) - plant very common in Hinclustan,used in

perfumes.

Above mentioned recepies which was given by Abul Fazal, we find that rose water was used in plenty in each recepies (in bottles ranging from one to eleven bottles) for the preparation of perfumes. Actually rose was first 126 produced by Muslim chemists through the distillation of roses for use in the drinking and perfumery industries. P.K. Gode mentions that there is no reference either to rose or rose water in Sansktit literature.

The attar of roses dose not find a place in Ain-i-Akbari. The discovery of itr-i Jahagiri (otto of roses) was invented by Salima Sultana Begum (mother of

Nur Jahan Begum). It is described by Jahangir in his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-

Jahangiri as follows:

“This itr is a discovery which was made during my reign through the efforts of the mother of Nur Jahan Begum. When she was making rose water, a scum formed on the surface of the dishes into which the hot rose-water was poured from the jugs. She collected this scum little by little; when much rose water was obtained, a sensible portion of the scum was collected. It is of such strength in perfume that if one drop he rubbed on the palm of the hand, it scents a whole assembly and it appears as if many reel rose buds had bloomed at once.

There is no other scent of equal excellence to it. It restores hemis that have gone and brings back withered souls. In reward for that invention I presented a string of pearls to the inventress. Salima sultana begum (may the lights of God be on her tomb) was present, and she gave this oil the name of itr-k-

Jahangiri ”. 181

181 . Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri , (tr.) Alexander Rogers, (ed.) Henry Beveridge, Published 1909, vol. I, p. 73-74. 127

The next important source of this period is Bayaz-i-Khushbui. 182 The first chapter of this text deals with perfumery which divided into two parts. The first part of the chapter is copy from Ain-i-Akbari . These perfumes are Santuk,

Gulkama, Sokhtan, Akraman, Barajaat and Gasul and the second part discuss about the different kind of perfumes and also describe that which perfume should be applied on particular day in a week. 183

Saturday : Chuwa

Sunday : Zafaran

Monday : Argaja

Tuesday : Malagir

Wednesday : Gehla

Thursday : Sandal

Friday : Amber and Gulab

Further in this text, we came to know about the four persons who have given their own method and recipies of making Chuwa (a perfume) by the distillation

(chakinidan ) process. These persons are Mir Syed Muhammad Tamar, Mirza

Khaleel Kuli, Anub Bhaan and Sheikh Farid. These persons have given their different method and recepies for making the Chuwa .184

182 . Bayaz-i-Khushbui , I.O. 828, Rotograph no. 194, Department of History, A.M.U., Aligarh, ff. 5-7. 183 . Ibid., f. 8. 184 . Ibid., ff. 8-9. 128

Though Ain-i-Akbari clearly describes the distillation process but no mention the recepies while this text vividly mentions the ingredient for making

Chuwa . The next important source is the itriyat-i-Nauras-i Shahi 185 (16 th or 17 th century) of Nizamuddin Mahmud Tarsan is an important treaty on the preparation of perfumes and scents. It enumerates various animal and vegetable perfumes are included those extracted from ambergris, musk, aloewood, sandalwood and rose water.

SOAP

Soap was first produced by the Arabs. Soap manufacture became an important industry, especially in Syria. Coloured perfumed toilet soap as well as some medicinal soaps were made and exported, and Syrian towns like

Nablus, Damascus, Aleppo and Sarmin were famous for their products. 186 The basis process used olive oil and al-qali, though sometimes natrum was some treatises of Daud al-Antaki and those of al-Razi sometimes also give recipes for soap.

Soap made from vegetables oils, aromatic oils and sodium lye were first produced by Muslim Chemists in the medieval Islamic world. Soap was possibly introduced into India by the Muslim, though the Hindus had made use before of alkaline lyes for a long time, obtained from the ashes of plants. 187

185 . Itriyat-i-Nauras-i Shahi , Cf. Rahman and Alvi, Science and Technology in Medieval India – A bibliography of Source Materials in Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian , INSA, p. 451. 186 . Aftab Saeed, “Study of Muslim alchemy in the Medieval Ages and some valuable chemicals transmitted to modern Chemistry”, IJHS , 27(3), 1992, pp. 274-75. 187 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 235. 129

The medieval Persian literature also makes frequent mention of Sabun

(soap) which used both for washing the body and cleaning the clothes 188 being religious requirements for Muslims, they invented the recepies for true soap which is still in use today and he invented the soap bar.

There are two types of soaps are mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari , solid and liquid soap.

Opatna 189 was scented soap used for bathing and Ghasul 190 was liquid soap which perhaps used for washing hand after using toilet. The text has clearly given the recepies for making both the soaps. These are as follows :

Opatna : Ladan : 2¾ ser

Aloewood : 1¼ ser and 5 dam

Bahar-i Naranj : 1¼ ser and 5 dam

Sandalwood : 1 saer and 5 dam

Sumbultip (char) : 1 ser and 4 tola

Apples : 36 tola

Musk : 28½ tola

Pacha leaves : 1 ser and 4 tola

Violet root : 5 dam

188 . Siyar-ul Auliya , p. 115; Ijaz-i-Khusrani , V, p. 123. 189 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit., p. 79. 190 . Ibid., p. 80. 130

Dhup : 1 tola and 2 masha

Ikanki (a kind of grass) : 1½

Zurumbad, called in Hind kachur (zerumbet) : 1½ tola

Luban : 1 tola and 2 masha

Rose water: 106 bottles

Pounded the whole into a bowl and boil slowly in rosewater. When it has become less moist let it dry and cut into pieces ( tikiya ) for easily use.

Ghasul : a liquid soap.

Sandalwood : 35 tola

Katul : 1 tola

Musk : 1 tola

Chuwa : 1 tola

Camphor : 2 masha

Mid : 2 masha

Mix with two bottles of rose water.

Further, Ain-i-Akbari clearly give the reference of carbonate of soda which was prepared in the tank at Lonar that is yields the material for glass, soap and nitrate (shora). 191

191 . Ain-i-Akbari , I, p. 478. 131

Bayaz-i-khushbui also mentions about Opatna and Ghasul .192 The text also gives the method how to make the soap. 193 The fat of sheep or goat should be boiled. Thereafter it will be washed ten to fifteen times so that bad smell would be removed form this fat. Then again this fat should be washed three or four times by rose water. Then the remain fat should be kept in the water of singarhar (an odoriferous plant). Then this fat will be boiled for sometime till it will get mixed with singarhar . Again, this mixture will left to cool. The impurities will come on the surface of water and the remain mixture will go down at the bottom. The pure material should be collected and it will be boiled with those water till scum formed on the surface. The remain pure mixture of singarhar and far will be beaten by hard to make it into a semi-liquid. Then this solution will be spread on a cloth. This solution when dried up is cut into small pieces.

Thus we see, that chemical industries of various kinds discussed in the preceding pages were existent since time immemorial. With special reference to India, they existed both in the ancient and medieval period of history. The

Persian and Sanskrit sources contain ample information on numerous chemical industries and their progress and development in the medieval period.

192 Bayaz-i khushbui , f. 7. 193 . Ibid., ff. 10-12.

Chapter – 5

METALLURGY IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

(A) GUN POWDER AND ITS APPLICATIONS

(i) Ores

(ii) Process of making wootz seed

(iii) Types

(B) GOLD AND SILVER

(i) Ores

(ii) The method of purification of gold and silver

(iii) The method of separating the silver from the gold

(C) ZINC

(D) COPPER

(E) ALLOYS

Chapter – 5

METALLURGY IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

The metallurgy had gone through a long process of evolution and innovation. It is the spirit of human endeavour which allowed man to innovate, improvise and master technology through experimentation. The main reason for the technological development was the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal empire, witnessed an increase in the degree of centralization, buraecuratization and urbanization in the regions it controlled. 1

The technique for production of metallic goods were so developed and as the historian K.N. Chaudhuri has documented, specialized metal goods like swords, armor, guns and ornamental metalware were being exported to number of West Asian countries in the medieval period. 2 Although the techniques for smelting and producing copper bronze, and later iron were present in a number of civilizations, the method of producing crucible cast steel was discovered and perfected in India.

Iron and Steel

India enjoys a reputation of being one of the ancient civilizations which was familiar with the art of making and use of iron. According to recent 14 C 3

1 . Habib, Mohd., Politics and Society in Early Medieval Period , collected essays of Mohd. Habib (ed. K.A. Nizami), P.P.H. (New Delhi) 1974, Vol. 1, 59-122. 2 . Chaudhuri, K.N., Asia Before Europe: Economy and Civilization of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750 , Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 325. 3 . It is also called Radio-carbon Dating. It is a method of measuring in dead organic matter. The radio-active isotope C-14 which disappears at a known and calculable rate. 133 dates iron appears in India in the beginning of first millennium B.C. which coincided with the beginning of the painted grey ware culture (c. 1000-500). 4

On the basis of the researches in this field, it may be asserted that the advent of iron was not via any external source but was an indigenous development within the subcontinent. 5 Evidences show that the earliest iron known to prehistoric man was meteoric iron and it is the purest form of iron in the native state. The first reference of iron mention in ancient India text is Rigveda . Iron is described in this sacred writings as ayas . Ayas is said to be hard, tough, strong, tenacious, ductile and malleable. The metallurgy of iron slowly evolved over the centuries from slagrich simple wrought iron to steel and later to good quality of wootz steel.

Ores

The study of iron manufacture should start with required primary material like iron ore, flux and fuel. Iron ores are more abundant and more widespread than any other ores. Not less than 4.2% of our earth is formed by iron or its compounds. India has very large deposits of high grade iron ores (hematite) scattered in the hilly region beginning with Gwalior and extending to the tip of southern India. Iron mining area can also be identified on the basis of the Ain-i-

4 . Singh, S.D., Iron in Ancient India, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (Henceforth, J.E.S.H.O.), Leiden, Feb. 1962, Vol. V(2), pp. 212-216: Amita Ray and Dilip K. Chakrabarti, “Studies in Ancient Indian Technology and Production”, J.E.S.H.O. 1975 Vol. XVIII (2), pp. 224-226; Dilip K. Chakrabarti, “Distribution of Iron Ores and the Archaeological evidence of early Iron in India”, JESHO , Vol. XX(2), 1977, pp. 166-184; Irfan Habib, “the Peasant in Indian History”, Presidential Address, Proceedings of Indian History Congress (P.I.H.C.), 43rd Session, Kurukshetra, 1982, pp. 8-9. 5 . Chakrabarti, Dilip, The Beginning of Iron in India, Antiquity , Vol. L, No. 198 (June 1976), pp. 114-124. 134

Akbari and other seventeenth century sources. These places are Kalinger 6,

Burhanpur 7 (in central India), Kumaon 8, Gwalior 9, Bazuha 10 (in Bengal) and

Indur and Nirmal 11 (south India).

There are many literary sources of this period which provides great details on iron and steel and also its metallurgical uses in different fields. The Geniza records of the eleventh and twelfth centuries bear testimony to the export of

Deccan iron and steel to the Middle East. 12 The Romans also imported the very superior ‘ Seric’ iron from the east, believing it to come from China but Forbes claims that it was of Indian origin coming from the famous smelting centre of

Hyderabad. 13 This Seric iron was known in china as bin iron 14 (high carbon steel), Hinduwani in Arab countries, pulad (faulad) in Persia 15 and finally

Europeans pronounced it Wootz probably a corruption of the word ‘ukku’ in

Telgu.

Process of making Wootz Steel

Wootz steel was made by a method resembling the modern cementation process or crucible process. The artisan placed small pieces of wrought iron in contact with wood and leaves of soecific plants ( Cassia auriculata ) and then

6 . Ain-i-Akbari (ed.), Blochmann, Bib. Ind., Calcutta, 1866, Vol. I,p. 424. 7 . Niccolao Manucci (1699-1708), Starado Mogor tr. W. Irvine, London, (1907-08), Vol. I, p. 66. 8 . Ain-i-Akbari , I, 514. 9 . Ibid., p. 442. 10 . Ibid., p. 391. 11 . Ibid., p. 478. 12 . Goitein, S.D., Studies in Islamic History and Institution , Leiden, 1966, p. 340. 13 . Forbes in Singer (ed.) History of technology , Oxford Press, 1984, vol. II, p. 57. 14 . Donald B. Wagner, “Chinese Steel making Techniques with a note on Indian Wootz Steel in China”, INSA, IJHS , 42.3(2007), 289-318. 15 . Ann Feuerbach, R. Balasubramanian and S. Kalyanaraman, “On the Origin of the Terms Wootz, Hinduwani and Pulad”, IJSS (INSA), 42.3(2007), 377-386. 135 heated the lot in sealed clay crucibles at temperatures too low to cause complete liquification. Nonetheless, the iron crucibles were heated in a current of air till the iron became red-hot and plastic. It was then allowed to cool very slowly until it absorbed a fixed amount of carbon (1.5 to 2%) to make it into wootz steel. 16 This wood steel on cooling, usually formed itself into round discs of 5” in diameter and ½ in thick, weighing about 2 lb. These cakes were exported to Damascus in Syria for making sword-blades, which were appreciated for their sharp edges and beautiful, flowing water patterns on them. 17 The manual of war was called Adabu’l harb wa’sh shuja’at written by

Fakhr-i Mudabbir during Iltutmish reign (A.D. 1210-36). He thought the Indian swords (swords of korij in Cutch which was made of steel) to be the best, and writes that the Damascened sword ( maujdarya ) was the rarest and fetched the highest price. 18 Umari praised that iron ore of an exceptionally high grade was mined in India and was used to produce damascened steel which had a worldwide reputation. 19 Nizami has also given a vivid poetic picture of the

Indian swords of the solders of Gwalior. “That sword was coloured of cerulean blue, which from its blazing luster resembled a hundred thousand venues and it was well tempered horse shoe of five which with its wound exhibited the peculiarity of lightening and thunder; and in the perfect weapon the extreme of sharpness lay hid; like (poison in) in fangs of serpent and (the water of blade)

16 . Mahmud, J.S., Metal Technology in Medieval India , Daya Publication, Delhi, 1998, p. 42. 17 . Forbes in Singer (ed.), op.cit., p. 57. 18 . Adabu’l Harb Wa’sh Shuja’at, ed. Ahmad Suhaili Khvansari, Tehran, A.H.S., 1346, pp. 258-60. 19 . Masalik al-Absar fi Mamalik al-Ansar, Shihab al-Din al-Umari (Eng. Tr.) I.H. Siddiqi and Q.M. Ahmad, A Fourteenth Century Arab Account of India, etc. Aligarh, 1971, p. 61. 136 looked like ants creeping on the surface of diamond”. 20 According to

Sarngadhara 21 who flourished in the 13 th or 14 th century the reputed centers of swords manufacture were Khatikhattra, Risi, Vanga, Surparaka, Videha, Anga,

Madhayamagrama, Vedidesa, Sahagrama and Kalinger. Among these places

Anga swords became famous for their strength, sharpness and excellent handle.

The colours of swords, according to him, depended on the types of iron that was used in their manufacture.

Types

Al-Biruni 22 has mentioned about the two types of iron. One variety which is soft is called narhaman . This is a word of feminine gender. The second variety which is called shabarqan and entitled as masculine as it is hard. It is malleable, but refuses to be folded. The narhaman kind is divided into two sub species. The first is the narhaman kind proper; the other kind is the water from it when it is melted and separated from the stones. The second sub-species is called dawsa , and in Persian astah .

Swords in Rome, Russia and Saqalibah are made from sharbarqan . They are occasionally called iqala, fatha and jazm i.e. the orthographical sign for remaining silent. Therefore, the qala sword possesses clangour, whereas the non qala sword possesses an irritating sound. When a particular class of swords is attributed to it, the class is collectively called qalaiyyah . Some people tend

20 . Elliot and Dawson, The History of India as Told by its owns historians, II, p. 227. 21 . Sarngadhara paddhali. Ed. Peterson 1888, Vs. 4672079, Cf. Society and culture in northern India in the 12th century by B.N. Syadana Central Book Depot, Allahabad, 1973. 22 . Al-Biruni, Kitab Al-Jamahir Fi Marifat Al-Jawahir tr. Shaheed Hakim Mohammad Said and et al., J.P.H.S. , Vol. XLIX, No. 2, pp. 59-64. 137 believe that these swords bear relationship to specific places, e.g. Hindiyyah

(Hindsutan) 23 , Yamaniyyah and Mashrafiyah .

The Rasa Ratna Samuccaya a compilation of the 13 th or 14 th century text on alchemy. The chapter five, verses 69 through 96 give the information related to metallurgical perspective. 24 But these indigenous Sanskrit sources are not very much helpful in understanding the techniques of production. 25 It has classified iron into three broad categories munda (wrought iron) tiksana (cast iron, steel) and kanta (magnetic iron).

(i) Munda loha 26 is of three types: mrdu, kuntha and kadara .

(a) mrdu – that which melts quickly on heating, does not break on beating,

which is soft and slimy. It is the best of all the three varieties of munda .

(b) Kuntha is one which spreads with difficulty on beating. This is of medium

type of qualitative grade.

(c) Kadara is inferior loha (iron) which breaks on hammering and looks

black.

(ii) Tikshana loha or steel which is made from cast iron/pig iron after removing some of the impurities. Tikshana loha are of six types: khara, Sara, pograra, vajira and kalayasas .

23 . Ibid., p. 60. 24 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , tr. Dr. Damodar Joshi, IJHS , INSA, pp. 192-195. 25 . Ray, P., History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Calcutta, 1956, S.K. Bhatia, “Carburisation of Iron in Ancient India, IJHS , 29(3): 1994, pp. 358-359, has given different shades of opinion with regard to antiquity of wootz in Ancient India. 26 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , chapter V, verses 69, p. 192. 138

(a) khara is hard, without pogaras (free from fibres), breaks on bending and

shines like mercury on fracture.

(b) Sara – whose edges can be destroyed quickly and easily which is obtained

from the pale earth.

(c) Hrnnala , which looks whitish black, contains pogaras like that of

concubiji (castor seeds) and is hard to be pierced.

(d) Pograra-Anga, Chaya and Vanga are the three synonymous of pograra .

The structure of iron which looks like hair follicles and which is brittle.

(e) Vajira is solid and very hard like vajra (diamond), it has minute likes and

pogara is black in colour.

(f) Kalayasa , which is bluish black in colour, deme smooth, heavy and bright

in appearance and whose sharpened edges do not get spoiled even by

hammering with iron articles.

(iii) Kanta loha 27 – This is obtained from magnetic iron ore. It is the best of all the three varieties of iron. Kanta loha is of five types, bhramaka, cumbaka, karsaka, dravaka and romaka . In the classification bhramaka is inferior, cumbaka is medium, karsaka is good and dravaka is the best of all.

Such types of iron classification we do not find in any Persian sources of medieval Indian history.

27 . Ibid., verse 71, p. 193. 139

Large sized structures of iron like pillars, beams etc. used in monumental buildings are found in several parts of the country. The famous wrought pillar of Delhi (nearly seven tons) of the 5 th century A.D., the huge iron beams at Puri

(12 th century A.D.) the ornamental gates of somnath and 43 ft. Dhar pillar in

Malwa constitute elements of the historical legacy of metallurgical skill of

Indian craftsmanship.

With growing emphasis on arms and armours, there also the requirements of iron for their production on a much large scale. For this purpose Shahi

Karkhanas became busier for making cannons, guns and different kinds of swords. The emperors themselves look personal interest in their design and manufacture. The manual of war was called Adabu’l harb wa’sh Shuja’at , written by Fakhr-i Mudabbir has emphasise that the Indians had superior techniques or material for the manufacture of the sword. Swords of different kinds are quoted in this text, namely Cini, Rusi, Khazari, Rumi, Firangi,

Yamani, Bilamani (red saylamani), Shahi, Sai, Hindi and Kashmiri .28

An important Sanskrit source of the fourteenth century A.D. (or 16 th C.) is Sarangadhars by the Alchemist Saragadhara describes the technique of manufacturing swords. He mentions several important centres of sword making. He also given a detailed account of the quality of iron that was to be used for the manufacture of the different types of swords.

28 . Fakhr-i Mudabbir, op.cit. pp. 258-60. 140

Tuzuk-i Jahangiri , mentions the Meteoric iron which fell as meteors and it was used for making swords, though much earlier Ibn-Sina in his book Kitab al Shifa 29 mentioned of the fall of a meteor iron. Jahangir writes, “one of the strange events of this time was on 30 Fawardin (10 April 1621) in the present year, in a certain village of the pargana of Jalandhar; in the morning a terrible noise arose from the East. Such that its inhabitants, from fright at that terror increasing sound, nearly deserted their bodies. Whilst this noise and disturbance were going on, a light fell from above on the ground, and the people thought that fire was running down from heaven. After a moment, when that noise ceased, and their troubled hearts recovered from their bewilderment and terror, they sent a quick runner to the collector (amil) Muhammad Saed, and informed him of what had occurred. He immediately rode there himself, and went to look at the spot. For ten or twelve yards in length and breadth, the land was so burnt that no trace of any grass or green was left, and there were still signs of heat and burning. He ordered them to dig up the soil, and the more they dug the greater the heat appeared to be, till they came to a place where a piece of heated iron appeared. It was so hot as if it had been taken out of a furnace. After a while it became cold, and taking it up, he conveyed it to his house, and placing it in a Kharita (cover) which he sealed, he sent it to court. I ordered them to weigh it in my presence, and it came to 160 tolas . I ordered

Master (ustad) Daud to make a sword, a dagger and a knife of it, and bring them to me. He represented that it would not stand below the hammer and fall

29 . Rahman, M.A. Khan, Shaikh-al Rai, Ibn Sina , Islamic Culture, 24, 117, 1950. 141 to pieces. I told him in that case to mix it with other iron and make use of it. As

I had told him, he mixed three parts of lighting iron and one part of other iron, and having made two swords, one dagger and one knife, brought them to me.

From the mixing of other iron, he had brought out its quality (watering).

According to the manner of the excellent swords of Yaman, and the South, it could be bent, and became straight again. I ordered them to test it in my presence. It cut very well, equal to true swords”. 30 Khulasah-i Mufid-ul Insan

(17 th or 18 th C). 31 Persian source which describe the different chemical technology which were prominent in medieval time, gives the informations of polishing of western swords (Teqh-i Firangi ). During the same period Mir

Yahya in his book Majma’atu’s Sanai (cir. 1624) also give the information in making the European swords and sharping of the weapons like the swords. 32

It is believed that the first cannons roared in India during the battle of

Panipat in 1526. Moghuls were the major users of cannons and continued to manufacture them for centuries. Baburnama described the metal (for making cannon) was not melted in one furnace but in eight small furnaces from which the metal was designed to now together into the mould. 33 The Ain-i Akbari, give the clear description of cannon manufacture. The barrel was made up of disks of wrough iron through which holes had been punched using hammers and chisels. These perforated discs were joined together by forge welding and

30 . Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri or Memoirs of Jahangir (two vols, bound in one) (tr.) Alexander Roers and Beveridge, 2, 204. 31 . Cf. Rahman and Alvi, Science and Technology in Medieval India – A Bibliography of Source Materials in Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian , INSA, New Delhi, p. 431. 32 . Ibid., p. 448. 33 . Babarnamah (tr., Beveridge), II, 536-7. 142 the joints were reinforced by slipping red hot iron rings into there joints so that on cooling these rings contracted tightly into the joints. 34 This lent also describes methods of making the hard gun barrels which would now be made by a diagonal rolling of sheets of iron. Earlier strips of iron were rolled around an iron bar and the edges would be joined together by welding. This could lead to burst barrels or leakage of propulsion power. 35 The new method provided barrels sacral folds thick and hence greater fire power.

Apart from its use in artillery iron found limited applicability in agricultural implements such as hoes, sickles, ploughsharcs, axes, etc. as well as in the making of house hold utensils. The curiosity of the nobility toward acquiring new information on production technique \vas largely non existent till the close of the 18 111 century and use of iron became limited.

Gold and Silver

The history of gold is the history of civilization. The first grains of this metal fell into the hands of humans several thousands years ago and almost immediately came to be considered precious. In ancient times Egypt was believed to be the richest country in gold. 36

Gold and silver are the noble metal. 37 Its vessel, golden tray, colored dishes, gobblets, lota (water-pot), spoon and earthen pots, have been mentioned as articles of utensils throughout in the medieval period. The Tabaqat-i-Nasari

34 . Ain-i Akbari (ed.) N. Kishore, ol. I, p. 143. 35 . Ibid. 36 . Mahmud, S.J., Metal Technology in Medieval India , Delhi, 1988, p. 85. 37 . Rasaridhya of Bhikshu Govinda, Patala IX. Cf. Ray, P., p. 148. 143 also refers to gold and silver dishes in the palace of Laksmanasena of Bengal. 38

It were also used for making coins, jewellary for adoration and other decorative items like flower vase etc. The Ain-i-Akbari describe the details of the working of the mint, describes methods for testing the purity of the precious metals, separating the two precious metals from each other and from other ingredients.

The sarafiss (gold smith) were expert in handling these metals and made use of all the known physical and chemical processes involved in their working. 39

Ores: According to Rasa Ratna Samuccaya gold and silver were obtained from the mines or available as deposits on the Himalaya group of mountain. 40

Tabkat-i Baburi mentions that the silver was collected from Siwalik

Mountain.41

Thakkura Pheru (Royal treasury officer of Allaudin Khalji in his book

Dhatupatti has stated that gold and silver particles are obtained from alluvial washings and in mountain rocks 42 but he does not give the exact places of mines while Ain mention names of certain gold and silver mines which were kumaon 43 (gold bearing sand used to collected), Guge in Tibet44 (gold mine),

Punjab 45 (collected from river sand), Tipara 46 (gold mine) and Bhutant47 (small

38 . Elliot and Dowson, The History of India as told by its Own Historians , ii, p. 309. 39 . Ain-i Akbari tr. Blochmann, p. 16, 18, 28-32. 40 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , tr. Dr. Damodar Joshi, IJHS , INSA, p. 186. 41 . Tabqat-i Baburi of Zain Khan, tr. Hasan Askari, p. 110. 42 . Dubey, R.K., “Thakkur Pheru - Sources of Gold in India”, IJHS , March, 2008, p. 2. 43 . Ain-i Akbari , ed. Naval Kishore, II, p. 171. 44 . Ibid., p. 365. 45 . Ibid., I, 538. Cf. Irfan Habib, An Atlas of the Mughal Empire, p. 12. 46 . Ain-i Akbari , op.cit. II, p. 132. 47 . Alamgir Nama, Muhammad Kazim (ed) Khadim Hussain and Abdul Hai, Bib. Ind. Calcutta, 1865-73, p. 690. 144

amount collected from sand washing) in Bengal. Mirat-i-Ahamadi state that gold was collected from the sands of sonrekha river (a stream flowing between

Girnar Hills and Junagarh) of Gujrat. 48 The alluvial gold was collected by spreading goat or sheep-skin 49 when the gold particles carried by the river which got caught in the hair of goat skin and were then shaken out and collected. This collected reef gold were merged into small ingots in clay crucible over charcoal fire. For this, temperature of 1063 oC would have been necessary. The existence of silver mines at Punjab (mines in the Northern Mts.

In Lahoresubha), Rajasthan (Sojhat and Jaitaram pargana), Kumaun, Bhutant

(Bengal), Assam (in the Mts. North of Uttar Kul), Guge in Tibet. 50

The Method of purification of gold and silver:

The numerous purification and assaying processes found in literary sources of medieval India like Rasaratna samuccaya and Ain-i Akbari . Rasa

Ratna Samuccaya states that take one karsa of gold plate and enclose it inside a pair of earthen dishes along with salt(probably saltpeter) and red ochre and apply heat for half an hour in the midst of burning charcoal .By this method its true colours will come out .51

Tarnished gold + salt (prob. Saltpeter) +Backed soil powder Bright gold

Then the heated metal should be dipped seven times each in oil, butter, cow's urine, and acidic liquid. This was the common method for the purification of

48 . Mirat-i-Ahmadi , Supplement (ed) Syed Nawab Ali, Oriental Institute, Baroda, p. 245. 49 . Ain-i-Akbari , (ed. Sir Syed), p. 26. 50 . An Atlas of the Mughal Empire, op.cit., p. 7. 51 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , Chapter V, verse 12-13, p. 211. 145 gold. 52

The Ain seven of Ain-i Akbari give the most comprehensive and systematic process for purification and separation of gold and silver obtained after the smelting of gold/silver ores. Every hundred Jalali (or hundred tolas of) gold requires four sers of saltpeter and four sers of brick dust of unburnt bricks. 53

The gold plate was washed with clean water and then stratified the above mentioned mixture and put one on top of the other. This whole mound was covered with cow dung known in Hindi as upla then were blazed it and allowed to burn gently until they were reduced to an ash. This ash was kept aside and fresh upla were kept around the gold plates and ignited. This process was carried out three times after which the gold plates were called as sitai . By this process, the impurities were absorbed in the brick dust and dry cowdung.

This operation must be repeated till six mixtures but only eighteen such fires was the gold considered pure. 54 The ash obtained from this process was known as khak-i-khalis in Persian and saloni in Hindi. 55 If on breaking the gold plate a soft sound originate the gold was considered pure. If the sound was harsh, the plates of gold were going through to three more fires. The method of assaying was as follows. From each of the gold plates one masha was taken away of which aggregate a plate was made which was tested on the touchstone and if required one or two more fires were applied. In most cases, however, the desired effect was obtained by three or four fires. Yet another method of

52 . Ibid., p. 211. 53 . Ain-i-Akbari (ed. Sir Syed), pp. 15-16; Ain, tr. Blochmann, pp. 21-23. 54 . Ibid. (ed. N. Kishore), p. 23. 55 . Ibid., p. 21. 146 assaying was also used that was as follows: Two tolas of pure gold were taken along with two tolas of the gold which passed through the fire and made into twenty small plates each of equal weight. These plates were then stratified with the above mentioned mixture (of saltpeter and brick dust) and (after wrapping with upla) the heaps were ignited. After this both kinds of gold plates were found in equal weight it was a proof of their purity. 56 The gold which was red on heating, white on cutting, yellow on rubbing, shining bright was considered pure. 46

For the purification of silver 57 a hole was dug in a ground and sprayed into it a small quantity of cow dung then it was filled with the ashes of mughilan 58 wood. These ashes were moistened and the dig work as a crucible.

Impure silver was placed into this hole along with one-fourth its weight of lead on the top of the silver, covered the whole with coals and blow the fire with the help of bellow until both the metals were reduce to a molten state (boiling point of silver 1063C). This operation of heating and melting was generally repeated four times. The indications of purity were a lightning-like brightness, and the molten silver beginning to harden at the sicks. As soon as it would begin to harden at the middle, it was sprinkled with water which cause flame issued from it resembled in shape the “horn of wild goat”. It then formed itself into a disc of perfectly refined. If this disc was melted again half a surkh in every tola will burn away or 6 masha and 2 surkh in 100 tolas . The ashes of the disc

56 . Ain, tr. Blochmann, vol. 1, p. 22. 57 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya, op.cit., p. 210. 58 . Ibid., op.cit., p. 23. 147 which was mixed with silver and lead formed a kind of litharge, called kharal in Hindi and khushta in Persian. The Hindu text Rasa Ratna Samuccaya also give the purification method of silver 59 which is somewhat related with the

Abul Fazl’s technique.

Take an earthen dish and sprinkled a mixture of lime and ashes in a circular row and placed in it impure silver with its equal weight of lead and also sprayed borex (Na 2B4O7.10H 20). Now covered the whole with charcoals and blow the fire till the lead was consumed. Repeated this process for three times and the silver would purify.

The silver which was compact, heavy, clear, bright, soft, white in colours, free from fissures, and white on cutting and heating was considered to be superior quality. 60 And the inferior quality of silver exhibited red, yellow, or black in colours on heating, rough. full of fissure, light, and hard to touch and was not recommend for use. 61

The khak-i-khalis was collected by Niyariya 62 who first washed it in a vessel whatever gold 'particles contain in khak would settle down at the bottom of the vessel due to its weigh and thus be collected. The remaining ash (still contain gold), known as kukhra in Hindi, was rubbed with quicksilver so that the gold inside the ash to form an amalgam which was kept over the fire in a retort would lead to an easy evaporation of the mercury/quicksilver and the

59 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , op.cit., p. 189. 60 . Ibid., p. 187. 61 . Ibid. 62 . Ibid., p. 24. 148 separation of the remaining gold. The amalgamation process was known to the

Romans and Pliny describes the way in which mercury is used to recover gold as the above process was executed. 63

The rest of the ash (kukhra) which still contained some gold and silver, for the recovery of this precious metals the well-known technique of cupellation was applied. This process is probably the oldest and most efficient way of separating the precious metals from the baser ones. Its principle is alloying the gold with lead or copper in a special pot or crucible and oxidizing the product by means of heating the precious metal in a strong current of air so that the base metals are oxidized and absorbed by the wall of porous containers.

(As we have seen in all the above purification process that the cupel which was the pit lined with ash in the case of silver and the clay brick dust in the case of gold). 64 The Ain-i-Akbari gives the clear description of the method of cupellation. 65 (Though Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber) the Arab chemist of the 9 th century, gives a clear description of the determination of noble metals by cupellation).

The rest of the ash was mixed with lead powder called Punhar. 66 This

63 . Pliny, Natural History , XXX, 32, Quoted in Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology , viii, p. 178. 64 . Ibid., p. 177. 65 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit. p. 24. Cupellation: Method of the separation of silver, gold and other nobles metals from impurities which are oxidized by hot air. The impure metal is placed in a cupel (a flat dish made up of porous refractory material) and a blast of hot air is directed upon it in a special furnace. The impurities are oxidized by the air and are partly swept away by the blast and partly absorbed by the cupel. 66 . Punhar was prepared by heating lead in the presence of carbon ashes (especial ashes of Babul- wood) until it melt. The coals were removed, the bellows inlet closed, and the lead allowed to cool in the absence of oxygen. This lead to the formation of lead granules absorbed in ash. This mixture was known as Punhar . 149

Punhar was mixed with a mild acid known as rasi (it was made from ashkhar or sajji or potassium hydroxide and saltpeter) and rolled into balls weighting 2 sers each. These balls were dried in the presence of sun. Now take a vessel of one and a half yards (4.5ft.) in length consisted of a clay vessel, narrow at the both ends, and wide in the middle which was the ingenious design. With a hole at the bottom and filled the vessel with coals within four fingers of the top then placed it over a pit dug in the earth and blow the fire with two bellows after that dried ash balls were broked into pieces and now throw them into the fire and melt them. The lead was thus reduced and was the first to fall through into the pit and was thus separated from gold, silver, copper alloy called burgrawati 67 the other impurities were blown away as oxides.

The process of remaining alloy of gold, silver and copper was as follows. A pit was dug in the ground and filled with the ashes of babul-wood

(half a ser for every 100 tolas of bugrawati) shaped into a dish. The pit was covered with coals and were ignited till this alloys became molten after which they were removed and replaced by babul wood and heated once again. The copper, along with traces of lead, was absorbed by the ashes leaving the silver and gold in an alloy form.

The method of separating the silver from the gold

The composition of remaining two metals, the silver and gold alloy was melted six times: thrice times with copper and thrice times with sulphur called in Hindi chhachhiya. 68 For every tola of the alloy, one masha of copper and

67 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit.,p. 25. 68 . Ibid (ed.) N. Kishore, I, p. 26. Abul Fazl probably meant some special type of sulphur. He wrote Gugard-i-Chhachiya . 150 two masha, two surkh of sulphur. The mixture of gold and silver is burnt first with copper and next with sulphur. And if in all, 100 tolas of the mixture was present, 100 mash as of copper was used in following manner. First 50 mashas was mixed and melted with the alloy and then the remaining half was used in two equal proportions. The sulphur was also used in similar manner. (Thus if 2 masha and 2 surkh of sulphur is to be used per tola of the alloy. then for 100 tola as 225 masha will be used, first 112.5 masha and then the remaining half in two equal proportions). 69 Thus, initially the mixture of gold and silver was broken into small bits and melted with 50 masha of copper in a crucible. A vessel full of cold water, covered by a meshing of hay (khas) was kept close at hand. The molten mass was then poured through this meshing and the water stirred continuously so that the pieces do not form into mass. These granules were again melted twice with the remaining copper (in two equal portions) and thrice with the sulphur in similar proportions. After the mixture was allowed to cool after the final melting with sulphur, a white ash appears on the surface of the molten mass. This ash was a form of silver. This silver was purified by the process described earlier i.e. heating with lead in a bone ash' crucible.

The above process is a rather interesting example of the application of the application of 'beading' or breaking up of molten mass into small pieces so as to provide a larger surface area for reaction. 70

69 . Khan, I.G., “Some Aspect of Chemical Technology during Akbar’s reign – A Historical and scientific evolution”, IHC , Hyderabad, 1978, p17. 70 . See textbook on Chemistry, for this information. 151

Thus the alloy was melted three times with sulphur and three times with copper and then allowed to cool. After the final cooling, a white ash appeared on the surface of the mass. This ash was a form of silver which was purified by heating in a bone-ash crucible. The remaining mass containing gold is called kail in Punjabi and pinjar around Delhi. The gold revocable is of low quality.

The process of mixing this gold with purer gold in the ratio 1:8 and purification according to aloni or saloni may be undertaken. This process involved the making of an oxygen-rich paste of 2 parts of cow-dung and I part of saltpeter which was rubbed on the surface of the crude gold ingots (already smeared with sesame oil) on heating these ingots, a considerable degree of purity was attained. 71

Even the ash left after this process was not wasted. The Paniwar adds

1.1/2 sers of borex (tanger) to every man of kharal (ash) along with 3 sers of natural sodium carbonate (naturun) and kneads them together. This mixture is then put ser by ser into the furnace described previously (the tanur) when lead, mixed with silver, collects in the pit (at the bottom of the furnace). 72 This mixture was separated in accordance with the method of purification silver.

This lead thus attained may be used to prepare the Punhar for the earlier stage of the reclamation process already described. 73

Other process for the purification of gold wire using cow-dung, rock salt

71 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit., p. 26. 72 . Ibid., p. 27. 73 . Ibid. 152 and washings with lime juice was also known. 74 Rasarnavakalpa and Rasa

Ratna samuccaya also gives the method of killing gold and silver. 75

Zinc : India was the one of the ancient civilization which was familiar with the art of making. brass and use of zinc in it, but zinc as a separate metal became known much later.

Zinc was not found in native form but was obtained almost from minerals. Calamine or zinc carbonate was the main ore of zinc which forms heavy crusts of crystals, usually colored green, and blue, yellow, gray or brown by impurities 76 . Rasaka or Kharpara 77 was the name generally applied to the mineral calamine in sanskrit.

Rasarnava 78 the twelfth century text, mentioned the process for zinc extraction from calamine as follow: “ Rasaka (calamine) mixed with wool, lac,

Terminalia chebula , and borex and in a covered crucible, yields and essence of the appearance of zinc”.

Although the earliest Indian reference to the production of zinc as metal was given in the Rasaratnakara 79 of Nagarjuna. He mentions that copper could be converted into brass by heating it with calamine and organic matters but it did not bear a separate name it was referred to as a metal of the appearance of tin.

74 . Ain-i Akbari (tr. Jarett) iii, p. 314, Cf. I.G. Khan, ‘Metallurgy in medieval India’ in ed. Anirudh Ray & S.K. Bagchi, Technology in Ancient and Medieval India, Delhi, Sandeep Prkashan, p. 84. 75 . Rasaprakasasudhakara of Yosadhara cf. P. Ray, op.cit., p. 153. 76 . Rasaprakasasudhakara of Yosadhara Cf. P. Ray, o.cit., p. 153. 77 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , op.cit., verse 149, p. 49. 78 . Rasarnava, cf. P. Ray, op.cit., p. 138. 79 . P. Ray, op.cit., p. 130. 153

Mukamusagatam dhamatam tankanena samanvitam

satvam kutilasamkasam patate natrasasayah.

This verse state that zinc are digested repeatedly with fermented paddy-water, natorn and clarified butter, and mixed with wool, lac, Terminalia chebula and borex and roasted in a covered crucible.

The next important alchemical text is Dhatumanjari 80 that was complied during 13 th or 14 th centuries A.D. Jasatava, yasadayaka, rupyablzrata (lit. broher to silver) and charmaka were the synonyms to zinc as given by this text but it was not clearly mentioned as the metals. Greeks use the word cadneia,

The Arabs use the term tutiya or totia 81 and in Persian Ain-i-Akbari given the name to zinc as Ruh-i-tutiya.

Yasada or zinc is not described in Rasa Ratna Samuccaya as it was not known as specific metal but Forbes accepted that zinc was prepared by Indian

(Hindu) chemists through distillation process since the twelfth century. 82

The apparatus used for producing zinc by distillation method were similar to Kosthi 83 described in the Rasa Ratna Samuccaya, recently discovered at zawar near Udaipur. 84 (Fig. A)

80 . Ibid., p. 197. 81 . Forbes, R.J. , Studies in Ancient Technology , Vol. viii, p. 269. 82 . Ibid., p. 281. 83 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , op.cit. vol. 26, Chapter IX, verse 46, IJHS, July 91, No. 3, p. 344. 84 . Rina Shrivastava, Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient India , p. 183. 154

Fire Fire

Charcoal

Bellows

Zinc

Figure A : Kosthi Yantram (Apparatus) [This apparatus used by the Hindu metallurgist for the manufacture of zinc]

Calamine is to be powdered with lac, treacle, white mustard, the myrobalans, natron and borax, and the mixture boiled with milk and clarified butter and made into balls. These are to be enclose in a crucible and strongly heated. The contents are then poured on a slab of stone -the essence of calamine of the beautiful appearance of tin (thus obtained) is to be used. 155

Or a vessel filled with water is to be placed inside a koshi apparatus and a perforated cup or saucer placed over it; a crucible charged as above is to be fixed in an inverted position over the sauccr and strongly heated by means of the fire of jujube ( Zizyphus jujube ) charcoal; the essence which drops into the water should be applied in medicine.

Rasaprakasasudhakara 85 of Yasodhara has given almost identical process with that described in the above mentioned text. Irfan Habib argue that zinc separation through distillation, first achieved in china in tenth century then arrived in India by the fourteenth century 86 on the other hand Forbes’ grudging remark that “Zinc was prepared by Indian chemists since the twelfth century hut that this remained a laboratory experiment and never was applied to industrial product”. 87 Yasada ( jasta ) as a specific metal became known to

Indians from the fifteen century A.D. Bhavamisra mentioned zinc in his work

Bhavaprakasa, as the saptadhatu (seven metals), whereas the Persian text, Haft Ahbab of twelfth century Persian text clearly states about the seven metals and considered zinc as a metal, represented by the sign of the planet,

Mercury (Utarid). 88

Archeological evidence suggests that the mining of zinc ore and smelting industry at zawar (Rajasthan) began in the mid centuries of the first

85 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 153. 86 . Irfan Habib, The Economic History of Medieval India , Tukika publication, p. 5. 87 . Forbes, R.J., op.cit., p. 280. 88 . Haft Ahbab, Ms. No. 77, CAS, Department of History Library, A.M.U., Aligarh, folio no. 4. 156 millennium B.C. 89 The Ain-i-Akbari is the first Persian source which give the clear evidence of zinc mine in zawar.Abul Fazal give the description of zinc

(jast), which according to the opinions of some, is Ruh-i-tutiya and resembles led, is nowhere mentioned in Philosophical books, but there is a mine of it in

Hindustan in the territory of jalor 90 which is a dependency of the subha of

Ajmer. 91 The Sanskrit text, Dhatukriya or Dhatumanjari also mentioned the location of zinc: kambhoja, Ruma (Istambul), Balkh 92 , etc. but these area were out of the boundries of India during medieval period.

The Ain describe the three verities of brass that were made from copper and zinc oxide (ruh-i-tutiya) which contain 28%, 33%, and 42% zinc. The last verities being so hard and brittle that it could only be cast. 93

In the seventeen century, China exported zinc to Europe under the name of ‘ totamu ’ or tutenag. The term tutenag may derived from the south Indian term “ tuttanga ”. 94 The Persian writer Ibn-i-Hawqal (950 A.D.) states that zinc was come from Sardan and Inclia. 95 Marco polo also mentioned the deposits of zinc mines in Sindh and India. 96

89 . Hegde, K.T.M., Craddock, P.T. and Sonavane, V.H., Zinc Distillation in Ancient India, Proceeding of the international Archaeometry symposium, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, 1986, pp. 249-58. 90 . Jalor is an obvious misreading of Zawar. It was one of the dependencies of Gogunda. Cf. Irfan Habib Mughal Atlas , p. 20. 91 . Ain-i-Akbari (S.S.) p. 28; (N.K.), I, p. 37; tr. Blochmann, p. 42. 92 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 198. 93 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit., p. 42. 94 . Vijaya Jayant Deshpande, History of Chemistry and Alchemy in India from pre-Modern Times , p. 140. 95 . Forbes, op.cit., p. 280. 96 . Ibid., p. 269. 157

Copper: According to the definition of Jabir copper is “Metallick Body, livid, partaking of a dusky redness , ignoble (or sustaining ignition), fusible, extensible under the Hammer but refusing the cupel and cement ”. 97 In Greek alchemy copper is represented by the sign of the planet venus. According to

Rasakamdhhenu , in India, copper is said to have originated from surya (sun). 98

In Rome it is known as khalque, in Syria it is nuhasa , in Arabic nuhas, mis and qitr. In Sanskrit it is called tamra while in Persian it is known as nahari .

Copper is a soft, red colored metal and possessing metallic lustre. It is very widely distributed in nature and is found in soil, water and ores. The Atlas 99 of

Irfan Habib has facilitated the location of the important medival ore-sites.

The important mines of copper were at Singhana, Udaipu, Babi,

Kotputli, and Cainapur in Rajasthan and Kumaun in suba Awadh. 100 The ores obtained from these places were quite rich in copper. The kotputli mine of copper was so rich that one man of ore (khak) yielded 35 sers of copper. 101 The

Rasa Ratna Samuccaya has described the two verities of copper on the basis of the place of origin. The one brought from Nepal was considered of superior quality while the other was Mleccha an obscure origin, was considered impure. 102

97 . Ibid., p. 1. 98 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , p. 241. 99 . Irfan Habib, Atlas of the Mughal Empire , O.U.P., 1982. 100 . Ain-i-Akbari , vol. ii, 193, 273. 101 . Ibid., ii, 285. 102 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , chapter v, verses, 44-45. 158

The early medieval texts describe the smelting processes which was prevalent in the contemporary society. Rasarnava and Rasaratnasamuccaya describe extraction of copper from Makshika or pyrite as:

“Makshika, repeatedly in honey, oil of seeds of ricinus communis, urine of cow, clarified butter and the extract of bulbous root of musa supieutum when gently rosted in a crucible yields an essence in the shape of copper”. 103

The method for the extraction of copper from Vimala or Iron pyrite is given in

Rasaratnakara, Rasarnava and Rasaratnasamuccaya as:

“Vimala digested with alum, green vitriol, borex and watery liquid extracted from moringapter, musa sapientum and finally roasted in covered crucible in combination with the ashes of Schrebera swiet, yields and essence in shape of Chandraka (Moon)”. 104

By the some recent evidence which gives glimpses of the possible technique employed by the early metal-workers for extracting copper from its ores and this technique was perhaps continued in medieval period also. Since copper is found in the form of sulphides, oxides, and carbonates being to undergo reduction at around 750 oC, a small pit in the ground surrounded by removable fire clay rings to enforce a good draught of air (enhanced by bellows) with an opening for extracting the molten copper 105 (Fig. B)

103 . Rasarnava, vi, verses, 12-13 and Rasaratnasamuccaya, ii, verses, 89-90. 104 . Ibid., 103-04. 105 . Bose et al., Concise History of Science in India , p. 300. 159

Figure B : A native copper smelting furnace at Singhara near Khetri in Rajasthan 106 a – Three separate annular parts made of fire-clay and placed one upon the other firmly b – Chamber for burning some quantity of charcoal. c – Openings for poking the fire form time to time.

The ore is crushed to a powder, mixed with cow-dung, made into balls (pindi) and roasted. The charge consisted of roasted ore, charcoal and Iron slag (acting as flux). The slag is first drawn off, and the smelted copper which accumulated at the bottom of the furnace is removed the following day. This mass is again melted, refined in an open furnace using a strong blast from below, and finally cast into bars. 107

The Rasaratnasamuccaya also gives the four methods for the purification 108 tamra (copper) that was as follow:

(1) Melt copper foils in presence of Alma (acid), add gairika to it and pour

106 . Bose, D.M., Sen, S.N. and Subbarayappa, B.V., A Conise of History of Science in India , INSA Publication, 1971, p. 300 107 . Negoi, Copper in Ancient india , Calcutta, 1918, p. 63-4. 108 . Ibid., verses, 49-52. 160

the whole into butter milk and dung-juice of buffalo, seven times, in

each liquid. By doing so tamra gets rid of dosas (bad effects).

(2) Well cleaned plates of copper should be anointed with saindhava

lavana (rock salt) mixed with lemon juice. These then be heated

strongly and dipped in sauviraka (acidic liquid). This process is repeated

eight times to make tamra purified.

(3) Anoint copper plate with acid and rock salt paste, heat strongly and dip

in nirgundi juice eight times. By this method also tamra plate get

purified.

(4) Boil the plates of copper in cow’s urine for one yam a on strong heat.

By doing so tamra definitely gets purified.

Copper comes to be utilized more commonly during the subsequent ages for minting coins. With the dawn or the 16 th century, copper was acquiring monetary importance due to the continuous debasement of the silver tanka introduced by the Delhi Sultan in which copper later came to predominate. Its role was increased in A.D 1540 when Sher Shah and then Akbar established a pure and uniform tri-metallic currency in India. 109 Akbar introduced different types of copper coins during his reign like Dam, Adhela, Paola, and Damri but the Dam was the most prominent. 110

109 . Tapan Raychaudhuri, and Irfan Habib (eds.) The Cambridge Economic History of India , Orient Longman, CUP, 1982, p. 360. 110 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit., pp. 32-33. 161

Uses of copper for the construction of guns and cannons (most of cannons were cast in bronze, mostly copper containing and 20% tin) occupied an important place in Mughal rule. Babur, the first Mughal Emperor, who first introduced guns in India, has given an account of the casting of a Copper gun in his well known memoirs. Babur writes: “Around the mould they erected eight furnaces for melting the metal (copper). From the foot of each started a channel which ended in the mould. The fused metal rushed into the mould through these channels like boiling water, till the mould was filled up. A day or two afterwards when the mould had cooled down, it was opened. The bore of the piece had no fault and a chamber could easily be made in it. The body of canon was then uncovered, and a certain number of artificers were set to finish it”. 111

The application of ‘tinning’ (qalai ) of copper utensils are also found from the Persian sources of medieval India. The history of this process in India

(qaliai) has already been examined by the P.K. Gode 112 who, apart from citing the literary evidence in the Ain also cites archeological evidence such as a copper bowl with tin plating on the interior as well as the exterior, belonging to the Bhamani Period (1347-1550 A.D). The Ain-i-Akbari clearly mentions the tinning of copper utensils in the royal kitchen twice every month for the emperor and once a month for the princes and others in the royal family. 113

The tinning (qalai) process was very much the same as at present. A low

111 . Baburnama (Cf. Beveridge) II, 536-7. 112 . Gode, Studies in Indian Culture, Poona (1976) iii, pp. 116-117. 113 . Ain-i-Akbari (ed.) N. Kishore, I, p. 57. 162 melting tin soldier (232 oC) is applied to the red hot copper utensils. The tin due the high temperature melts and can be rubbed into the hot copper surface. This plating is saved from oxidation and 'peeling' by immediately plunging the utensil into water. 114 The Mughals were therefore aware of the corrosive effect of organic acids on copper and plated it with the relatively unreactive tin.

Surface colouration of metals was an established art in Mughal India and

Badauni writes about an alchemist who "turned copper utensils in gold”. 115

ALLOYS:

A metal-like substance that is a mixture of two or more metal. Alloying was developed because it changed the physical and chemical characteristic of materials according to requirement. Alloys can be classified by the number of their constituents. An alloy with two components is called a binary alloy ; one with three is a ternary alloy , and so forth.

Brass :

Pittal/Brass is an alloy containing copper and zinc in the ratio 2:1 is described in Rasa Ratna Samuccaya .116 The Ain-i-Akbari (1590), the magnum opus of Abul Fazed described three types of brass 117 follows:

(a) Having 2½ sers of copper (72%) and 1 ser ruh-i-tutiya or zinc (28%), this

type of brass was said to be malleable even when cold.

114 . The Tin solidifies and contracts into continuous plating on the hot copper surface, whose melting point is much higher (1035oC). 115 . Muntakhab-ut-Twarikh , Badauni (tr.) George S.A. Ranking, vol. III, reprinted, 1990, pp. 161- 162. 116 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , op.cit., p. 228. 117 . Ain-i-Akbari , ed. Sir Syed, p. 28, Ain, tr. Blochmann, . 42. 163

(b) This brass had copper 67% and zinc 33%, which was malleable when

heated.

(c) Alloy of 58% copper and 42% zinc and could only be worked by casting.

Vagabhatta described two verities of Pitted, namely ritika and kakatundi.

Of these the ritika was considered as superior because which was heavy,

soft, smooth, yellow, shining, clean, malleable, ductile and cool to touch

was considered to be of superior quality. The best example of the notable

brass gun of Mughal time is “Great gun of Agra” which had enormous of

14 ft. in length and 221/2 inch in bore, into which a man could easily enter

in a crouching position. Its weight was 53 tons. 118

Bronze:

It is an alloy made by mixing "eight parts of copper with two parts of tin. 119 The Kansaya/bronze made in Saurastra was considered the best. 120 Two type of bronze were discussed in Ain-i Akbari .

(a) Safiduri (white bronze): This was known as kansi in Hindi and it was the mixture of copper and tin in the ratio 4: 1 (80% copper and 20% tin). 121

This bronze must have been very hard and brittle as the percentage of tin in bronze must not normally exceed 14% (or correctly 8-12%). 122

(b ) Rui (black bronze): another type of bronze containing copper and lead in the ratio 8:3 (or 27% lead) are also described in the Ain . This alloy was called

118 . Bose et al., Concise History of Science in India , p. 341. 119 . Ibid., p. 229. 120 . Ibid. 121 . Ain-i-Akbari , ed. Naval Kishore, p. 28. Ain, tr. Blochmann, p. 42. 122 . Subbarayappa, B.V., ‘Chemical practices and alchemy’, op.cit., p. 281. 164 by Hindustani people as bhangar while the Persians called as Rui .123 Bronze

which produce intense sound, soft, white in colours and turns red on heating

was known as superior quality. 124 The most important gun of the Mughal time

is the famous Malik-i-Maidan (lit. monarch of the plain), made of bronze.

The material of the gun on analysis revealed the following composition:

Copper, 80.4%, tin, 19.59% (extract 4:1 ratio) length, 14.3”; diameter, 4’10”

at mouth; 2’4½” at bore; probably cast in Ahmadabad in 1549 during the reign

of Sultan Burhan Nizam Shah, and now in Bijapur. According to Fergusson

and others it formed the largest piece of ordinance in the world at their time. 125

Sim-i-sukhta (burnt silver) : It was the composition of lead, silver and bronze and was used in painting. 126

Kaulpatr: According to Abul Fazal this alloy was the invention of Akbar. It contained 2sers of Safidru (bronze) and 1 ser of copper. It was colored and looked well. 127

Bist biswa: This was the discovery of an alloy in silver. Silver was alloyed with lead, tin and copper. In Iran and Turan it was called the highest degree of fineness of silver dahdah, while in Hindustan; Sarraf used for it the term bist biswa. According to the quantity of the alloy, it descends in degree; but it is not made less than five, and no one would care for silver baser than ten degrees. Practical men can discover from the colour of the compound, which

123 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit., p. 42. 124 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya , op.cit., p. 229. 125 . Neogi, op.cit., pp. 32-38. 126 . Ain-i Akbari , tr. Blochmann, p. 42. 127 . Ibid. 165 of the alloys is prevailing, whilst by filing and boring it, the quality of the inside is ascertained. They also try it by beating it when hot, and then throwing it into water, when blackness denotes lead, redness copper, a white grayish colour tin, and whiteness a large proportion of silver. 128

Vamloha : copper (tamra) mixed with steel (tiksna loha) was melt and the melted powder in lakuca juice associated with sulphur for a number of times converted itself into an alloy and that was known as varaloha. 129

Chandrarka: Sixteen parts of silver was mixed with twelve parts of copper and melted together .The material thus obtained was called Chandrarka. 130

Ghoshakrista Tamra : When molten bell metal (Kansaya) mixed with a little talaka (orpiment) and subjected to tadana (blowing) through vankanala (bent tube) liberate tin from it and leaves pure copper then that was known as ghosakrista tamra .131

Vartaloha : It was also an alloy made by mixing five metals, bronze, copper, brass, iron, and lead in equal proportion. It was also known as panchaloha or

Vartaloha .132

Haft-josh : According to Abul Fazal Haft-josh, like kharsini, is nowhere to be found. Some call it taliqun while other gives this name to common copper. It is consist of six metals, probably, gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, and lead. 133 The

128 . Ibid., p. 23. 129 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya, op.cit. chapter 8, verse, 12, p. 304. 130 . Ibid. (8:23). 131 . Ibid. (8:38). 132 . Ibid. (5:212). 133 . Ain-i Akbari , tr. Blochmann, p. 42, Ain, ed. Sir Syed Ahmad, I, p. 28. 166

Jawaharnama 134 of Mohd. Asharaf bin Asad Rustamdari who compiled this treats on mineralogy for Babur (compiled 1530A.D) .He state that it is an alloy but not mentioned the metals from which it is made. It is used for making utensils. Farhang-i-Anand Raj 135 (c. 1650 A.D.) of Anand Raj also mention about the “Haft josh” he says it is an alloy whose Turkish term is taligun. It is made of gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, and Zinc. It is poisonous and has a mirror surface used for making tweezers, arrowheads, larceheads. Ibn Batuta’s

Rehla 136 (C.1330 A.D) also informed that the iron pillar at Mehrauli was made of Haft josh around Delhi.

Ashtdhatu: Abul Fazal describes the chemical relationship between Hafi josh and Astdhatu by saying that it is a compound of eight metals. The six of the haft-josh plus ruh-i-tutiya (zinc) and Kansaya (bronze). It is also made of seven compounds. 137

Thus, it is evident from the foregoing pages endeavour enabled development and progress in the field of metallurgy. The establishment of the

Delhi sultanate fostered technological development. The iron and steel industry flourished in India since ancient times. The various sources of medieval period describe different types of iron and their ores, method of purification of gold and silver, separating silver from gold, smelting process, detail discussion on alloys such as brass, bronze and haft josh , etc.

134 . Khan, I.G., ‘Transmission and Terminology: Problems of identification of Central Asian Minerals and alloy in medieval Indian Source”, PHISPC , 2002, p. 423. 135 . Farhang-i-Anandraj , Tehran A.H. (1336), p. 136 . Gibb, H.A.R. (tr.) The Travels of Ibn Battuta , Munshiram Manoharlal Pub. (1993), vol. III, p. 622. 137 . Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit., p. 42. 167

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

There is a general belief that there was no scientific activity during

Medieval period because of the vested interests of the rulers who came here as invaders from the west and central Asia. They are even blamed for the discontinuity in the old tradition. It is possibly forgotten that, Firoz Shah

Tughluq, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan were keenly interested in different field of sciences. Some of the important technological practices involving the application of chemical knowledge in the medieval period came to India from neighbouring countries, the Indian craftsmen acquired mastery over them soon and even made innovations in course of time.

The scientist knowledge as it existed in India was different from what the Moghuls brought with them. Hindu science had five elements – Akasa,

Vayu, Teja, Ap and Prithvi . Akasa is vacuum, vayu is air, Teja is fire, Ap is water and prithvi in earth. The Greek philosophers also had five elements but their order was different viz. earth, water, air, fire and ether. The same elements and the same order was also given by Aristotle.

The Arabs had only four elements, as described by Abul Fazl in his book Ain-i-Akbari that fire is absolutely warm, dry and light water is relatively cold, moist and heavy, earth is cold, dry and heavy, air is relatively warm, moist and light. He used the concepts of Bukhar (vapor) and Dukhan (gases) being the mixture of water with air earth respectively. The various forms of the bodies are due to the variation in the mixture of the two of them. Abul Fazl has 168 described seven “bodies” or metals. According to him the main components of the seven bodies are mercury and sulphur.

The Hindu alchemists were pre-occupied with mercury, the precious metals and vegetable matter. Its main aim was the restoration of health and the rejuvenation of the aged. The Hindus believed that mercury was of divine origin and could be used to convert base metals into gold and to cure all bodily ailments and make one immortal. Rasayan means (according to Hindu alchemists) an art which is restricted to certain operations drugs and compounds most of which are taken from plants.

Alchemy flourished chiefly in the medieval period, although how old it might be difficult to say. It paved the way for modern chemistry just as astronomy began with astrology. A considerable number of men who carried out this chemical operations with ostensible purpose of changing base metals into gold these men we call the alchemists, rasavadins in Sanskrit and ahle san’at in Persian.

Abul Fazl was fully aware of the advances in scientific philosophy of his day. As such, he represented in the trust fashion, the intelligentism of the medieval times. In the exposition of the theory of elements done with extreme accuracy and brevity, he remained truly an Avicennian, Jabirian and

Aristotelian thought on the other side Hindu sciences were not upto the mark,

Sanskrit sources are silence on the origin of metals. Some sources give only mythological origin of metal which is not scientific at all. 169

The chemical process plays a very crucial role in the formation of chemical compounds. The Persian and Sanskrit sources of the medieval period give considerable information about these processes.

The process of distillation was probably known to the ancient Indians.

P.C. Ray suggests that the three vessels made of coarse, red, sand clay (lime and broken bricks) excavated from the late Saka Parthian periods at Sirkap, insinuate that the process of distillation and condensation was known to the ancient India in the first century. Rasarnava mentions the distillation of alum or Saurashtri . Rata Ratna Samuccaya talks of the distillation of green vitriol.

Rasapradipa provides us a detailed process for the preparation of mineral acids by distillation. Among the Persian sources Ain-i Akbari provides vivid details of the process of liquor and perfume distillation. Ain-i Akbari gives the method of preparing arrack and its distillation after fermentation through three ways.

Abul Fazl’s descriptions of distillation processes, including that of liquor distillation, seemingly avoided by earlier writers perhaps due to the religious prohibition. Ain-i Akbari gives reference on camphor and detail description of making it using sublimation process. Thus we find that Abul Fazl was familiar with the distillation and sublimation process.

Bleaching is a chemical process for whitening materials. Tavenier emphasizes the use of lemon in bleaching cotton.

From ancient times intoxicating drinks have been prepared with the application of fermentation and used in India as in other parts of the world. The 170 liquor of sugarcane and Mahuwa were perhaps easily available during the medieval period. The Ain-i Akbari gives the clear information, how to make the liquor with the method of fermentation. The most common and perhaps the cheapest during, was the tari or juice coconut palm or date which get after fermentation. Ain gives the reference to tari .

The medieval period saw the development of chemical industries at a considerable large scale. The basic ingredients of gunpowder are sulphur and charcoal. Rasarnava mentions the use of Saltpeter or Sauraschala in the transmutation process. Rasahridaya by Govinda Bhagavat and Rasa Ratna

Sammuccaya by vagbhata refer to Sauvarachab or Saltpeter in the category of six salts. Further in the same tent, provide the recipes for the use of fine powder in guns and pyrotechnics respectively. In the Persian sources too there is a considerable amount of information on saltpeter but it is scattered. Adal ul-

Fuzala and Sharaf nama-i Ahmad Munairi explain shora or saltpeter in different ways. Abul Fazl’s work Ain-i-Akbari provides interesting information about saltpeter and its uses there is a reference to the use of Saltpeter as a coolant. Bayaz-i khushbui an anonymous text of Shahjahan’s reign contains vivid details about the use of Shora in gunpowder. Sulphur is the second basic ingredient of gunpowder. The Sanskrit sources possess interesting information on the origin of sulphur. The texts like Rasarnava, Rasarnavakalpa, Rasa Ratna

Samuccaya, Kalukacintaman and Sukraniti provide detailed account of its

‘origin’. 171

The Persian sources like Ain-i-Akbari and Bayaz-i Khushbui also give information about the procurement and uses of sulphur while the earlier sources sheds light on its uses in metallurgy the latter highlights its importance in pyrotechnics. Ain-i Akbari mentions that mines of sulphur are found in

Bengal. Bayaz-i Khushbui mentions the use of gugird or sulphur in the preparation of five works.

Charcoal the third basic ingredient of gunpowder. Rasa Ratna

Sammuccaya informs us about charcoal or kokilas . The verse 18 of the seventh chapter gives three synonymous of charcoal viz. Sikhitra, Pavakocchista and angara . Katukacintamani of Gajapali prataparudradeva of Orissa written in the early sixteenth century mentions two types of charcoal for charcoal for pyrotechnic mixtures. Thirteenth bab of the Bayaz-i khushbui mentions the use of zughal (a live coal) as different from angisht (charcoal) an ingredient in a gunpowder recipe. Most of the sources of this period provide various recipes for the preparation of a gunpowder mixture. Rasopanisad narrates the preparation of Sphotaka or explosive mixture. Sukacharya’s sukraniti or the

‘Elements of polity’ gives enough indication about the presence of a knowledge of manufacturing gun-powder by providing recipes of the same.

The verses 201-202 of the text describe the method by which it was produced.

Bayaz-i khushbui discusses in detail the method of preparing cannon ball for tufang and top. It also provides eighty seven gun powder recipes for use in pyrotechnics. The Sanskrit and Persian sources of the period enumerated the 172 varied applications of gunpowder for both military purpose and manufacture of fire works.

There were also chemical industries for the preparation of acids, alkalies, ink, poisons etc. The Sanskrit sources of this period indicate that acids were produced from either plants or minerals. While there is no direct reference to mineral acids in earlier texts still it is highly probable that the alchemists involved in transmutation processes were aware of the acidic properties of various minerals. A great deal of information about preparation of alkalies, various varieties and their uses have been dealt by medieval texts like

Rasahrdyatantram, Rasarnava, Rasarnavakalpa, Rasa Ratna Samuccaya and

Ain-i Akbari .

Ink is such a tiny word of three letters, but it has played such a important part on the stage of world history. The recipe for ink was given in Rasaratnal of Nityanatha Siddha, an alchemical treatise of the thirteenth century. We get indirect information from the Ain-i Akbari of Abul Fazl, though this text do not mention the preparation of ink, but clearly mention on the nature of colours and the arts of writing and painting.

Alberuni in the eleventh ceiling remarked that the Hindus did not use paper. Instead, they wrote on palm leaf in the south and on the bark of the bhuja or tuz in the central and northern India. Hence, it appears that the paper making industry came in India with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the thirteenth century. It was Amir Khusrau who first pointed 173 about the manufacture of Damishqi or Shami paper at Delhi. From Tarikh-i

Firozshahi of Shams Siraj Afif, Ghori and Rahman have argued that paper mills might have been erected by Firoz Tughluq. This was possible because scholars, poets and artisans were given royal patronage and several new industries were introduced in India. There are no details about the paper making industry in Ain-i Akbari . It only refers to tuz or the bark of a tree as the writing material. Mujallid or book binder and rangrez or dyer were two kinds of craftsmen mentioned in the text bearing some relation to the paper making industry. Abul Fazl only remarks that “good paper” was manufactured at Rajgir in the Sarkar of Bihar.

Khulasalu’t Tawarikh of Sujan Rai informs about the various brands of paper produced in Sialkot during or shortly before Jahangir’s reign Bayaz-i

Khushbui also refers to the Sialkot paper.

Cosmetic and perfumery have been always served asthetic pleasures from time immemorial. The Sanskrit and Persian texts of the period have a great deal of information the subject. Some important texts of interest are

Gandhasara of Gangadhara, Gandhavada , Rasaratnakara , Ain-i Akbari,

Tuzuk-i Jahangiri and Itriyat-i Nauras-i Shahi .

Soap made from vegetables oils, aromatic oils and sodium lye were first produced by Muslim chemists in the medieval Islamic world. Soap was possibly introduced into India by the Muslim, though the Hindus had made use before of alkaline lyes for a long time, obtained from the ashes of plants. The 174 medieval Persian literature also makes frequent mention of sabun (soap) which used both the washing the body and cleaning the clothes being religious requirements for Muslims, they invented the recipes for true soap which is still in use today and he invented the soap bar. There are two types of soaps are mentioned in ‘ Ain-i Akbari solid and liquid spa. Opatna was scented soap used for bathing and Ghasul was liquid soap which perhaps used for washing hard after using toilet. Bayaz-i Khusbhui also mentions about opatna and Ghasul .

The text also gives the method how to make the soap.

The metallurgy had gone through a long process of evolution and innovation. It is the spirit of human endeavour which allowed man to innovate, improvise and master technology through experimentation. India enjoys a reputation of being one of the ancient civilizations which was familiar with the art of making and use of iron.

The Rasa Ratna Samuccaya a compilation of the 13 th or 14 th century text on alchemy. The chapter five give the information related to metallurgical perspective. But there indigenous Sanskrit sources are not very much helpful in understanding the techniques of production.

Tuzuk-i Jahangiri , mentions the meteoric iron which fell as meteors and it was used for making swords.

The history of gold is the history of civilization. The Tabaqat-i Nasari also refers to gold and silver dishes were used in palaces. The Ain describe the details of the working of the mint, describes methods for testing the purity of 175 the precious metals, separating the two precious metals from each other and from other ingredients. The Sarafiss (gold smith) were expert in handling these metals and made use of all the known physical and chemical processes involved in their working. The numerous purification and assaying processes found in literary sources. Ain give the most comprehensive and systematic process for purification and separation of gold and silver obtained after the smelting of gold/silver ores.

The Ain-i Akbari is the first Persian source which give the clear evidence of zinc, mine in zawar. Abul Fazal give the description of zinc (jast) which according to the opinions of some, is Ruh-i-tutiya and resembles led, is northern mentioned in philosophical books, but there is a nine of it in

Hindustan in the territory of jalor which is a dependency of the subha of Ajmer.

The Sanskrit text, Dhatukriya or dhatumanjari also mentioned the location of zinc : Kambhoja, Ruma (Istambul), Balkh etc. but these area were out of the boundaries of India during medieval Persian.

Copper comes to be utilized more commonly during the subsequent ages for minting coins. Akbar introduced different types of copper coins during his reign like Dam, Adhela, Paola and Damri but the Dam was the most important.

The application of ‘tinning’ ( qalai ) of copper utensils are also found from the

Persian sources of medieval India.

The Ain-i Akbari clearly mentions the tinning of copper utensils in the royal kitchen twice every month for the emperor and once a month for the princes and others in the royal family. 176

Alloying was developed because it charged the physical and chemical characteristics of materials according to requirement. Brass is an alloy containing copper and zinc in the ratio 2:1 is described in Rasa Ratna

Samuccaya . The Ain-i Akbari described three types of brass.

Bronze is an alloy made by mining eight parts of copper with two parts of tin. Two type of bronze were discussed in Ain-i Akbari . Safiduri (white bronze) and Rui (black bronze). The Ain mentions also differ alloys such as

Sin-i sukhta (burnt silver), Kaulpatr, Bistbiswa Haft-josh , while Sanskrit sources Vamloha, Chandrarka, Ghoshakrista, Tamru, Vartaloha and

Ashtdhatu .

We can conclude from the above analysis of information pertaining to alchemy and chemistry in the Sanskrit and Persian sources of medieval period that there is considerable less information in the sources of sultanate period as compared to the Mughal period. Although there was quite a lot of development in the field of technology evident from the manufacture of various commodities in the kharkhanas especially during Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s period which reached its zenith during Akbar’s reign.

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

Persian Ahan Iron Ahle san’at Alchemist Ajza Atom Ashkhar-i-kufta Natron Bukhar Vapour or stream Bukhar-i-abi wet vapour Bukhar-i-dukhani dry vapour Dukhan a gas or smoke Faulad Iron/steel Gugird Sulphur Haft-josh Eight metals Hindi Rock salt Khamir Kneaded flour Ma’adininahari Copper mines Nafte Bitumen Nahas/nuhas zard Brass Nahasi Copper Nuqra Silver Qalai Tinning Risas Tin Ruh Spirit Ruh-i tutiya zinc oxide Rui Black bronze Safiduri White bronze Sarafiss Goldsmith 178

Shora Saltpeter Simab Mercury Sim-i Sukhta Burnt silver Surb Lead Surbi sokhta A black powder for women’s eye brows Tabaiyyat Natural philosophy Tangar Borax Tila Gold Tila-i dast afshar Gold compressible by hand Tila-i-Jafari The purest gold Tila-u sim Gold and silver Zughal a live coal Sanskrit Adhapatana Distillation downwards Adrija Bitumen Alkari Ksara Amubja or Saindhara rock salt Angara Charcoal Arakuta Brass Arkacandra copper alloy Aruna copper ore Astdhatu Eight metals Audhiha vegetable salt Ayas Metal in general Bali sulphur Candrahema An alloy of silver and gold Chulika lavana Salammoniac Culika a type of salt (sal-ammoniac) 179

Dahajala Burning water Dravyakarma Alchemy Gandhaka Sulphur Hemakriya gold making Hingula or Darada Cinnabar Jajra Diamond Jasada Zinc Kamsa Bell metal Kansaya Bronze Kaurala copper ore Khala copper Kharpara Calamine Kokilas Charcoal Ksara Alkali Kutila Tin Loha Iron Luna/lona salt Makshika Pyrites Maraka cinnabar Melana Alloying Naga Lead Pogaras Free from fibres Rajata silver Rasa Mercury Rasaka Calamine Rasasiddhas Alchemists Rasavadin alchemist Ravi Copper 180

Ritikrt Calamine Romaka Rsakarpura Calomel Saindhava Rock salt Sakti Mica Samudram Sea salt Sankhadravaka Aqua regia Saurarcala Salt Saurashtri Alum Sauvarchala Nitre Silajatu Bitumen Sphotaka Explosive mixture Tamra Copper Tikshna loha churna Steel/iron power Tiksnaloha Steel Tiryakpatana Distillation sideways Trapu Tin Vida mixture Vit black salt Yavakshara Salpeter

APPENDICES

APPENDIX-I

Bayaz-i-khushbui , an anonymous work in household management was transcribed in 1697-98. But Irfan Habib assigned the work to the first two decades of Shahjahan’s reign on internal evidence. This text is divided into seventeen bab (chapters), it deals with medicinal aids, perfumes, essences, salves, beverages, fire-works etc. 1 It mentions about eighty seven types of firework. The exact measurement and quantities of various ingredients to be used are vividly explained in the text. The standards used for weight in the text are misqal , darham and Dang. A misqal was equivalent to 4.23 grams. 2

Ingredients Weight (Persian) (1) Ayar-i-Gul Shora (saltpeter) 11 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 3 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 6 misqal Tukhm (Seeds) 4 misqal The second method for the preparation of Ayar-i-gul also given Shora (saltpeter) 1 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 3 misqal Zirnikh/Zirniq (red Arsenic) 1 misqal (2) Ayar-i-digar Mahatab lajvardi Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 3 misqal Zirnikh/Zirniq (red Arsenic) 1 misqal Neel paint/Indigoplant/Charcoal of this plant) 1 Dang 3

1 . Bayaz-i-Khushbui , I.O. 828, Rotograph no. 194,·Repartment of History, AMU, Aligarh 2 . Vide E.S. Kennedy ed. and tr. Al-Biruni’s Kitab Tahdid al-Amakin , Beirut, 1974, p. 3. 3 . A weight, the fourth part of a dirham. 182

(3) Ayar-i-Tez-i-Amal (which reacts fast) Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 3 misqal Zughal (A live coal/charcoal) 2 misqal and 1 Dang (4) Ayar-i-Gulemahatab Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) (?) misqal Zirnikh/Zirniq (red/yellow Arsenic) 1 misqal (5) Guli-i-Marwar (Pearl) Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal and 1 Dang Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal and 1 Dang Zughal (A live coal/charcoal) 1 misqal and 1 Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 1 misqal (6) Ayar-i-Gule Nasreen Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Zughal (A live coal/charcoal) 8 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal Faulad-i-reza (Iron powder) 40 misqal (7) Ayar-i-Gul-digar Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal and 1 Dang Zughal (A live coal/charcoal) 1 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 3 misqal and 2 Dang Zirnikh/Zirniq (Red/yellow Arsenic0 4 Dang Safneed Aaab 1 Dang Kafoor (Champhor) 1 Dang (8) Ayar-i-Aale (Big) Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 5 misqal 183

Zughal (Charcoal) 4 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 5 misqal (9) Ayar-i-Aftab Shora (saltpeter) 4 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 2½ misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 4½ misqal Namak (Salt) 4 misqal (10) Ayar-i-Gule-i-Behi/Pehi Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal and 1 Dang Zughal (Charcoal) 4 Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 2½ Dang (11) Ayar-i-Gule-i-Nargis Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal and 2 Dang Zughal (Charcoal) 2 misqal and 2 Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 10 misqal (12) Ayar-i-Nargis (method of making this polytechnic is given by Ustad Mohammad) Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal and 1 Dang Zughal (Charcoal) 4 Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 2½ Dang (13) Ayar-i-Gul(i) Khairu Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 4 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 2½ misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 7 misqal

184

(14) Ayar-i-Digar Shora (saltpeter) 20 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1½ misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 1½ misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 5 misqal (15) Ayar-i-Zarjakhtez Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 2 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 4 misqal (16) Ayar-i-Gulgutez Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 2 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 4 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 5 misqal (17) Ayar-i-Mahatab Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 2 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 5 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 4 misqal (18) Ayar-i-Nargishatahi Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 4 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 1misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 7 misqal (19) Ayar-i-Gulrez (Scattering like flowers) Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 2 misqal

185

(20) Ayar-i-Gule-Zarafshan (Scattered in golden light) Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 10 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 2 misqal and 1 Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 1 misqal (21) Ayar-i-digar Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal and 1 Dang Zughal (Charcoal) ½ Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 2 misqal (22) Ayar wa Manah zarcen Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 10 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 5 Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 3 misqal (23) Ayar wa Mamanah-i-Raushan Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 1 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 4 misqal (24) Ayar-i-Sarmakfi Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 2 misqal and 3 Dang (25) Ayar-i-Lisan-i-Muallaq Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 4 misqal and 2 Dang Juz maghz (A walnut kernel any hard substances) 20 misqal Zirnikh (Arsenic) 2 misqal Kafoor 1 Dang 186

(26) Ayar-i-Gulbartaab Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 20 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 5 misqal (27) Ayar-i-Gule Zebak Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 10 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 1 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 5 misqal (28) Ayar-i-Gule Chunare Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 2 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 3 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 2 misqal (29) Ayar-i-Gulekharabehi Shora (saltpeter) 2 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 3 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 1 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 1 misqal (30) Ayar-i-Zarjagkadi Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 5 Dang Zughal (Charcoal) 5 Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 4 misqal (31) Ayar-i-Gulefausi Shora (saltpeter) 2 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 2 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 3 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 1 misqal 187

(32) Ayar-i-Gule sadbarg Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 20 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 20 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 5 misqal (33) Gulazmuda Shora (saltpeter) 12 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 2 misqal and 1 Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 6 misqal (34) Ayar-i-Nargis raushan Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 5 misqal Kagaz (wrape the paper around these ingredient sound purpose) (35) Ayar-i-Tabaqzarjak Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 3 misqal and 1 Dang Zughal (Charcoal) 3 Dang Faulad (Iron powder) 4 Dang (36) Ayar-i-Nargis-i-Sheerin Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 4 misqal (37) Zarjak kshahi Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 1 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 1 Dang

188

(38) Ayar-i-Tirnishane Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 2 misqal Zughal (Charcoal) 1 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 4 misqal (39) Ayar-i-Tirmadarkash Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 10 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 4 misqal (40) Ayar-i-Tirzard Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Naft (Naphtha, bitumen) 3 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1½ misqal Zarnikh (Arsenic) 3 misqal (41) Ayar-i-Teersafneed Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 Dang Zughal (Charcoal) 1 misqal Faulad (Iron powder) 2 misqal (42) Ayar-i-Gule Faulad (Iron powder) 8 Dirham Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham (43) Ayar-i-Mushak Shora (saltpeter) 2 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 2 Dirham Zughal (Charcoal) 2 Dirham Ahan (Iron) 2 Dirham (44) Ayar-i- Digar Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham 189

Gugird (Sulphur) 2 Dirham Zughal (Charcoal) 2 Dirham Ahan (Iron) 3 Dirham (45) Ayar-i-Gotakhorakh Shora (saltpeter) 2 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 1 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 8 Dirham (46) Ayar-i-Tarakak Shora (saltpeter) 2 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 2 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 2 Dirham (47) Ayar-i-Hawai Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Shora (Saltpeter) 1 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 1 Dirham Zughal (Charcoal) 8 Dirham Faulad (Iron powder) 4 Dirham (48) Ayar-i-Mahatab-i-Hawai Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 2 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 1 Dirham Gulblah 1 Dirham Zarnikh (Arsenic) 1 Dirham Tutiya 1 Dirham (49) Ayar-i-Mushak Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 2 Dirham Zughal (Charcoal) 2 Dirham Ahan (Iron) 20 Dirham 190

(50) Ayar-i-Hawai Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 2 Dirham Zughal (Charcoal) 2 Dirham Ahan (Iron) 3 Dirham (51) Ayar-i Gotakhorakh Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 1 Dirham Sunish 4 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 4 Dirham (52) Gul-i Dorang Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 2 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 7 Dirham Sunish (?) 4 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 4 Dirham (53) Ayar-i Sadbarg (Sactred in thousand leafs) Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 10 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 7 Dirham Sunish (?) 7 Dirham (54) Ayar-i Digar Shora (saltpeter) 8 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 2½ Dirham Gandhak 2½ Dirham Ahan (Iron) 3 Dirham (55) Ayar-i resimant Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Kundhak/Gendhak 4 Dirham 191

Angisht (Charcoal) 2 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 4 Dirham (56) Ayar-i digar Shora (saltpeter) 5 Dang Kundhak/Gendhak 4 Dang Angisht (Charcoal) 2½ Dang Faulad (Iron) 4 3 Dang (57) Ayar-i ustadayaz Shora (saltpeter) 12 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 6 Dirham Gungird (Sulphur) 1½ Dirham Faulad (Iron) 6 Dirham (58) Ayar-i minashah radandag Shora (saltpeter) 12 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 6 Dirham Nafaz () 1 Dirham Gugird (sulphur) 2 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 5 Dirham (59) Ayar-i Digarustad Saad Shora (saltpeter) 20 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 2 Dirham Gugird (sulphur) 1 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 5½ Dirham (60) Ayar-i digar Shora (saltpeter) 4 Dirham Gugird (sulphur) 2 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 4½ Dirham Zangari 1 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 7 Dirham 192

Gul Panbah (Cotton/rui) 2 Nargis (61) Ayar-i Muallak Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 4½ Dirham Gugird (sulphur) 3 Dirham Naft 2 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 5 Dirham (62) Ayar-i Zarjagdast Shora (saltpeter) 80 Dirham Gugird (sulphur) 5 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 20 Dirham (63) Ayar-i Zarjagayan Shora (saltpeter) 30 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 1½ Dirham Gugird (sulphur) 3 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 6 Dirham (64) Ayar-i Mahtaab-i Latef Shora (saltpeter) 8 Dirham Naft 3 Dirham Zarnikh (Arsenic) 1 Dirham Tail (Oil) 1 Dang (65) Ayar-i Dardi Kamaan Faulad (Iron) 4 Dirham Shora (saltpeter) 24 Dirham Naft (bitumen) 6 Dirham Gulsafid 6 Dirham (66) Ayar-i Mahtab-i Digar Shora (saltpeter) 4½ Dirham Gugird (sulphur) 10 Dirham 193

Zarnick ½ misqal Angisht 3 misqal (67) Ayar-i Taami Shora (saltpeter) 12 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 3 Dirham Naft and Faulad 2 Dirham (68) Ayar-i Asmani Shora (saltpeter) 17 Dirham Gugird (sulphur) 1 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 3 Dirham (69) Ayar-i Asmani Shora (saltpeter) 14 Dirham Naft (Bitumen) 1 Dirham (70) Ayar-i gulechunab Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 4 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 4 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 7 Dirham (71) Ayar-i Tutak andar Kafas Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 13½ Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 6 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 12 Dirham (72) Ayar-i Gule Chrnarmasri/musri Shora (saltpeter) 14 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 2 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 1 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 4 Dirham

194

(73) Ayar-i Gule Tausee Shora (saltpeter) 18 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 4½ Dirham Naft 5 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 6 Dirham (74) Ayar-i Gule saman Shora (saltpeter) 12 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 4½ Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 1 Dirham Naft (Bitumen) 5 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 6 Dirham (75) Ayar-i Guleaape Shora (saltpeter) 2 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 1½ Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 2 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 2 Dirham (76) Ayar-i Gule khurma Shora (saltpeter) 14 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 2½ Dirham Faulad (Iron) 6 Dirham (77) Ayar-i Bachauhalb Shora (saltpeter) 12 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 1 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 3 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 7 Dirham (78) Ayar-i-Gule Safaid Shora (saltpeter) 7 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 3 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 8 Dirham 195

(79) Ayar-i-Gule Laft Rang Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) ½ Dirham Faulad (Iron) 8 Dirham (80) Ayar-i Gule charkh Shora (saltpeter) 7 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 1 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 3 Dirham Gugird (Sulphur) 1 Dirham (81) Ayar-i Gule Kasmeera Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Gugird (Sulphur) 1 misqal Zirnikh (Zirniq) 1 misqal Faulad (Iron) 3 misqal (82) Ayar-i Gule Pad Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 3 Dirham Naft (Bitumen) 2½ Dirham Faulad (Iron) 3 Dirham (83) Ayar-i Asmani Angisht (Charcoal) 3 Dang Gugird (Sulphur) 1 Dang Faulad (Iron) 8 Dang (84) Ayar-i Asmani Angisht (Charcoal) 3 Dirham Zarnikh (Arsenic) 3 dirham (85) Ayar-i Diwana Shora (saltpeter) 20 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 4 Dirham 196

Gurgid ( Sulphur) 4 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 8 Dirham (86) Shora (saltpeter) 10 misqal Angisht (Charcoal) 3 misqal Gurgid ( Sulphur) 20 misqal (87) Ayar-i Tausi Shora (saltpeter) 10 Dirham Angisht (Charcoal) 4 Dirham Gurgid ( Sulphur) 3 Dirham Faulad (Iron) 2 Dirham 197

APPENDIX-II

The following table is based on the information available in Mohd.

Husain’s Makhzan ul Adwiyah , an 18 th century pharmacological text. Taken from the article by Stapleton, H. Husain and Azo, R.F. chemistry in Iraq and

Persia in the Xth Century . Mem. A.S.B. VIII, 6, p. 404.

S.No. Planet Sex: Male or Related Other Mineral and Female Metal animal substances

1. Saturn ( Zuhal ) Generally male, Lead Lead oxide ( martak ) some say both (usrubb ) Refume of iron (khubth-ul-hadid ) bone, horn and urine

2. Jupiter ( Mushtari ) Male Tin, Bronze Copper sulphide (black and (Marqashisha ) white)

3. Mars ( Mirrikh ) Male Iron and Black iron ore copper (Maghnatis ), Haematite (shadanj ), Mercuric sulphide ( zunjufr )

4. The Sun ( shams ) Male: Pole and Gold… All precious stones, Master of Events Marble, all the sulphurs

5. Venus ( Zohra ) Female Copper Manganese ore (Maghnisiya ), lead sulphide (kuhl), pearls and emeralds and grease.

6. Mercury ( Utarid ) Inclined to Brass Turquoise, arsenic masculinity calcium salt ( nurah )

7. The Moon Female Silver Pearls and soft, white (Qamar ) stones, Nabataean glass

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