INTRODUCTION to the HISTORY of the EUROPEAN SWORD By

Home , Falcata, Gladius, Kilij, Sabre (fencing), Spatha, Sword making

Gladius, I (1961), pp. 30-75 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer ISSN 0435-029X

INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN SWORD

By Dr. Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer.

Weapons and Conditions of LifcLife

Most races, tribes or civilizations have weapons of their own, characteristic of them and made in accordance to the particular methods of war which suit their mentality and conditions of living. In the types, shapes and methods of using the different specimens, nations or races reveal something of their character, temperament, social conditions and civilizations. The different categories of weapweap- ons, the combination of arms in war and the tactical organization are products of their conditions of life and their social conditions. An examination of the interaction between weapons and civilizatcivilizat- ions in general is important as a means to solve problems concer concer- ning the various culture-centres in antiquity as well as in later epochs. Nomad tribes and peoples living on the steppes or in desdes- erts with long distances, as a rule are mounted and need weapons corresponding to their particular manner of living, weapons which are practical and handy, when used from a horse back (or on a camel). Bow and arrows must be considered an importantImportant weapon to horse breeding nomad tribes, just as for instance javelins or light spears may be easy for them to use. The sword is of less importance to the warrior, when he is fighting from horseback, though we see it now and then. When he has dismounted and is fighting on foot, the sword, particularly the short sword, becomes a useful help in a hand-to-hand-fight.hand-to-hand-fight, Barbarous peoples living in mountainous disdis- tricts often use other kinds of weapons, such as lances, knives, hafthaft- ed weapons, which they can easily bring with them in an impassable terrain, just as we see it among the primitive Slavonic mountain tribes of the Balkans in early Middle Ages.

Digitalizado por InterClassica Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://interclassica.um.es http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Gladius, I (1961), pp. 30-75 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer ISSN 0435-029X

Agricultural peoples on fertile plains, for instance the populations of the Danubian Valley, peoples livingliving inin fortified places such as thethe Mycenaean castles or the cities of Argolis, as a rulerule need other kinds of weapons than for instance thethe nomadic peoples on the steppes of Ukraine, thethe populations of North Iranian mountain plateaus or the Bedouin tribestribes of the desert. The tactical organization differs in regardregard to the division of armies into infantry,infantry, cavalry, chariot-chariot eers, artillery and thethe like. Of course there must be a difference inin thethe armament of the mounted nomadic tribes of Central Asia, the charioteering Hittite peoples, mounted or charioteering Assyrians, Egyptians, North African Berber tribes and the infantry peoples of thethe Aegean islands. The lightlight Scythian horsemen with bows and arrows, as their primary weapons and thethe short akinaces as seconda-seconda ry weapons, for use when fighting hand-to-hand on foot, differ greatly, for instance from thethe Classical Greek infantrymen, the hoplites with scale corselets, crested bronze helmets, greeves, lances and thrustingthrusting swords or single edged machairae. There isis a funda-funda mental difference between the heavy armoured, mounted Sarmat-Sarmat ianian warrior with his cavalry lance and long cut-and-thrust sword at his leftleft and the akinaces at his right, and the Roman legionarylegionary soldier with his gladius Hispaniensis forfor thrustingthrusting and his pilum or other kinds of spear or lance. The latelate Celtic La TheTEme swords of typetype 111,IH, thethe longlong slashing swords without points (sine mucronibus) as TituqTitus LiviusLivius and other antique authors telltell us, differ from thethe pointed Sarmate cut-and-thrust swords. The two peoples have a different method of fightingfighting and different tactics.tactics. Though Celtic warfarewarfare has beenbeen influencedinfluenced fromfrom thethe East, therethere isis a difference inin conception of methods and armament. The Visigothic and the Lombard double edged cutting sword was usedused from horseback as a weapon secondary toto thethe cavalry-lance as we are told,told, forfor instanceinstance byby Procopius, JulianusJulianus de Toledo, Aga-Aga thias,thias, Paul the Deacon and other authors of thethe time.time. But thesethese swords differ widely fromfrom thethe contemporary Sassanian cavalry-cavalry swords, particularly in thethe hilts, thoughthough theythey have,have, toto some extent common sources inin thethe Central Asiatic world. In thethe warriors' methods of grasping theirtheir sword-hilts theythey differ widely and revealreveal a clear and evident distinction between Germanic and Eastern con-con ception and mentality. Originally thethe EastEast and North Germanic peoples were footmenfootmen without a sword, at leastleast without a double edged sword, as we are toldtold by Tacitus and Livius. Their firstfirst ironiron swords were broad single edged ironiron knives or cutting swords, inin typetype relatedrelated toto thethe saxes and scramasaxes of a laterlater time.time. UltimatelyUltimately all of themthem possibly originate inin thethe East.

From a rather early time we find a pronounced difference be-be tween South and North, East and West, between horsemen and footmen, civilized nations and barbarous peoples. An interdepend-interdepend ence is existing between the shape of weapons and the manner in which they are used. The combination in war of weapons and methods of using them depends upon the military organization which is predominant in the societies concerned. A state or society with a highly developped level of civilization has a more complicatcomplicat- ed military organization than a primitive society. The weapons of offence develop in correspondence with the development of protect-protect ive weapons. The evolution of each category of weapons may often seem to take a uniform course, at least in its mammain features. But it is only apparently. The details may show profound and important differendifferen- ces in their course of evolution, indicating for instance folks' move-move ments, trade connections, local peculiarities, modes etc.

Mediterranean and Central European Lines As to the Mediterranean and the Central European civilizations (Europe, Near East, North Africa) a distinct dividing line is easily seen, already from the earliest epochs. This dividing line is more or less evident through the ages, but still noticeable up to the 17th century A. D. or even later. This line distinctly parts weapons and the manner of using them in a Mediterranean and as Central Europe-Europe an group, - and after the time of the Great Migrations in a Latin and a Germanic group. In spite of many changesch~mges during centuries, in spite of folks' movements, wars, conquests and the like, comcom- mercial interchanges, technical evolutions and vicissitudes of life, this line is actually existing through the ages not ononlyIy as far as concerns arms and armour, but in material and spiritual life. The expansion of Christianity (for instance the foundation of monastermonaster- ies) took almost the same course from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, through the Irish to the English lands and from there across the Channel back to Europe again. From Migration time and onwards the European dividing line is following the ancient Roman limes.limes, the Alps and the Rhine marking a uronouncedpronounced border line. Already from the first metal ages in prehistoric time, when weapweap- ons - particularly the sword - besides fibulae and pottery are among the most important index-objects supported by burial costcost- ums, such as inhumation or cremation rites and the like, we are able to discern two main centres in European civiliz'1t;on:civil1z2t!on: the Medi-Medi terranean and the Central European.

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F'iu. I.I. BromeBnmcc ,apierfaper ?ohihwi:h i'voryzvory pomme7pommel and goldgo7d collars on the t)Tip.(yap. A douliledouble row of connected spiralssp1ra7s i.nan reliefrelzef on the central ribrzb of blade. From »Chieftain'snCh~eftam'sGrave«,Gmvecc, cemetery of Znfer Papoura,Papoltra, Crete.Crefe. ToTo- tal lenqthlength 95,5 cm..cm. Late 15th/5th centurycenturu B. C. (j·uclienl.(A~cheolMus. Heralclinn,Heraklzon, arete).Crete).

In the Mediterranean group we find the thrustingthrustzng sword in the shape of a rapier (fig. 1),l), with a leafshaped, pistil blade and a pronounced point, or the socalled carp's tongue point, as a very imim- portant object used by footmen l).I). In the Proven<;alProvencal part of France, along Rh6ne-Garonne,RhBne-Garonne, in the Paris basin, at the Atlantic coasts, in North-Western Spain, and in some parts of South England these carp's tongue swords still indicate the method of thrusting at a time, when Central Europe had passed to the use of cut-and-thrust 2 swordsswords2).). At the height of the Bronze Age Midland Europe shows more heavy types of swords than the contemporaneous MediterranMediterran- ean areas, though in this remote period both the Mediterranean and the inland types all seem to be thrusting weapons. In the later part of the Middle Bronze Age, true thl'ustingthrusting swords are found toto- gether with the first cut-and-thrust swords. The two main types differ in various details, though they ultimately seem to originate from almost the same sources. During the EarlyEarIy Iron Age Midland Europe sticks to the cut-and-thrust sword (fig. 2), but the MediterMediter- ranean stilIstill prefers the thrusting sword, now a short weapon, often

a I b Fig. 2. a: Hallstatt sword of early type for cut-and-thrust. Bm1!ze.Bronxe. From a 1Jotivevotive offeringofferzng at Holbmk,Holbcek, Denmark. Total length 8.5S5 cm. (Nat.(Nut. Mus., Copenhagen). b: Bronze sword of antennae type, mainly for thrusting.tlzrusting. (Com(Com- pare Rhone RhGne Valley types). FoundPound in Denmo.rk,Denmark, probably import from Germany. Possibly 6th cent. B. C. Total length 64 cm. (Nat.(Nut. Mus.,Mm., Copenhagen).5 openhagen) .

more like a dagger than a sword. During Later Iron Age matters have changed in various sites. New influences have appeared, both in military equipment and in tactics, and the evolution has grown complex. The Early Iron Age long cut-and-thrust sword has been replaced by a short stabbing swordsword possibly indicatingindicating a change in tactics. Other types of cutting and thrusting swords appear, mix

andand create create still still newnew types types ofof swords,swords, intendedintended for for oneone oror anotheranother kindkind ofof cavalrycavalry or or infantry,infantry, untiluntil atat lastlast thethe basisbasis was establishedestablished forfor thethe medievalmedieval knight'sknight's swords.swords. CavalryCavalry isis used among among some some barbarousbarbarous peoples, forfor instance instance thethe Celts,Celts, long long beforebefore itit becamebecame knownknown to to thethe GermanicGermanic tribestribes andand eveneven beforebefore itit camecame toto playplay anyany part ofof importanceimportance inin thethe Roman armies.armies. ChariotsChariots werewere in in use amongamong thethe CeltsCelts atat aa ratherrather latelate time,time, andand CimmerianCimmerian charioteers charioteers wielded theirtheir longlong slashingslashing swords,swords, asas seenseen onon aa ClazomenianClazomenian sarksark- ophagusophagus inin the the Brit. Brit. Mus.Mus. TheThe greatergreater part ofof thethe RomanRoman cavalrycavalry waswas recruitedrecruited amongamong thethe barbarous tribestribes --- thethe auxJiaryaux-llary cavalry.cavalry. TheThe RomansRomans themselvesthemselves preferred toto fightfight as as infantry.Infantry. TheThe GreeksGreeks werewere almostalmost alwaysalways footmen; footmen; mountedmounted werewere onlyonly thethe chiefs,chiefs, comcorn- mandersmanders andand thethe nobility.nobility. InIn GreekGreek vasevase paintingpainting wewe findfind thethe heavyheavy hoplites actingacting asas footmenfootmen justjust asas thethe lightlight armedarmed bowmen,bowmen, thethe pepel-1 tasts,tasts, while while warriorswarriors ofof AsiaticAsiatic originorigin areare oftenoften mounted, mounted, forfor instanceinstance thethe PersiansPersians andand thethe AsiaticAsiatic Amazones.Amazones. InIn SpainSpain mattersmatters differ,d~ffer,particularlyparticularly inin thethe lastlast centuriescenturies B.B. C.C. TheThe IberiansIberians inin AndaAnda- lucialucia mostlymostly actact asas infantry,infantry, equippedequipped withwith lanceslances andand falcatae,falcatae, thethe IberianIberian horsemenhorsemen only only withwith aa cavalrycavalry lance,lance, while thethe Celt-IberiansCelt-Iberians bothboth actact asas heavy armed armed infantry,infantry, lightlight armedarmed infantryinfantry with stabstab- bingbing swordsswords andand rapid rapid cavalry,cavalry, armedarmed with lancelance :1)."). TheThe PunicPunic arar- mies ofof North AfricaAfrlca fightfight asas heavy armoured armoured infantryinfantry with stabstab- bingbing swordsswords andand as as lightlight and and rapidrapid cavalrycavalry withwith lances,lances, asas forfor inin- stancestance thethe swiftswift NumidianNumidian cavalry.cavalry. TheThe GermanicGermanic tribestribes werewere mainmain- lyly footmen.footmen. ButBut they they diddid notnot use use thethe sword,sword, diddid not not eveneven possesspossess aa sword,sword, theirtheir mainmain weaponweapon being being thethe framea, framea, thethe particularparticular kindkind ofof spear,spear, mentionedmentioned byby TacitusTac~tusinin hishis Germania, Germania, andand anan axe.axe. AA singlesingle edgededged knifeknife oror cuttingcutting sword sword isis knownknown from from archaeologicalarchaeological finds,finds, atat leastleast amongamong thethe Northern Northern andand EasternEastern GermanicGermanic tribes. FewFew amongamong themthem ownedowned aa sword,sword, sayssays TacitusTac~tusinin GermaniaGermania cap.cap. VI.VI. TheThe GermanicGermanic tribestribes diddid notnot eveneven use aa dagger.dagger. TheyThey preferred thethe singlesingle edged edged knife equallyequally practical as as a a weapon and and asas aa tool.tool. TheThe Mediterranean footmen footmen used theirtheir doubledouble edgededged andand pointed swordsword for for thrustingthrusting andand besidesbesides thethe swordsword theythey oftenoften had had theirtheir daggersdaggers ofof almostalmost thethe samesame shapeshape asas thethe sword.sword. ThisThis isis alreadyalready obviousobvious fromfrom thethe latelate BronzeBronze AgeAge swordsswords andand daggersdaggers ofof thethe HuelvaHuelva t~·pe.type. SwordsSwords andand daggersdaggers constituting constituting a a suitsu~tisis forfor instance instance seen seen fromfrom Numantia,Numantia, from from thethe 4th4th andand 3rd3rd centuriescenturies B.B. C.C. ForFor cutting cutting thethe MediterraneanMediterranean peoples -- atat leastleast inin ClassicalClassical timetime -- used theirtheir singlesingle edgededged machaira or or falcatafalcata (fig.(fig. 3).3). TheThe Picenes ofof thethe AdriaAdria- tictic coastcoast ofof ItalyItaly usedused theirtheir singlesingle edgededged BosnianBosnian knife.knife. AlreadyAlready thethe MyceneansMyceneans had had theirtheir longlong and and heavy bronze cuttingcutting swordsswords with singlesingle edge.edge.

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Fig. S.3. a-0:a-b: daggers;daggeJ's; c-e:c-e: swords.')'wor(/.s fromfrom. Greek black-figuredblack-figu1"c(/ vases;vases; f-j: fromfrom red-fzguredre(/-/i.g1tred vases;vases; hh andami j:j: amaxone(WU~Z01W anda.~t(l GreekG~'eek umrrzorw(trr;or with machaira.machaifU. 6-5th centurycentury B.B. C.

Archaeological factsfacts - supported moremore oror lessless byby contemporarycontemporary illustrationsillustrations and even byby literaryliterary documentationdo(;umenlution -- informinfurm us,us, that thethe double edged swordsword doesdoes notnot constituteconstitute thethe mostmost importantimportant weapon of thethe warriors' armament.armament. ItIt isis byby farfar exeededexeeded byby thethe lance.lance. But itit almost alwaysalways seemed toto belongbelong toto aristocracyal'istocracy oror toto warriors of a certain prosperity.prosperity. ThroughThrough almostalmost fourfour milleniamillenia itit was thethe most trustfulltrustfull andand dependable companioncompanion ofof thethe high-bornhigh-born man inin thethe variousvarious civilizations,civilizations. justjust asas thethe daggerdagger oo00 knifeknife waswas anan importantimportant auxiliary instrumentinstrument toto thethe poorerpoorer classes.classes. AsAs anan instru-instru ment of warwar itit waswas exceeded byby thethe lance.lance. SensitiveSensitive toto eveneven thethe finest and smallestsmallest influenceinfluence itit waswas alwaysalways likelike aa livingliving organism,organism, inin

its details reflecting the changes of time, social standard, tactics, national character and skillfullnessskilIfulIness of artsmen and artisans.

Thrusting Judand Cut-and-ThrustCut-and-Thrust

Roughly speaking the sword is only a metal blade - of bronze or iron - a knife or a spear-head with single or double edges, more or less pointed, and provided with a handle or grip by which to make it employable for cutting, slashing, thrusting etc. The details of the hilt with the grip, quillons and pommel, the shape of the blade with midmidribrib or fuller, its size and character, pointed or blunt, the decoration of hilt and of scabbard such as mountings, chapes, porte-6p6esporte-epees etc.etc, are the facts upon which the student has to base his examinations with a view to ascertaining chronology, nationality, purpose and all the othc:,'othe' polntspoin ts of relation to human life and civilization. They constitute his means to place it in its true cultural surroundings. All these details are of importance, giving informa informa- tions about folks' movements, national history - political as well as spiritualsplri.tua1 and material - about art and craft, trade, social concon- ditions, about life at court and daily life among civilians. To stustu- dents of prehistoric times, the development of the sword in its varvar- ious shapes and details is an important index, in regard to his examexam- inationsinations and condconclusions.usions. As to the European sword and its relatives in the Near and the Middle East as well as on the African borders of the Mediterranean, two main lines must be kept in mind: the thrusting and the cutcut- ting or better to say: cut-anci-thrustcut-and-thrust line.hne. Just as the knights of medieval time, particularly in Central and North Western Europe at a certain period used a combination of the two main types - the cut-and-thrust sword - the prehistoric and the antique peoples traversed a period in which eut-and-thrustcut-and-thrust swords were dominating a great part of the civilized world, - a transitional or experimental period. The double edged thrusting sword is above all the sword of the infantryman, the double edged cut-and-ihrustcut-and-thrust 01'or cutting sword that of the horseman and - in antiquity - the chm"ioteel·.charioteer. The horseman's sword need not be single edged or curved, - on the contrary! In antiquity the single edged curved weapon was that of the footman. The true curved sabre is not in use until at a far later time, - with the exception of some curved Hittite bronze swords, the Assyrian sapara, and the Egyptian kopsh. The heavy armoured horseman of the Near East is using his double edged, long sword for cut-and-thrust, and has as his uttermost instrument of

defence the short sword or dagger, just as the light-armed horseman has only his short stabbing sword or dagger. As to the barbarous civilizations in Midland and Northern Europe the single edged cutting weapon, sax or scramasax, belongs almost exclusively to the footman, just as the Picene knife of Bosnian origin, the Greek machaira and the Iberian falcata are infantry weapons. The last one is known from the excellent specimens found in various sites of Andalucia, depicted on Iberian vases or seen on bronze figurines of warriors. During prehistoric Bronze Age the stabbing sword seems to be predominant all over Europe and in the Near East. But in the early centuries of the first millenium B.C. the Assyrian horsemen, for instance, wear long, slenderslender swords in their girdles, possibly a combination of cutting and thrusting swords, though they are almost always representc'd represented using l:o\'/sbows or lanccs.lances. Assyrian footmen are sometimes armed with short and pointed stabbing swords. From chariots Assyrians and Egyptians do not usually use their swords, but their bows, slings or other kinds of missiles. The battle of Kadesh in the 13th century B. C. between Egyptians and Hittites was settled by chariots. In the Aegean world chariots were introduced either from Egypt or Asia Minor, or from both, but the chariot was here mostly used as a means of transport, which brought the warrior to the battle field in order to challenge his antagonists to a single combat. In the Homeric epics the charchar- iots are used in that way. The Greeks and the Etruscans only used their chariots for transport as shown in vase paintings representing Warrior's Departure, a most popular subject. And even in Greece and Etruria as later on in the Roman empire, the chariot was mostmost- ly used for ceremonial processions and for sport. The barbarous peoples, for instance the Celts in Gaulish France and in England, took over from the Mediterranean world this vehicle of war, and used it after it had gone out of use in South Europe, as testified by Caesar, Strabo, Pomponius Mela, Tacitus and others. The cut-and-thrust sword probably appears in the 14th century in the Near East, possibly in Anatolia or Caucasus, among the HitHit- tites and in Palestine. Transitional types are known from RasRas- Shamra before ]3601360 (palace of Ugarit 4). At least from the 13th century it is known in Egypt, where a dated specimen of iron with the cartouche of Seti III1 (before](before 1214)2] 4) has been found in Tell Firaun in the Delta, while other specimens have come into light for instance at Bubastis. (Daggers with excellent iron blades are known from the tomb of Tut-ankh-Amun, ]4th14th century.) Long swords were pospos- sibly unknown in Egypt before the New Empire. In Theban time they occur on the tomb walls, worn for instance by Cretans, Philist-

ines and other foreign peoples as a tribute to the pharaoh. From the proto-geometric and possibly from Dipylon time are some Greek specimens found in Athens and in other places on the Greek contcont- inent, some of them of iron. On the geometrical vases warriors are represented in hand-to-hand struggles using their long swords most-most ly for thrusting. Their military equipment consists of a long sword and dagger, placed horizontally in the girdle. The change in Central Europe from thrust to cut-and-thrust pos-pos sibly took place at the end of the Late Bronze Age or in the transittransit- ional period between Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, about 1100 B. C.;;).C.". Possibly it came from Anatolia in Asia Minor to Thracia by way of the Danubian Valley at the beginning of the first HallHall- statt period together with the peoples who brought the new burial rites (cremation- and urn-fields). The cut-and-thrust sword may have been an invention of the charioteering and mounted peoples of Asia Minor, just as the long cut-and-thrust sword of medieval Europe was a creation of the knighthood's steel-dressed man-and-horse in the 14th century A. D. Greek, Roman and Celt-Iberian footmen used their thrusting swords, when fighting hand-to-hand (fig. 3). This is evident from literature and from representations in contemporary art. The same was the case with the later Hallstatt peoples, when the short stabstab- bing sword had come into use again after some centuries, in which the long cutting sword had been dominating. The decreasing size of younger Hallstatt swords indicates a change from the old HallHall- statt charioteering or cavalry tactics either to a lightlight rapid cavalry similar to that of the Scythians or to an infantry. In the north of Europe iron is only known at a rather late time. It is not until about 400 B. C. that this new metal penetrated into the ScandinaScandina- vian countries. The last centuries of, for instance, the Danish Youn-Youn ger Bronze Age (ca 800-400 B. C.) was a period of gradual decline from a high stage of refinement to a poor civilization. In this period bronze was at hand abundantly in Midland Europe and possibly much cheaper than iron, the late appearance of which may be due to economic and commercial reasons. The contacts with the SouthSouth- ern world for some reason grew weak (failing amber trade?) During the first 200 years after the end of the Bronze Age, iron objects are scanty. The so-called Celtic Iron Age in Denmark only shows scarce remnants. From about 300-200 B. C. we have the important find from Hjortspring in Als, the boat containing a rich war-booty of spear-heads, shield-bosses, faint traces of byrnies and some swords of iron; but the swords are single edged cutting weapons.6)weapons.G) The total warrior's armament found here is characteristic of a

footman.footman. It corresponds well toto thethe knowledge we get from Tacitus. It isis not tilltill 200-300 years laterlater we findfind thethe first tracestraces of horse-horse men in this part of thethe world, horsehorse bits, briddle and longlong Roman cavalry swords.

The Ar~haeolo~icnlArchaeological Material Most of thethe prehistoric material, particularlyparticularly inin thethe Bronze Age consists of sword blades,blades, inin some cases with thethe hilt or parts of thethe hilt preserved. Now and then we find mountings, chapes or more rarelyrarely complete scabbards. The blade isis thethe primary material for an examination. The illustrationsillustrations of swords inin art objects are ratherrather scarce. InIn thethe IronIron Age - on thethe other hand - thethe blade has sometimes been more or lessless spoiled. In some instances,instances, then,then, thethe archaeological materialmaterial mainly consists of partsparts of hilts, frag-frag ments of bladesblades and - inin some parts of thethe world - of metal cov-cov ers forfor scabbards (for(for instanceinstance among thethe Scythians.) From about 700 B. C. and onwards thethe pictorial representations,representations, forfor instanceinstance inin Greece, ItalyItaly andand thethe near East, increaseincrease and formform a good supportsupport forfor thethe student.student. While thethe bladeblade isis a most importantimportant guide toto thethe studystudy of pre-pre historichistoric swords, thethe guard seemsseems toto bebe moremore important asas a guide toto thethe historyhistory of medieval swords. During thethe Middle Ages almost all thethe bladesblades werewere forgedforged inin great factories,factories, inin centres of Spain, Italy,Italy, South France, AustriaAustria and inin Germany. They were mass production,production, not individualindividual work,work, while thethe guards were more or lessless an individualindividual work byby sword-cutlers, goldsmiths or chiselers, or itit waswas a teamworkteamwork byby artists, goldsmiths, jewellersjewellers and sword-sword cutlers.cutlers. Only whenwhen thethe bladesblades bearbear stamps, marks, inscriptions,inscriptions, coatscoats ofof arms,arms, namesnames or specialspecial ornaments, theythey yieldyield a more de-de tailedtailed supportsupport toto thethe determinationdetermination of chronology, nationality,nationality, ownershipownership etc.etc. DuringDuring paganpagan timetime thethe warriorwarrior waswas almost alwaysalways buried withwith hishis arms,arms, particularlyparticularly hishis swordsword andand spear,spear, eithereither inin hishis inhumationinhumation gravegrave oror inin aa cremationcremation burial.burial. SometimesSometimes thethe swordsword bladesblades havehave beenbeen purposelypurposely bent,bent, sometimessometimes wewe findfind themthem moremore oror lessless spoiledspoiled byby thethe fire.fire. FromFrom certaincertain epochsepochs swordsswords havehave beenbeen foundfound inin offeringoffering deposits,deposits, forfor instanceinstance inin rivers,rivers, wells,wells, moorsmoors etc.etc. WithWith thethe expansion ofof ChristianityChristianity burialburial costumscostums changed.changed. TheThe swordsword diddid notnot asas aa ruIerule attendattend itsits ownerowner inin hishis tomb.tomb. SometimesSometimes itit waswas hunghung onon thethe wallwall inin hishis burialburial chapel,chapel, togethertogether withwith hishis helmet,helmet, shieldshield andand spurs,spurs, oror itit waswas placedplaced uponupon thethe lidlid ofof hishis coffin.coffin. NowNow andand thenthen wewe findfind itit inin thethe sarcophagus.sarcophagus. ButBut thethe archaeologicalarchaeological materialmaterial fromfrom thethe MiddleMiddle

Ages is not byby farfar so richrich and usual as from pagan time.time. Swords have beenbeen preserved inin churches and abbeys, inin ecclesiastical and royal treasuries,treasuries, inin thethe armouries of castles and town-halls.town-halls. An examination of thethe evolution and thethe use of thethe sword inin thethe Middle Ages must bebe basedbased justjust as much or even more upon representationsrepresentations inin art, sculpture, painting, manuscript-illuminations and upon liter-liter ary sources such as handbooks inin thethe art of war, chronicles, annals and the like.like.

The Broad-Sword and itsits RoutesRoutes

An examination of thethe prehistoric swords shows, thatthat thethe thrust-thrust inging sword isis a MediterraneanMeditenanean occurrence,OCCUrTence, justjust as thethe footmanfootman isis thethe characteristic MediterraneanMed.iterranean type of warrior, whetherwhether fromfrom Crete, thethe Aegean islands,islands, Continental Greece, most parts of Italy,ltaly, Sicily, Sardinia, thethe BalearianBalearian islandsislands or thethe Iberian peninsula.peninsula. The thrustingthrusting custom mainly seems prevalent in coast civilizations. Even inin thethe Atlantic parts of France up to Brittany and across thethe Atlantic toto Ireland,Ireland, South EnglandEngland and to thethe coasts of Denmark we find thethe Early Bronze Age footman with his thrustingthrusting sword predominant, as far away as Mediterranean influenceinfluence reached.reached. The cut-and-thrust or the purepure cutting custom seems mainly toto belong toto inlandinland civilizations inin horse breedingbreeding nomadic cultures or on agricultural plains. The cut-and-thrust method first came toto Central Europe fromfrom AnatoliaAnatolia across thethe North Balkans or from Syria and Egypt via thethe AegeanAegean islands.islands. Later on a newnew wave of cut-and-cut-and thrustthrust or cutting came fromfrom Central Asia and NorthNorth IranIran byby wayway of South RussiaRussia and Danube to thethe Romans.Romans. FromFrom thethe territoriesterritories of Danube, Hungary, Boehemia itit penetrated through Central Europe to northernnorthern parts of Germany and reachedreached thethe Baltic coasts and thethe Scandinavian countries. The chariots had come toto Euro~eEurope byby the samesame routesroutes asas thethe cut-and-thrust sword.sword. Among thethe Midland EuropeanEuropean tribes, particularly thethe Germanic peoplespeoples betweenbetween thethe ElbeElbe and thethe Baltic and fartherfarther toto thethe NorthNorth originally were footmenfootmen too.too. ItIt isis truetrue thatthat during their EarlyEarly Bronze Age theythey are mostly usingusing thethe thrustingthrusting sword,sword, which isis no wonder,wonder, considering itsits origin.origin. As toto thethe Scandinavian countries, forfor instanceinstance Denmark, thethe oldest and thethe >classicale»classical" DanishDanish Bronze Age swords, fromfrom thethe Danish socalled Old Bronze Age,Age, correspond-correspond inging toto thethe periodsperiods aboutabout 1500-1000 B. C., are of thethe pistilljkepistillike type,type, thrustingthrusting swords, whilewhile thethe swords fromfrom aboutabout 1000-600 B. C. toto some extent seem toto bebe influencedinfluenced by thethe transitionaltransitional Midland cut-and-thrust swords with heavy blades, grip-tonguesgrip-tongues andand some-

timestimes pommels of the ,,Mexican»Mexican hatcchat« typestypes (Oakeshott: Archaeology of Weapons). The latestlatest Scandinavian Bronze Age swords from about 600-400 B. C. are degenerate, long,long, slender rapiers, with tang or a combination of tangtang and frame, a ratherrather weak and decadent construction of grip, of no real worth. The first Germanic ironiron swords are single edged cutting swords, - thethe national weapons at leastleast among the East Germanic tribes. Maybe thisthis sword originated in thethe Eastern world too.too. It came to-to gether with thethe ironiron toto thethe North. When during the 4th or 3rd cen-cen turies B. C. some of thethe Germanic tribes migrated from their homes and crossed Central Europe from East toto West, reachedreached South France and North Spain and at lastlast turned theirtheir steps towards Italy, theythey broughtbrought with themthem theirtheir single edged cutting swords. The Gothic tribestribes - of Germanic descent - who crossed thethe Danube and went toto the Black Sea, toto South Russia and Crimea and founded a kingdom of their own, more or lessless as friends or conquerors of thethe Sarmate peoples, learnedlearned thethe use of cavalry with cavalry lancelance and long,long, double edged cut-and-thrust sword. On theirtheir return from thethe steppes toto thethe Balkans and thethe Danubian Val-Val ley,ley, where theythey fought against Rome attended by parts of thethe Sarmate and Alane tribes,tribes, theythey used thethe Sarmate double edged cut-cut and-thrust sword (370(378 A. D.). InIn thethe 4th century A. D. theythey pene-pene tratedtrated thethe Italian peninsula (395 A. D.), togethertogether with theirtheir Asiatic combattants. The Visigothic king Alaric and his tribestribes conquered Rome inin 410 A. D. Shortly afterwards theythey leftleft thethe ItalianItalian peninsula and turned their steps against South France and North Spain, and inin thethe 5th century (ca. 415 A. D.) theythey founded thethe Visigothic king-king dom inin Spain, which lastedlasted for threethree hundred years, until itit suc-suc combed toto thethe Moslims inin thethe year 711 A. D. During thesethese threethree centuries and particularly during thethe Migration timetime thethe impulsesimpulses which thethe Germanic tribestribes had broughtbrought back with themthem from Bos-Bos poran territoriesterritories influencedinfluenced Roman, French and Spanish military art. The broad-sword, composed of elements fromfrom thethe Celtic La TeneTime 111,Ill, thethe Sarmate-Alane cavalry sword and thethe Roman gladiusgladius of Spanish origin (gladius Hispaniensis), was adopted, and fromfrom itit evolved, inin South and West Europe, thethe well-known spatha type.type. The heavy cavalry battle of Adrianople inin thethe year 378 A. D. had given an incitementincitement toto an augmented cavalry in thethe Roman empire, particularly in thethe East Roman part. The Western yet preferred infantry.infantry. Still an infantryinfantry existed inin South Europe, equipped to some ex-ex tenttent with stabbing swords. But monuments,monuments, erected for Roman legionaries,legionaries, forfor instanceinstance inin thethe provinces, often show thethe footsoldierfootsoldier

wearing the new spatha type, sometimes still furnished with the old gladius-hilt.') In Visigothic Spain, and in North Italy where an-an other Germanic wave, the Lombards, had succeeded the Goths well-well armoured cavalry became predominant. In Merovingian and parti-parti cularly Carolingian France the cavalry increased inin importance. The spatha succeeded the gladgladius.ius. After a few centuries even the single edged cutting sword disappeared here. But the Germanic method of wielding a sword whether single- or double-edged grew still more common, even among parts of the Mediterranean peoples. Though both the Mediterranean peoples in the Roman empire and the Germanic tribes north of the Alpes and east of the Rhine are influencedinfluenced by almost the same peoples in the East, this influence evolves in two directions, a Latin and a Germanic. Through the last centuries of the Roman empire, through the Middle Ages and even through the time of the Renaissance and just up till the end of 17th century A. D. these two lines of development are evident. The Latin type of sword and rapier, the Latin manner of grasping thethe hilt and the use of the weapon differ from the Germanic man-man ner. The guard, the quillons and the bows and branches of the guard evolve in a manner different to the Germanic. A fundamental dist-dist inction is to be noticed, based upon fundamental differences in mentality and character.

The Medieval Sword

A mixture of Celtic, Germanic and Mediterranean elements grows into the Latin type of medieval sword and even leads to the GerGer- manic type of medieval sword. But the treatment, the understand-understand ing or the »translation«,)translation(( of these same elements differ widely. The sources from which they borrow are to some extent common, they are originating in the same corner of the East. But the routes of the currents are moving not only along the shores north and south of the Mediterranean, but even across Hungary and Bohemia. The Alps and the Rhine form the boundary lines. The Latin line gets a very important influence from the Byzantine empire. This Byzan-Byzan tine influence has its outspring in Persia during the Sassanian kingking- dom and during the early Caliphate. It moves across the islands of the Mediterranean to South Italy, Sicily and Spain. One branch of influence is moving along the shores of North Africa via GiGi- braltar to Spain. When the Damascus CaliphCaliphateate parts in an Eastern and a Western CaliphCaliphateate with centres in Baghdad and in Cordoba,Cbrdoba, the Oriental line becomes reinforced on the Iberian peninsula. peninsula, When some centuries later new Berber tribes are crossing the Strait

of Gibraltar, particularly the Benu Marin tribes in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Latin lineline gets a strong impulse,impulse, which gives birth to the socalledsocalled finger-bows, the pas-d'snespas-d'anes and the ,Italian((»Italian« method of grasping the sword handle. This new method is seen on the Iberian peninsula already inin the 13th century, ifif not before! The relations during the 8th and 9th centuries A. D. between thethe Eastern Caliphate, the Byzantine emperor and the Frankish emp-emp eror Charlemagne give excellent supports toto thethe evolution inin West-West ern Eur~pe.~)EuropeY) The Germanic line became influencedinfluenced by thethe Eastern waves too, passingpassing throughthrough thethe Danubian Valley, Hungary toto Saxony, Northern Germany, and justjust crossed thethe Baltic to Scandinavia. This lineline showsshows a more heavy typetype of sword, broader,broader, lessless pointed, with straightstraight quillons, another manner of grasping thethe sword handle, and particularly thethe cutting blow. Centuries later,later, during 15th and 16th centuries, currents fromfrom thethe East brought toto Europe thethe Tur-Tur kish curved sabre.sabre. The Hungarian lightlight cavalry sabre and the Polish karabelas were influencedinfluenced from thethe Turkish types.types. The curved sab-sab resres or even thethe straight swords with single edge still played a farfar more importantimportant part inin Central Europe thanthan inin South Europe. The border lineslines between thethe Latin and the Germanic methods still fol-fol lowlow closely thethe frontiersfrontiers of thethe antique Roman empire. A strange mixture of Latin and Germanic elements characterized thethe devel-devel opment of thethe swords and rapiersrapiers inin England, while forfor instanceinstance thethe Low-Countries and particularly thethe Flemish parts, receivedreceived more Latin thanthan Germanic influence.influence. The classicalclassical knight swordsword of thethe Middle Ages has itsits basis inin thethe spathaspatha of Migration time, thisthis productproduct of Sarmate cut-and-cut-and thrustthrust swordsword and Celtic slashing or cuttingcutting sword.sword. The RomanRoman ca-ca valryvalry sword had receivedreceived influenceinfluence fromfrom thethe old legionarylegionary gladius withwith itsits stabbing point. TheThe Roman cavalrycavalry swords from thethe 2nd and 3rd3rd centuriescenturies A. D. are long,long, slender withwith midrib and a sharp point. Technically theythey are of an excellent quality, damascened steelsteel fromfrom thethe factoriesfactories inin NoricumNoricum and various North ItalianItalian places ifif not importedimported fromfrom Spain. BladeBlade manufactures soon camecame upup inin thethe Roman military quarters along thethe Rhine. Often thethe blades from thesethese factoriesfactories have stamps justjust as somesome of thethe Celtic La Tene sword blades had a stamp. Or we find a maker's name -- a purepure Latin or a Latinized barbaric name. The Sarmate and GothlcGothic swordsswords hadhad preservedpreserved theirtheir sharpsharp point,point, but the spathaspatha type,type, which devel-devel opedoped inin MerovingianMerovingian France, and whichwhich particularly during Caro-Caro lingianlingian timetime grew stillstill longerlonger and broader,broader, got a more blunt point.point. The nordicnordic VikingViking swordsword isis mainlymainly a continental evolutionary

Fi'l.Pzq. 4. Iron sword withwzth damasceneddarnwscened blade. Pommel of giltgzlt bronze, oncone sideszde 1vithwzth carved anzmalanimal decoration,decoratzon, the other withwzth cloisonneclozsonne of red glass. From Bzldsu,Bildso, Denmm·k.Denmark. 8th centttry.century. Total lengrtl~length H787 cn.en. (Nat.(Nnt. Mm.,Ml./,S., Copenha[len).Copenhagen).

form of the Merovingian Migration sword. It was further develdevel- oped in Carolingian forgeries (fig. 4). Local performances of hilts are found side by side with Frankish importware or imitations of Frankish types. In eastern Scandinavia influence may be seen from Bosporan territory, but more or less transformed, owing to the passing through East Germany, Poland and the Baltic coast lands. Sword-hilts, mountings and chchapesapes sometimes show this foreign influence from Byzantium, Persia and other parts of the East.t°)East.lo) But this influence is mostly to be seen in the style of decoration and in the decorative elements rather than in the shapes of the pom-pom mels. The continental or rather Germanic medieval sword from 1111- 12th centuries and just up until after the middle of the 13th century

isis a a commoncommon continentalcontinental swordswordtype,type, thethe brazil-nutbrazil-nut pommelpommel --the the simplifiedsimplified successorsuccessor ofof thethe CarolingianCarolingian andand VikingViking pommelpommel ofof JanJan Petersen'sPetersen's typetype XX andand Y-Y -and and thethe horizontal,horizontal, squaresquare sectionedsectioned quillonsquillons areare theirtheir predominantpredominant characteristics.characteristics.")lI) TheThe brazil-nut brazil-nut- pommelpommel nevernever becamebecame usualusualin inthe theLatin Latinworld. world.It Itis isfound foundnow now andand thenthen inin NorthNorth Italy,Italy,possibly possibly duedueto to influenceinfluence fromfrom SwitzerlandSwitzerlandand and Austria.Austria. ItIt occursoccurs butbut rarely rarely inin pictorialpictorial artart fromfrom Northern Northern Spain. Spain. WhenWhen thethe disc-disc- oror wheel-pommel, wheel-pommel, comingcoming fromfrom thethe South,South, beganbegan toto replace replace thethe brazil-nut-pommel,brazil-nut-pommel, itit tooktook aa more more solidsolid andand heavy heavy shape,shape,than than seenseen ininSouth South andand West,West, andand withwith pronouncedpronounced profiles.profiles. InIn thethe LatinLatin countriescountries a a lenticularlenticular oror flatflat disc-disc- oror wheel wheel pommelpommel predominated.predominated.Though Thoughthe thecurved curvedquillons quillonsfound foundtheir theirway wayfrom fromthe the SouthSouth eveneven toto thethe countriescountries ofof thethe GermanicGermanic line, line, theythey nevernever bebe- camecame prevalent,prevalent,such such asas inin thethe LatinLatin world.world. ButBut eveneven thethe pointedpointed bladesblades did did not not reachreach thethe samesame frequencyfrequency inin thethe GermanicGermanic areasareasas as inin thetheLatin Latin countries.countries. TheThe knight knight swordsword ofof thethe LatinLatin typetype waswas notnot foundedfounded onon thethe FrankishFrankishMerovingian Merovingianor or Carolingian Carolingian types,types, thoughthough toto somesome extentextent influencedinfluenced from from them.them. ParticularlyParticularly thethe VisigothicVisigothic andand toto somesome dede- greegree thethe LombardLombard swords swords playedplayed a a farfar greatergreater role.role. And And thesethese typestypes --- thoughthough broughtbrought byby Germanic Germanic tribestribes --included included a a goodgood manymany elementselements fromfrom thethe Sarmate-Alane,Sarmate-Alane, ByzantineByzantine andand SassanianSassanian circles.circles.The Thedevelopment, development,for forinstance instancein inSpain Spainwith withits itsRoman Roman tratra- ditions,ditions, startsstarts uponupon thethe GothicGothic spatha,spatha, thethe cavalrycavalry sword,sword, whichwhich rootedrooted ininthe theSarmate Sarmatecavalry cavalrysword. sword.The TheVisigothic Visigothic swordswordis is moremore slender,slender, more more pointedpointed thanthan the the FrankishFrankish types.types. SomeSome excellentexcellent specimensspecimens werewere discovereddiscovered inin VisigothicVisigothic tombs tombs inin CastiltierraCastiltierra inin thethe provinceprovince ofof Segovia.Segovia. The The gripsgrips had had notnot been been preserved. preserved. TheThe guardguardof of thetheSpanish Spanish sword sword follows followsthe the directionsdirections given given from from ByBy- zantiumzantium and and thethe IslamicIslamic world,world, thoughthough stillstill preservingpreserving somesome tratra- ditionsditions fromfrom thethe particularparticular antiquity antiquity ofof thethe IberianIberian world.world. The The MozarabMozarab illuminations illuminations from from 10th-12th10th-12th centuriescenturies withwith theirtheir VisiVisi- gothicgothictraditions traditionsgive giveexcellent excellentexamples examplesof of thetheSpanish Spanishsword swordfrom from thetheearly early MiddleMiddle Ages.Ages. TheThe variousvarious editions editions ofof thethe CommentariesCommentaries ononthe theApocalypse Apocalypse ofof BeatoBeatode deLiebana Liebana particularlyparticularlythe theoldest oldestones ones fromfromthe the10th 10thcentury, century,now nowin inLe6n, Leon,New NewYork, York,Valladolid, Valladolid, GeronaGerona andandMadrid, Madrid,or orthe theCodex CodexEmilianense Emilianensein inEl ElEscorial Escorialshow showmagnifi magnifi- centcent examples examplesof of cavalrycavalryswords. swords.Some Someof of themthem havehavepommels pommels notnot unlikeunlikethe theGothic Gothicand andSarmate Sarmateswords, swords,others othershave havea atrilobate trilobatepom pommel,mel, which which atatfirst firstsight sight lookslooks CarolingianCarolingian or or Viking-likeViking-like (fig. (fig.5). 5). ThereThere areare hardlyhardly any any VikingViking traditionstraditions in in this this shape, shape, butbut therethere maymaybe besome someCarolingian Carolingian influence,influence,ultimately ultimatelyByzantine. Byzantine.The Thepro pro- totypestotypesand andanalogies analogieswe wemay mayfind findin inByzantium, Byzantium,Persia Persiaand andamong among

FiU.Fig. 5. Heavy armedarnzed warr;orswarr,ors from a late JliTSMS of St. BewtoBeato de Lieba.:(("L~4ba.xs ComrnentariesCoaanzentaries on the Apocalypse. Moaarab:~MozaTobic style. The JliTSMS comco?~ pleted in 1109. (Brit.(Brat. Mus., London).

the early Arab swords. Particularly the Arab sword-cutlers are fond of making trilobate pommels, or rather clover-leaf-shaped pommels. The illuminations to Libros de los20s Testamentos from about 11261126- 1129 in the cathedral of Oviedo, preserving some Visigothic and Mozarabic traditions, contain various representations of swords with that type of pommel. The clover-leaf or trilobate pommel had spread from the Near East via Byzantium even to the Balkans, to Greece, South Russia, where it occurs in pictorial art influenced from Byzantium. The curved quillons originate in the Eastern world too. The Arabs let their quillons end in clover-leaves encircled by a volute scroll. Originally such quillons seem to have come from Persia, where the volute endings encircle a dragon's head (influ(influence from China), a lion's head or another animal's head (fig. 6). Passing from Persia to Byzantium and the Arab world the animal's

Fig.Fag. 6.6.Islamic Islamac swordsswords amtand sabres.sabres. a:a:Persian, Persian, 13 13 11th14thcenll~ry; century; b:b:Arab, Arab, 8-9th8-9th centw'ycentury(compare (comparefig. fig. 1);4);c: c:Mamluke, Mamluke,11th 14thcentu,ry; century;d: d:Per Per- sian,sian, 15th15thcent'U1'Y; century; e:e:Persian, Persian, 15th15thcentury,' century; f:f: Egyptian,Egyptian,medie medieval;val;fJ: g:Mamluke, Marnluke,15th 15thcentl~1·Y. century.(Top (TopJ(a'P'~ KapnSamy, Saruy,Istantml). Istanbul).

headhead becomesbecomes stylizedstylized oror isis oftenoften replacedreplaced byby aa clover-Ieaf.12)clover-leaf.") PossiblyPossibly wewe maymay hereheresee see thetheorigin originof of thetheparticular particular shapeshapeof of quilquil- Ionslons onon thethe MoorishMoorish cavalry-swordscavalry-swords ofof thethe socalledsocalled Boabdil-type, Boabdil-type, carriedcarried byby the the SpanishSpanish jinetesjinetes inin the the 14th14th andand 15th15th centuriescenturies (fig.(fig.7). 7).la) '7It Itoccurs occursseveral severaltimes timesin inthe the10th 10thand and11 11thth centuries centuriesByzan Byzan- tinetine ivoryivory carvingscarvings such such asas for for instanceinstance thethe triptychstriptychs inin PalazzoPalazzo 48

Fig.Fig. 1. Hispano-MoorishHispano-Mool"ish sword,sword, >>Espada»Espada aa lala. jinetaccjineta« withwith inscriptions;insc·riptions; oneone of0/ thethe mostmost importantimportant specimensspecimens ofof thisthis type.type. OriginallyOriginally from/1·om Granada.Granada. LateLate 15th15th century.century. (Biblioth6que(Bibliotheqne Na-Na tionale,tionale, Paris).Paris).

VeneziaVenezia inin Rome,Rome, thethe HarbavilleHarbaville triptychtriptych inin thethe LouvreLouvre oror thethe ivoryivory casketscaskets fromfrom almostalmost thethe samesame timetime suchsuch asas thethe 11th11 th centurycentury casketcasket

449 9

inin the the cathedralcathedral treasury treasury ofof Troye.l~)Troye.'" AA combinationcombination ofof trilobatetrilobate pommelpommelwith withstrongly stronglycurved curvedquillons quillonsending endingin inclover-leaves clover-leaves isisseen seen onon thethesword sword namednamed thatthat ofof SanSanFernando Fernando inin ArmeriaArmeria RealReal ininMa Ma- driddrid (fig.(fig. 8).8). TheThe accompanyingaccompanying scabbardscabbard isis richlyrichly adorned adorned withwith ornamentsornaments in in MozarabicMozarabic style,style, and and thethe swordsword correspondscorresponds ratherrather wellwell toto somesome ofof thethe swordsword representationsrepresentations fromfrom thethe LibrosLibros dede los10s TestamentosTestamentos inin Oviedo.Oviedo.

Fiy. S. SH;ordSztiord attributedattributed totoSan San Fern(L1ulo.Fernando. HiltHzlt anduutl scalJlmrdscubba~dembellishedembellzshed withwithjewels. jewels. OrnamentsOrnaments ofof fili,ureefiligree work,work, allall ofof itit inin MoorishMoorish style.style. 13th13th centlo·y.century. Leu!lthLength ofof bladeblade 8888 cm.cm. (Reol(Real Armerin,Armeria, Madrid).Madrid).

TheThe developmentdevelopment ofof thethe Latin Latin swordsword joinsjoins thethe directionsdirections given given byby thethe ByzantineByzantine empire,empire, basedbased uponupon ancientancient RomanRoman traditionstraditions andand mixedmixed upup withwith elementselements fromfrom Persian,Persian, SassanianSassanian artart andand thethe earlyearly ArabArab swords.swords. TheThe LatinLatin developmentdevelopment takestakes twotwo differentdifferent routes,routes,one one alongalong thethe NorthernNorthern shores shores ofof thethe MediterraneanMediterranean via via thethe Balkans,Balkans, acrossacross thethe AdriaticAdriatic toto Italy,Italy, SouthSouth FranceFrance and and downdown into into Spain. Spain.

5050

The other route isis going along thethe African coast via Egypt, Morocco, passing throughthrough thethe whole Islamic area inin NorthNorth Africa toto Spain, and even across thethe Mediterranean via Sicily and South Italy toto Spain. But in spite of folk's movements, wars, conquests, influences of various cavalry peoples etc., thethe Latin one ultimately has been founded upon thethe ancient Mediterranean thrusting technic, and itit re-re sults in a pointed sword with curved quillons, short grip and disc-disc shaped or spherical pommels, fitfit for both cavalry and mfantry.infantry. Dur-Dur inging the High Middle Ages we find thethe ancient and original elements breaking out from their latency,latency, to a certain degree thanksthanks toto caval-caval ryry peoples from North Africa, via thethe Berber invasioninvasion of Spain. The original Mediterranean footman's thrusting technic, which never entirely died out inin Spain (and South Italy), and the contacts with the Persian and Arab cavalry swords coming to the Iberian penin-penin sula with the Moslim conquests and particularlyparticularly during the 12th-12th 13th centuries, lead to thethe birth of the European rapier and the fencing sword. The development takestakes placeplace primarilyprimarily in Spain, when the Benu-Marin tribestribes bring their characteristic short-hilted swords and their particularparticular cavalry technictechnic toto thethe peninsula.peninsula. Soon afterwards it penetratespenetrates certain districts of Italy,Italy, passingpassing viavia Ve-Ve nezia and Naples, thethe main portsports open to thethe Eastern world. In Spain a cavalry created after Berber patternpattern soon was establish-establish ed, using a veryvery short-hilted sword wielded withwith thethe pommelpommel in-in side thethe palmpalm and one fingerfinger across thethe foremostforemost quillon. ItIt leadsleads to thethe ricassoricasso of thethe blade inin order toto make it more comfortable to thethe index-finger,index-finger, and toto the fingerfinger guard inin shape of one, laterlater on twotwo protectiveprotective ringsrings below thethe quillons. Swords of thisthis typetype withwith one or twotwo protective finger-rings are representedrepresented inin numerous Spanish paintings from thethe 14th and 15th centuries.'"centuries. I,;) And we find thethe same phenomenonphenomenon inin Italian medieval paintings,paintings, particularly fromfrom thethe surroundings of NaplesNaples and Venice, but even from Tus-Tus cany.'"canyJU) From thisthis kind of finger-guardfinger-guard and thisthis mannermanner of grasping .thethe grip --- closely paralleledparalleled by thethe bull-fighter's rapiersrapiers - thethe step isis only shortshort toto furtherfurther development of a protectiveprotective hilthilt withwith all itsits various branches and bows. In execution scenes fromfrom 15th century Flemish-Spanish painterspainters show thethe executioner wielding his sword with both hands, and thethe rightright index-fingerindex-finger across thethe foremostforemost quillon. Here are combined thethe LatinLatin method and thethe Germanic sword-type.")swoTd-type.17 ) The Germanic countries still use theirtheir cutting blow withwith one handhand and with both hands,hands, as wewe findfind itit inin thethe paintingspaintings andand illuminat-illuminat ionsions of thethe time.IR)time. IB ) Both footmenfootmen and mountedmounted warriorswarriors brandish theirtheir swords withwith one oror both handshands fromfrom early Middle Ages justjust

untiluntil the the timetime ofof thethe lansquenets.lansquenets. The The Germanic Germanic technictechnic easily easily joinsjoins withwith thethe cuttingcutting technictechnic ofof thethe TurkishTurkish curvedcurved sabresabre too,too, inin- troducedtroduced afterafter thethe encountersencounters withwith thethe TurksTurks inin thethe 15th-16th15th-16th centuries.centuries. HowHow naturalnatural thethe cuttingcutting oror slashingslashing technictechnic isis feltfelt toto thethe peoplespeoples ofof MidlandMidland EuropeEurope -- andand thethe peoplespeoples ofof EasternEastern EuropeEurope tootoo - isis evidentevident forfor instanceinstance in in HungaryHungary alreadyalready inin prehistoricprehistoric times.times. HereHere diddid thethe longlong HallstattHallstatt cut-and-thrust cut-and-thrust swords swords firstfirst appearappear in in Europe.Europe. WhenWhen laterlater onon thethe ScythianScythian stabbingstabbing swordsswords camecame toto HunHun- gary,gary, theythey were were sometimessometimes changed changed inin order order toto suitsuit thethe cuttingcutting methods,methods, asas wewe areare taughttaught byby archaeology.archaeology. TheThe fullerfuller oror thethe midmidribrib ofof thethe bladeblade fromfrom grip grip toto point point waswas placed placed assymetrically,assymetrically, not not throughthrough the the middlemiddle ofof thethe blade.blade. The The blade blade becamebecame singlesingle edged.edged. TheThe gripgrip waswas sometimes sometimes bent,bent, slightlyslightly slopingsloping oror curved. curved. ButBut eveneven assymetricalassymetrical bladesblades camecame fromfrom thethe East.East. WeWe maymay findfind themthem inin somesome earlyearly CaucasianCaucasian daggers,daggers, andand theirtheir prototypes,prototypes, somesome prehistoricprehistoric dagdag- ger-swords.ger-swords. ThisThis changechange fromfrom doubledouble edgededged toto singlesingle edgededged daggersdaggers oror short-swordsshort-swords was was more more inin accordanceaccordance withwith GermanicGermanic mentality.mentality.

TheThe Eastern SourcesSources

TheThe greatgreat andand important important contrast contrast toto thethe MediterraneanMediterranean peoplespeoples asas wellwell asas toto thethe MidlandMidland Europeans Europeans -- asas farfar asas concernsconcerns thethe arar- mamentmament -- areare thethe tribestribes and and populationspopulations dwelling dwelling inin thethe areasareas nearnear andand aroundaround thethe BlackBlack Sea,Sea, inin thethe mountainsmountains ofof CaucasusCaucasus andand inin thethe NorthernNorthern plateauplateau ofof Iran.Iran. WhileWhile almostalmost allall thethe MediterraneanMediterranean peoplespeoples ofof prehistoricprehistoric and and ClassicalClassical timetime areare footmenfootmen usingusing theirtheir thrustingthrusting swords,swords, wewe findfind onon thethe steppessteppes ofof SouthSouth RussiaRussia andand alongalong thethe shoresshores ofof thethe BlackBlack SeaSea somesome AsiaticAsiatic tribestribes --the the ScythiansScythians - actingacting asas horsemen,horsemen, a a lightlight cavalry cavalry usingusing theirtheir short short thrustingthrusting sword,sword, whichwhich is is moremore like like aa dagger dagger thanthan likelike aa sword. sword. The The mainmain partpart ofof thesethese nomadicnomadic tribestribes were were possiblypossibly ofof NorthNorth IranianIranian desdes- cent,cent, butbut theythey hadhad adoptedadopted soso manymany moremore oror lessless relatedrelated tribestribes livliv- inging inin theirtheir neighbourhood,neighbourhood, thatthat thethe ScythiansScythians werewere aa ratherrather heterheter- lU ogeneousogeneous mixture. mixture.19)) AboveAbove allall theythey were were aa horse horse breeding breeding people,people, andand theirtheir warfarewarfare waswas thatthat ofof lightlight cavalry,cavalry, withwith bowbow andand arrowsarrows asas theirtheir mainmain weapons,weapons, throwing-lancethrowing-lance andand possiblypossibly anan axeaxe asas theirtheir secondarysecondary weapons. weapons. AtAt their their right right thighthigh theythey carriedcarried thethe shortshort akinaces,akinaces, used used inin hand-to-handhand-to-hand strugglesstruggles on on foot.foot. TheThe Scythians Scythians werewere famousfamous forfor their their tactics,tactics, which which hadhad muchmuch inin commoncommon withwith thosethose ofof theirtheir kinsmen,kinsmen, thethe Persians.Persians. HerodotusHerodotus andand ThucydidesThucydides givegive descriptionsdescriptions ofof them,them, andand thesethese descriptionsdescriptions agreeagree ratherrather wellwell withwith thethe representationsrepresentations in in contemporary contemporary art,art, forfor instanceinstance onon GreekGreek

black- andand redfiguredredfigured vases andand onon Greek Greek andand ScythianScythian goldgold obob- jects.jects. TheThe archaicarchaic ScythianScythian swordsword fromfrom aboutabout 600600 B.B. C.C. had aa blade ofof aboutabout 40-5040-50 cmcm inin length,length, 33 cmcm inin largestlargest width, andand aa gripgrip ofof aboutabout 12-1412-14 cm.cm. SomeSome ofof thethe swordsswords from from Kul-Oba,Kul-Oba, ChertomlykChertomlyk andand thethe DonDon areaarea have blades aboutabout 5454 cmcm long.long. ButBut thethe youngeryounger

Wig.Big. 9.9. GoldGold covercover ofof alcinaces-sheathakinaces-sheath representingrepresenting lionlion m.onstersmonsters withwith fish-shapedfish-shaped wings.wings. MesopotaMesopota- mianmian character,character, about about 600600 B.B. C.C. oror shortlyshortly after.after. FromFrom MelgunovMelgunov Kurgan. LengthLength 4747 cm.cm. (Hermi (Hermi- tagetage Mus.,Mus., Leningrad).Leningrad).

specimensspecimens often often havehave aa lengthlength ofof aboutabout 60-8060-80 cm.cm. OfOf particularparticular interestinterest isis thethe shapeshape ofof thethe quillonsquillons withwith theirtheir heartshapedheartshaped lower lower brimbrim turnedturned towardstowards thethe blade,blade, andand thethe peculiarpeculiar scabbards. scabbards. OnlyOnly rarelyrarely thethe wholewhole scabbardscabbard has has beenbeen preserved.preserved. The The woodenwooden partsparts ofof itit havehave mostlymostly disappeared.disappeared. ButBut thethe metalmetal cover,cover, oftenoften ofof gold,gold, inin manymany instanceinstance hashas beenbeen preserved.preserved. This This goldgold covercover frequentlyfrequently isis adorned adorned withwith embossedembossed ornaments.ornaments. TheThe earliestearliest specimensspecimens havehave purelypurely decorative decorative elementselements inin aa Late-Assyrian Late-Assyrian or or PersianPersian style.style. YoungerYounger soecimenss~ecimensoftenoften showshow completecomplete figurefigure scenesscenes (fig.(fig.9), g), somesome

Fi.g,Fig. 10.10. DetailDeta~lfromfrom AAudzence-urlience relief8,relzefs, tj'e,J,sury,tl-easu~y,pa pu- lacelace inzn Persepolis.Persepolls. AAkznaceskillace8 illm itszts scabscab- IHtrrl.bard. Total Total lengthlength ofof slVord'l9szoord lt9 cm,cm, ofof scabscab- bardbard .'11."l7cm. cm. 54

of themthem representingrepresenting restingresting disinounleddismounted warriors, czvalryc:lvalry strugg-strugg les,les, single combats or thethe likelike and made inin purely Greek style by Greek goldsmiths settled inin ScythlanScythian towns, or inin a barbarized GreekGree~\. style, by native goldsmiths. Remarkable isis the manner of attaching thethe scabbard toto thethe girdle with a broad wing or patch often richlyrichly ornamented and with perforations forfor a thong or a cord which, pas-pas sing troughtrough thethe perforations, tiedtied it toto thethe girdle (fig. 10). Through a hole in thethe chape a second cord passed, which encircled thethe thighthigh and kept thethe scabbard inin position, when thethe warrior was mounted or walking on foot. Not only thethe sheaths from truetrue Scythian or Per-Per siansian areas but even Graeco-Scythian, sheaths from Europe werewe..e covered with plates of embossed gold. We find thethe akinaces, inin its peculiar scabbard representedrepresented on thethe goIdgold plate from thethe Oxus treasuretreasure and on thethe reliefsreliefs from thethe staircase inin the hall of the palace of Xerxes inin Persepolis (fig. 10).'O)10).20) Herodotus tellstells us (IV, 62 and other places) thatthat thethe Scythians mostly used thethe Persian akin-akin aces. InIn VII, 54 he says, thatthat thethe word akinaces isis thethe Persian name of a kind of short sword worn at thethe rightright thigh.thigh. The akinaces isis - he says -'- a royalroyal weapon. The Persian kings honoured princes and highborn friends with golden altinaces-swords.akinaces-swords. Xenophon inin hish1s Anabasis (I,0, 8, 29) mentions thethe Persian akinaces. Before crossing thethe Strait of Hellespontos Xerxes brought his gods a sacrifice throw-throw inging a golden akinaces into the Sea. Kambyses was killed accident-accident ally byby his own akinaces (Her. 111,Ill, 64), when - during his stay in Egypt - he jumpedjumped upon his horse. The scabbards of thethe akinaces always were furnished with a chape. But the sword of Kambyses had lostlost itsits chape, and thethe pointed blade pierced thethe royalroyal thighthigh. The manner of carrying a short thrusting sword at the rightright waswaS characteristic of cavalry peoples. Among thethe military persons re-re presented on the reliefsreliefs from thethe palace of Xerxes in Persepolis thethe Scythians have their akinaces at their rightright thigh,thigh, but the Median footmen carry theirtheir dagger-like short-swords - differing in form from the akinaces - suspended inin thethe girdle at theirtheir front.")front. 21 ) The akinaces ISis met with as far to the West as in Rumenia and inin Hungary. In thethe East itit reaches far intointo Asia. A richrich variety in thethe details is seen for instance inin thethe shapes of thethe quillons and the pommels or buttons, such as flat ogival pommels, antennae pom-pom mels, ring shaped pommels and the like, varying after timetime and place. The length of the swords seems to increase by degrees as they are spread toto thethe West. Certainly swords of such an extraordi-extraordi nary lengthlength as the specimen found at Aldoboly in Hungaria are exceptions, and may possibly be considered as mere ceremonial ~words.~?)swords.22) The Aldoboly sword has a length of 113 cm, and the hilt

isis aboutabout 1818 cmcm long.long. TheThe lengthlength ofof thethe bladeblade mightmight suggestsuggest SarmateSarmate influence,influence, butbut thethe antennae-shapedantennae-shaped pommel,pommel, composedcomposed ofof twotwo curl curl- ed-uped-up dolphins, dolphins, andand thethe quillonsquillons adorned adorned withwith lionslions pointpoint towardstowards MediterraneanMediterranean areasareas andand suggestsuggest anan earlierearlier date date thanthan thethe SarmateSarmate swords.swords. OnOn thethe EuropeanEuropean sideside ofof thethe BlackBlack SeaSea thethe guardsguards ofof thesethese akiaki- nacesnaces swordsswords sometimessometimes taketake aa shapeshape differentdifferent toto thethe guardsguards ofof thethe AsiaticAsiatic types.types. InIn HungaryHungary wewe findfind aa locallocal development,development, thethe particuparticu- larlar groupgroup ofof singlesingle edgededged bladesblades providedprovided withwith aa slopingsloping oror slightlyslightly bentbent grip,grip, absolutelyabsolutely aa cuttingcutting weaponweapon withwith aa certaincertain similaritysimilarity toto thethe BosnianBosnian oror PicenePicene footman'sfootman's singlesingle edgededged swordsswords oror knives.knives. TheThe oldestoldest akinaces-swords akinaces-swords seem seem toto belongbelong toto thethe timetime aboutabout 600600 B.B. C.C. andand thethe 6th6th century, century, butbut thethe greatergreater partpart ofof themthem chronologicallychronologically belongsbelongs toto thethe periodperiod 5th-3rd5th-3rd renturiesrenturies B.B. C.C. TheThe locallocal specimens specimens ofof HungaryHungary areare ratherrather difficultdifficult to to date,date, becausebecause thethe manymany currentscurrents (Late(Late Hallstattic,Hallstattic, Germanic,Germanic, OrientalOriental etc.)etc.) fromfrom variousvarious placesplaces werewere crossingcrossing thethe DanubianDanubian areas, areas, andand thethe swordsswords mostlymostly-havehave beenbeen foundfound withoutwithout accompanyingaccompanying databledatable objects.objects. AA certaincertain group group ofof akinacesakinaces fromfrom SouthSouth RussiaRussia hashas aa pommelpommel oror buttonbutton similarsimllar toto thethe antennae-swordsantennae-swords ofof thethe HallstattHallstatt areas, areas, havinghaving forfor instanceinstance a a pairpair ofof beak-headsbeak-heads curledcurled likelike volutesvolutes towardstowards eacheach other,other, simplesimple scrollsscrolls ofof leavesleaves oror simplesimple volutes.volutes. ThoughThough theythey havehave muchmuch likenesslikeness toto thethe EuropeanEuropean antennae-swords,antennae-swords, thethe makemake ofof themthem isis different,different, and and theythey maymay bebe ofof anan EasternEastern origin.origin.")23) RelatedRelated types types -- butbut differingdiffering fromfrom thethe HallstattHallstatt specimensspecimens inin theirtheir detailsdetails -- havehave beenbeen foundfound inin SiberiaSiberia andand eveneven inin China.China. TheseThese antennae-akinacesantennae-akinaces atat leastleast seemseem toto havehave moremore EasternEastern expansionexpansion thanthan thethe typicaltypical akinaces akinaces withwith thethe usualusual flat-ogivalflat-ogival pommel.pommel. InIn pictorialpictorial artart thethe ScythiansScythians areare representedrepresented usingusing theirtheir akinacesakinaces asas aa thrustingthrusting sword.sword. TheyThey areare almostalmost alwaysalways fightingfighting onon foot.foot. ThoughThough thisthis ScythianScythian thrustingthrusting swordsword -- thethe piecepiece ofof resistanceresistance forfor lightlight cavalrycavalry --meant meant littlelittle oror possiblypossibly nothingnothing toto thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thethe EuropeanEuropean cavalrycavalry sword,sword, thethe spatha.spatha, it~tcertainly certa~nlyseemsseems toto havehave beenbeen ofof somesome importanceimportance toto thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thethe LateLate HallHall- stattstatt swordsswords withwith their their shortshort and and pointedpointed blades. blades. ThatThat evidentevident changechange inin tactics.tactics. which which is is indicated indicated by by thethe tendencytendency to to shortenshorten thethe longlong doubledouble edgededged swordswordbladesblades inin thethe earlierearlier centuriescenturies ofof thethe firstfirst milleniummillenium B.B. C.C. andand thethe introductionintroduction ofof aa shortshort stabstab- bingbing swordsword amongamong thethe CeltsCelts maymay bebe duedue toto somesome EasternEastern influinflu- ence,ence, perhapsperhaps fromfrom thethe BlackBlack SeaSea areas.areas. PossiblyPossibly itit suggestssuggests aa transtrans- itionition fromfrom thethe charioteerscharioteers oror horsemenhorsemen withwith theirtheir longlong slashing slashing swordsswords toto aa lightlight cavalrycavalry oror a a kindkind ofof mountedmounted infantryinfantry withwith stabstab- bingbing swordsswords forfor hand-to-handhand-to-hand strugglesstruggles onon footfoot likelike thethe Scythians.Scythians.

TheThe particularparticular cavalry cavalry sword, sword, whichwhich gavegave riserise toto thethe EuropeanEuropean spatha,spatha, came came from from anotheranother AsiaticAsiatic tribe,tribe, the the SarmatesSaymates andand theirtheir kinsmenkinsmen thethe Alanes.Alanes. TheThe SarmatesSarmates were tribestrlbes from NorthernNorthern Iran,Iran, more homogeneous thanthan thethe Scythians,Scythians, though even even theythey may have absorbedabsorbed otherother tribes.tribes. TheyThey werewere relatedrelated toto thethe Medians andand thethe PerPer- sians,sians, andand theythey camecame fromfrom thethe mountainousmountainous plateaus, inin contrastcontrast to to thethe Scythians,Scythians, whowho camecame fromfrom thethe plains.plains. From these circumstancescircumstances we may getget anan explanationexplanation ofof thethe differencedifference inin thethe armamentarmament andand tacticstactics ofof thethe twotwo peoples. ContemporaneousContemporaneous Chinese Chinese sources sources tell, thatthat thethe Sarmates Sarmates moved westwardswestwards pressed by thethe Huns, TurksTurks andand Mongols. InIn thethe year 179179 B. C.C. theythey foughtfought againstagainst thethe ScythiansScythians inin Crimea, Crimea, soso tellstells us Polybius.Polybius. And aa SarmateSarmate tribe,tribe, thethe Yazyges,Yazyges, had reachedreached thethe Danube inin thethe firstfirst centurycentury B. C.C. While inin thethe coursecourse ofof timetime thethe ScythiansScythians had become aa settled settled agriculturalagricultural people, thethe Sarmates Sarmates werewere still still nomads on on horseback. TheyThey were a a people ofof heavy cavalry, cavalry, protected by scalescale oror chain chain aa longlong coat coat inin contrastcontrast toto thethe shortshort mail chemisechemise worn by the Scythians.Scythians. Both man andand horse carried carried body protection. Their Their heads were protected by conicalconical helmets, thethe type ofof which laterlater onon was adoptedadopted by thethe Late Roman andand thethe Byzantine armies. armies. ItIt was in use amongamong the OstrogothsOstrogoths andand thethe Lombards ofof Northern ItalyItaly andand became the basic shapeshape for for European medieval types types ofof helmets. Bow andand arrowsarrows were were inin use among among thethe Sarmates,Sarmates, but onlyonly asas secondarysecondary weapons. InIn regardregard toto theirtheir equipmentequipment theythey were anan earlyearly counterpartcounterpart to European medieval heavy armedarmed andand mountmount- eded knighthood. SarmateSarmate armouredarmoured knights, cataphractarii,cataphractarii, - used asas auxiliaryauxiliary troopstroops in thethe Roman forces -- areare representedrepresented for inin- stancestance onon thethe columnscolumns ofof TrajanusTrajanus andand Marcus Aurelius andand onon thethe triumphal archarch ofof GaleriusGalerius inin Saloniki.Saloniki. TheyThey arcare well-known from the wall paintings in thethe catacombs,catacombs, tomstonestomstones and otherother monuments in Kertch. TheThe Greek population ofof Panticapeion had adoptedadopted these Sarmate innovationsinnovations in order to defend themselves against against their enemies thethe Scythians, Taurians and Sarmates on Crimea.Crimea.24)21 ) Pictorial art and literaryliterary sourcessources informinform us thatthat the Sarmates Sarmates usually carriedcarried thethe long doubledouble edgededged cut-and-thrustcut-and-thrust sword sword atat theirtheir left, suspendedsuspended in aa specialspecial porte-epee,porte-i.pi.e, while theythey at theirtheir right right thigh had a a dagger, correspondingcorresponding inin type andand decoration to thethe sword.sword. TheThe porte-epee,porte-6pi.e, which attached thethe scabbardscabbard to thethe girdle andand kept it in a rather horizontal position, possibly originated among the Iranians.Iranians. ItIt spreadspread from them toto Central Asia and even reached China, from where itit returned via the the Mongol tribes to IranIran and the Black-Sea areas.areas.?j)2:i) Jade is often used for suchsuch porteporte- epees.epkes Tacitus in his Annals (VI,(VI, 35) describes the Sarmate (and(and

.57

Parthian) tactics, mentioning the Sarmate participation as auxiliary troops in the Roman armies. They rush into the battle with their heavy coats of mail, their cavalry lances and their longlong (praelongos) swords, he says. In his Hist. I, 79, he mentions how they use their swords with both hands. This is important when considering some of the representationsrepresentations of military persons in stone reliefs, paintings and toreutic work in the Near East from the 2nd-3rd centuries A. D., where the sword-grips are extraordinary long. When on horse-horse back the Sarmates were irresistible, we understand, but on foot they were worth almost nothing. Pomponius Mela (111,(Ill, 4) compares the Sarmate equipment with that of the Parthians. Dio of Prusa, Orat XXXVI, cabcalls attention to the Sarmate swords, which he de-de finitely says are cavalryswords. The representations of the Sarmate cavalry sword with the almost flat button on the top of the hilt, and the horizontal quillons correspond with the archaeological obob- jects. South Russian and Crimean tombs have brought into light more or less fragmentary swords. Most of them have a length of about 100 cm or even more. The pommels as a rule are circular, of button-shape. The material is jade or nephrite, or they are made of wood with a cover of gold, silver or copper, inlaid with garnets, semi-precious stones, and coloured glass. The wooden grip is often covered with plates of gold or silver, and the quillons are horihori- zontaJ.26)zontal.") Their porte-epees are oftpnoften of jade, particularly in the 2nd and 3rd centuries A. D. The ornamentation of the porte-epees somesome- times shows decorative elements in a stylestvle reminding., of ornaments from contemporary Chinese porte-epees. Specimens probably of Chinese workmanship have been found, which is no wonder concon- sidering the material and cultural interchanges between the Iranian and the Chinese world passing through Central Asia during the time of the Han-Dynasty. Chinese cavalry during this period seems strongly influenced by the Sarmates, particularly in regard to its armament (special types of bows and arrows, armour, swords and daggers.) The long Chinese sword - one meter or more - and its accompanying dagger have much in common withwlth the Sarmate and particularly with the Parthian swords of this period.period.")27 ) Originally the Sarmates seem to have got their equipment from Central Asia, where they had been entertaining communications between China and the Mongol tribes. Under Chinese pressure the Huns pressed the Sarmates westwards to South Russia and the Black Sea areas, bringing with them their characteristic cavalry tactics and long swords. The Sarmate sword certainly has no relation to the Late Assyrian cavalry sword with its long, slender blade and the scabscab- bard with winged chape. (This type of winged chape is found on

thethe longlong earlyearly Hallstatt-swords,Hallstatt-swords, which which werewere influencedinfluenced fromfrom thethe East).East). ButBut itit hashas nono relationrelation eithereither toto thethe longlong CelticCeltic sword,sword, LaLa TEmeTene III111 type.type. JosephusJosephus mentionsmentions thethe kinsmenkinsmen ofof thethe Sarmates,Sarmates, thethe Alanes,Alanes, inin thethe yearyear 3535 A.A. D.,D., whenwhen this this peoplepeople isis living living inin North North Caucasus.Caucasus. ShortlyShortly afterwardsafterwards they they have have movedmoved toto thethe banksbanks ofof Djnepr.Djnepr. ArrianusArrianus throws throws light light uponupon theirtheir military military organization.organization. TheirTheir militarymilitary equipment equipment has muchmuch inin commoncommon withwith thatthat ofof thethe Sarmates.Sarmates. TheyThey followedfollowed thethe SarmatesSarmates inin theirtheir movementsmovements toto thethe West.West. TheThe GermanicGermanic tribestribes -- thethe GothsGoths andand LombardsLombards -- whowho laterlater onon camecame toto thethe Black Sea,Sea, toto CrimeaCrimea andand SouthSouth Russia,Russia, learnedlearned warfarewarfare andand cavalrycavalry technictechnic fromfrom thesethese AsiaticAsiatic peoplespeoples andand adoptedadopted theirtheir equipment,equipment, particularlyparticularly their their swords,swords, lanceslances andand helmets.helmets. TheThe GothsGoths hadhad fought fought atat thethe sideside ofof thethe SarmatesSarmates andand AlanesAlanes alreadyalready onon theirtheir wayway toto thethe East,East, when thethe RomansRomans underunder HadrianusHadrianus drewdrew thethe AsiatesAsiates back back fromfrom thethe DanubianDanubian ValleyValley toto SouthSouth Russia.Russia. WhenWhen thethe GothsGoths andand theirtheir followersfollowers duringduring thethe GreatGreat MigrationsMigrations turnedturned theirtheir stepssteps fromfrom SouthSouth RussiaRussia toto thethe Balkans,Balkans, wherewhere theythey defeated defeated thethe RomanRoman armiesarmies underunder ValerianusValerianus atat Adrianople inin thethe yearyear 378378 A.A. D.,D., theythey usedused theirtheir newnew cavalrycavalry technic.technic. InIn thethe yearyear 395395 theythey enteredentered Italy,Italy, inin thethe year 410410 theythey conqueredconquered Rome.Rome. ButBut soonsoon afterafter- wardswards they turnedturned theirtheir stepssteps towardstowards SouthSouth FranceFrance andand thethe IberianIberian peninsula,peninsula, wherewhere theythey foundedfounded thethe VisigothicVisigothic kingdom.kingdom. All thethe timetime theythey were accompaniedaccompanied by numerousnumerous SarmatesSarmates and and Alanes.Alanes. TheyThey had had adopted adopted thethe armamentarmament andand thethe warfarewarfare ofof thesethese AsiaticAsiatic peoples,peoples, butbut theythey tootoo had adoptedadopted aa goodgood dealdeal ofof theirtheir particularparticular stylestyle ofof ornamentationornamentation andand thethe particularparticular verroterie verroterie cloisonnecloisonnb withwith enamel,enamel, garnetsgarnets and and semi-precioussemi-precious stones,stones, aa decorationdecoration andand technictechnic originallyoriginally rootedrooted inin IranIran andand possiblypossibly inin ancient ancient Mesopotamia.Mesopotamia. ItIt isis ofof importanceimportance to to noticenotice thethe contrastcontrast betweenbetween thethe ScythianScythian andand SarmateSarmate cavalry,cavalry, oneone mainly usingusing lightlight cavalry, cavalry, thethe otherother usingusing heavyheavy cavalry. cavalry. The The lightlight cavalry cavalry wears thethe shortshort thrusting thrusting swordsword atat thethe rightright thigh; thigh; thethe heavyheavy cavalrycavalry has thethe longlong cut-andcut-and- thrustthrust swordsword atat theirtheir left.left. TheThe lightlight cavalrycavalry wearswears nono oror littlelittle propro- tectivetective armour,armour, maybemaybe aa cap,cap, only only rarelyrarely aa metal helmethelmet andand a a shortshort mailmail or or scalescale shirt.shirt. TheThe heavy heavy cavalrycavalry isis protectedprotected byby solidsolid scalescale armourarmour for for manman and and horse,horse, helmet,helmet, greeves,greeves, shields shields etc. etc. TheThe mainmain weapon weapon forfor thethe lightlight cavalry cavalry isis thethe bowbow andand arrows,arrows, thethe shortshort thrustingthrusting swordsword beingbeing aa piecepiece ofof resistance;resistance; thethe heavyheavy cavalrycavalry hashas asas its its main weaponweapon thethe cavalrycavalry lancelance andand thethe longlong cut-andcut-and- thrustthrust sword.sword. BothBoth peoplespeoples playedplayed anan importantimportant rolerole toto thethe develdevel- opmentopment ofof warfarewarfare inin thethe NearNear East,East, toto thethe ByzantineByzantine empireempire and and amongamong thethe GermanicGermanic tribestribes movingmoving fromfrom EastEast toto thethe SouthSouth EuropEurop- eanean peninsulas,peninsulas, toto ItalyItaly andand Spain. Spain. ThereThere isis aa difference difference between

the Sarmate cavalry and Ihethe Parthian, later the Sassanian cavalry. The armies of the Parthian Arsacids were based upon a heavy armed feudal cavalry of knights and nobles with their vassals of swift and light, mounted bowmen. This Parthian composition of heavy and light cavalry was an irresistible instrument of war, necessary as a defence against the hostile cavalry nomads of the steppes and c'eserls,c;eserts, and necessary too as a defence against the heavy infantry armies of the Romans (and the Hellenistic Seleucids before them). They represented something quite new in the history of the art of war. Their equipment and tacticslactics later on became of importance to the development of warfare and cavalry-equipment in medieval Europe, and not least to the development of the cavalry sword. Did the SarmateSaTmate influence go to Europe by way of the Gothic movements along the Northern shores of the Mediterranean, through the Balkans, North and Central Italy to South France and to Spain, the Sassanian infIuenceinfluence went across the Mediterranean by means of the Byzantines to Aegean islands, to South Italy, Sicily, and the Eastern coasts of Spain, and particularly with the Moslims along the coasts of North Africa to Southern and Eastern Spain. After the MoslimMosllm conquest of the Visigothic kingdom of Spain it penetrated most of the Iberian peninsula. From the encounter between the Visigothic, ultimately the Sarmate sword, and the Arab, ultimately the Sassanian-Persian sword resulted that particular renewal of the cavalry sword, which after the course of some few centuries gave birth to the Spanish sword with finger guards and later on to the rapier, just as the same Sassanian-Persian sword gave birth to the East European pallasch, the last one taking another route from the East to Midland Europe. Thanks to the Sassanian swords and the manner of grasping them, the »Italian«~~Italian~~method first came to Spain and in all probability soon afterwards to Italy. ByzantiumBynntiuL11 a Lenk between two Worlds Byzantium was an important factor, - a lenk between two worlds, the Greco-Roman and the Oriental world. Two hostile cici- vilizations joined in a kind of synthesis out of which a civilization rose with an individual stamp. In spite of this synthesis, which never became absolutely perfect, a dualism in spiritual and material culture is more or less perceptible through the centuries: the logical Greek spirit and the lively Oriental fantasy with its brilliancy of colours. We find this dualism not only in art, architecture and spiritual life, but even in the military organization, the military equipment as a whole and in the various categories of weapons.

Greco-Roman and Persian features characterize both organization and armament. We may findfind Frankish, possibly even faint Scandi-Scandi navian, traces inin some of thethe weapons, though toto a ratherrather small degree. It is;s hardly possible toto establish one orot' thethe other type of sword asas thethe characteristic Byzantine sword. Nor are wewe able toto pointpoint out a type characteristic toto thethe variousvarious categories af By-By zantine soldiers, whether heavyheavy or lightlight cavalry, heavy or lightlight in-in fantry, imperialimperial body-guards, foederatifoederati or rhomaioi, before a syste-syste maticalmatical examination of thethe pictorialpictorial art and ad comparison with thethe literaryliterary sources from Byzantium and thethe Near East has beenbeen under-under taken.taken. In accordance toto thethe organization of thethe Byzantine armies itit must be supposed thatthat forfor instanceinstance thethe soldiers fromfrom Germanic tribestribes carried a typetype of sword whichwhich was characteristic toto theirtheir re-re spective homelands, and thethe AsiaticAsiatic soldiers used swords familiar toto themthem and theirtheir homelands. Byzantine emperors had created a superb military organization, well-known toto us from thethe handbooks of thethe emperors Maurikios and Leo, Nicephorus Phocas, Constantine Porphyrogenitus and others. Procopms,Procopius, Agathius,J\gathius, Anna Komnena and other authors 2A supply our knowledge.")knowledge. ) Though thethe military organization toto some extent wasVJas based upon Roman warfare, it hadh~\(l rec~evedrecieved strong im-im pulses from thethe Orient and had gained experiences fromfrom various battles. The emperor Theodosius had learned quite a lot from the battle at Adrianople inin thethe year 378 A. D. He made his experiences useful toto thethe EastEast Roman organization, while the West Roman part of thethe empire learnedlearned almost nothing from theirtheir bad experiences. There was one obvious difference between Roman and Byzantine warfare: the Romans still attached importance toto thethe infantryinfantry and kept thethe auxiliaries mostly as a cavalry used as resourcesresources and sup-sup port toto thethe infantry.infantry. The Byzantines on thethe contrary attached theirtheir main importanceimportance toto thethe lightlight and heavy cavalry, thethe infantryinfantry - lightlight or heavyheavy tootoo - only playingplaying a secondary role.role. Theodosius had made thethe cavalry thethe mostmost importantimportant partpart of hishis armies. The By-By zantine army, composed of mercenaries serving as foederati,foederati, from various European tribes and nations, particularly various Germanic tribes,tribes, and of mercenariesmercenaries from Asia, forfor instanceinstance Huns, various Caucasian tribes,tribes, Isaurians, Armenians (since the days of Zeno, 474-491) contributed toto that mixture of weapons, out of which certain types arose. Literary documents testifytestify thatthat Frankish swords of 9th and 10thlOth centuries were appreciated inin Byzantium and among thethe Arabs and Persians, - reputedreputed forfor their beautiful blades. Still more reputed were thethe Oriental blades from Yemen (pointed swords), Khorassan and Ceylon. As toto quality the Frankish ,)vurm-»vurm-

buntccbunt« false damascening could not by far compete with the true, Oriental damast. Arab scientists and authors from 9th-10th cen-cen turiesturies and laterlater on give detailed information about thethe Oriental blades and their material, and they give recipes for forging and tem-tem pering the blades. The Byzantine military organization had adopted much from the Asiatic neighbours, for instance thethe armament and organization of thethe cavalry. The heavy cavalry, which in thethe 6th and 7th centuries was equipped almost like European knights in thethe Middle Ages, had much in common with the Sarmate, the Parthian and the Sassanian one. From Maurikios and Leo we are taught that footlong scale armour of chain mail with coif, collar, sleeves and gauntlets, crested helmet, greeves, round shields, surcoat and woolenwoolen mantle, all of itit with regimental colours, constituted a kind of regulation equip-equip ment. Saddles formed an importantimportant detail of the equipment. As a main weapon served the heavy cavalry lance, about 3,60 m long, with pennon and throwingthrowing thong.thong. As secondary weapons thethe cavalry carried swords and daggers. The light cavalry almost like that of thethe Scythians and thethe Parthians had bow and arrows, short sword or dagger. The axe played an importantimportant rolerole among the various categories of soldiers. An examination of Byzantine pictorial art gives as a preliminary resultresult thatthat several types of swords were known and in use. Still the main impressionimpression isis thatthat thethe usual Byzantine sword inin the pre-pre Justinian and the Justinian periods (4th-7th centuries) isis long,long, double edged, for cut and thrust, much resemblingressembling the Sarmate or rather thethe Greco-Sarmate or Gothic cavalry sword, known for in-in stance from Kertch and Dura- Europos. We may find Hellenistic or Roman traditionstraditions now and then, par-par ticularly inin thethe short-swords. In the consular diptychs, for instance that of Stilichus inin the Cathedral of Monza from about 400 A. D., and inin thatthat of Honorius in Aosta, from 406 A. D., thethe swords repre-repre sented show much likeness to thethe Gothic swords. This agrees ratherrather well with the Strategicon of Maurikios which tellstells us thatthat thethe By-By zantine~zantines had taken up the sword of thethe Herules, who had accom-accom panied thethe Goths to Crimea and Byzantium, thethe Balkans, Italy and Spain. The silver-gilt Concesti-amphora in the Hermitagemuseum inin Leningrad, possibly from thethe 5th century or a little later,later, repre-repre senting combats between Greeks and Amazones, shows thethe cut-and-cut-and thrustthrust sword of Gothic typetype used by thethe Greeks, while the Amazones wield theirtheir axes. The style and subject represented reminds of earl-earl ierier works from thethe Greco-Sarmate areas at thethe Black Sea.29)Sea.~9) The iconoclasticiconoclastic period of Byzantine art (about 8th-9th centuries) isis

influencedinfluenced byby thethe Orient, byby Syrian and Persian art. We findfind swords of Persian typetype or truetrue Persian swords. Even inin thethe 10th century Greek manuscripts swords of Oriental typestypes are represented.represented. The psalterpsalter of Basil 11,Il, fromfrom 10th century, nownow inin Biblioteca Marciana in Venice, or thethe menologion of thethe same emperor, now inin Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, (Vat. Gr. 1G13) fromfrom about 979-084, contain numerous representations of swords, thethe shapeshape of which is thethe longlong cut-and-thrust sword with short grip, curved or straight quillons, bud-shaped or globular pommel. Frequent isis thethe flatflat disc-pommel with a littlelittle strap or thongthong ending inin a tassel. This typetype of sword isis well-known fromfrom line drawings on templetemple walls inin Dura-Europos and inin Sassanian art at an earlier date. Turning our steps toto thethe areas outside thethe metropolis,metropolis, to Northern Syria and thethe frontiers between Greco-Roman and Oriental districts, thethe phenomena fromfrom Byzantine art are metmet with during Late Ro-Ro man time.time. Dura-Europos, thisthis strongly fortified frontierfrontier city and meetingmeeting place for military forcesforces and forfor tradmgtrading caravans, hashas yielded a richrich material, archaeological as well as pictorial.")pictoriapO) The weaponsweapons of Roman soldiers formform an importantimportant and interestinginteresting group of ob-ob jectsjects from thethe excavations undertakenundertaken inin thethe thirties.thirties. Almost all kinds of Roman armament have been discovered. Besides thethe parti-parti cular typestypes of woodenwooden shields with their paintings inin a technic muchmuch likelike thethe encaustic technictechnic used on Roman time,time, portraitsportraits fromfrom Fajum, a lotlot of Roman swords, daggers, spears, arrow-heads and arrows forfor artillery-engines have been excavated. Pieces of armour, forfor man and horse inin bronce and inin iron:iron: mail,mail, scale and plate,plate, havehave come intointo light.light. Of particular interest waswas thethe discovery of a Sarmate warrlorwarrior w~thwith his equipment of armour, conical helmethelmet and longlong sword of Persian workmanship. The sword hilt was adorned with Chinese jadejade inin a Sarmato-Parthian manner.manner. Another sword, found inin a private house, hadhad its hilt adorned with semi-precious stones. These swords are related toto sword-types known from excavations inin Kertch and to thethe swords representedrepresented in early Byzantine art. The frescoes fromfrom thethe walls of thethe synagoge havehave some sword-represent-sword-represent ations from shortly after thethe middle of thethe 3rd century. A. D. Most of themthem have a rather general looklook with pointed blade, broad, cross-cross bar quillons, short grip and hemispherical pommels.pommels. There may bebe Hellenistic, Roman and Oriental traditions. An exact determination of thethe typetype doesn't seem possible. Other representations with horse-horse men carrying lanceslances and swords show an almost spatha-like typetype of sword, possibly a Sarmate-Parthian sword. The line drawings on some of the templetemple walls inin Dura have rendered a typetype of sword

of aa definitely definitely OrientalOriental type, known fromfrom Parthian andand Sassanian art.art. ItIt isis thethe previously mentioned sword sword with thethe flatflat disc on thethe toptop ofof thethe grip andand with aa strapstrap endingending inin aa tasseltassel attachedattached toto thethe disc, thethe samesame typetype ofof sword,sword, known fromfrom thethe ByzantineByzantine illumillum- inations.inations. TheThe military equipmentequipment represented represented onon PalmyreenPalmyreen reliefsreliefs from from DuraDura andand from Palmyra fromfrom thethe 2nd2nd century and laterlater includesincludes aa doubledouble edgededged swordsword sometimes sometimes ofof SarmateSarmate type,type, sometimessometimes ofof aa more EasternEastern type.'ll)type.") ThisThis swordsword has aa longlong doubledouble edgededged blade andand aa cross-hiltcross-hilt OfOf particular interest interest isis thethe extraordinaryextraordinary longlong grip.grip. TheThe hiltshilts ofof thesethese swordsswords correspondcorrespond toto swordsswords fromfrom Sassanian Sassanian silsil- ver bowls, particularly fromfrom EastEast Iran.Iran. A closeclose parallel isis toto be foundfound onon thethe silversilver bowl inin thethe Brit.Brit. Mus.Mus. fromfrom aboutabout 400400 A.A. D.,D., surelysurely ofof EastEast IranianIranian workmanship. TheThe close,close, but hostile contact contact between thethe Byzantines andand thethe Persians, forfor instanceinstance under Justinianus, Justinianus, reinforcedreinforced the OrientalOriental influenceinfluence upon ByzantineByzantine warfare andand equipequip- ment.ment. InIn thethe period afterafter JustinianusJustinianus itit is quitequite naturalnatural toto findfind OriOri- entalental typestypes ofof weapons. TheThe curvedcurved quillons quillons known fromfrom various ByzantineByzantine sword-represword-repre- sentationssentations werewere adoptedadopted fromfrom thethe Persians.Persians. WhenWhen thethe empireempire under thethe Macedonian dynastydynasty --particularly inIn thetheloth10th centurycentury --entered entered aa gloriousglorious epochepoch ofof aa high political, military andand artisticalartistical standart,standart, thethe Byzantine influence spreadspread allall overover thethe Mediterranean world toto thethe Balkans, Crete,Crete, Italy,Italy, SicilySicily andand Spain. Spaln. StillStill thethe artart had prepre- servedserved somesome Hellenic traditions,traditions, but thethe OrientalOriental traditions fromfrom Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia were stillstill alive.alive. ThoughThough military equipequip- ment inin thethe representationsrepresentations ofof pictorial artart had preserved antiqueantique traditions,traditions, thethe detailsdetails oftenoften showshow OrientalOriental elements.elements. SuchSuch areare the the representationsrepresentations of military persons on thethe ivoryIvory triptychstriptychs fromfrom thethe 10th-12th10th-12th centuries,centuries, forfor instance instance thethe triptychtriptych in in PalazzoPalazzo Venezia inin Rome,Rome, thethe Harbaville Sarbaville triptychtrlptych inin thethe Louv:'~Louvre and and thethe triptychtrlptych fromfrom almostalmost thethe samesame timetime inin thethe BritishBritish MuseumMuseum inin London.London. ItIt isis thethe samesame typetype ofof hilthilt andand thethe samesame shape shape ofof quillonsquillons which thethe Arabs tooktook overover fromfrom ByzantiumByzantium andand fromfrom Persia.Persia. ItIt became thethe basic type ofof thethe SouthSouth EuropeanEuropean medievalmedieval sword,sword, thethe swordsword ofof thethe LatinLatin line,line, suchsuch asas wewe find itit forfor instanceinstance inin 12th12th centurycentury pictorial artart inin SicilySicily andand SouthSouth Italy,Italy, inin FranceFrance andand inin ChristianChristian Spain.Spain. AtAt thethe samesame timetime thethe trilobatetrilobate pommel takestakes its its wayway fromfrom thethe OrientOrient toto Europe. Europe. ViaVia ByzantiumByzantium itit comescomes toto thethe Balkans,Balkans, wherewhere itit isis to to be be found found inin Greek Greek church church frescoesfrescoes andand itit followsfollows thethe ByBy- zantinezantine expansion.expansion. TheThe ArabsArabs adoptedadopted itit fromfrom ByzantiumByzantium andand fromfrom Persia,Persia, andand with with thethe expansionexpansion ofof IslamIslam itit waswas broughtbrought southsouth ofof thethe MediterraneanMediterranean toto Europe. Europe.

The C:tv;\lryCavdlry Sword inill Persic)Persi:t

The cavalry sword, used by the Sassanian cavalry in Persia be-be came a most important factorfactor to the development of the sword among the Byzantines, from where the Arabs adopted the type, though they have been influenced even directly from Persia too. The scale armoured Sassanian heavy cavalry carried the cavalrycavalry- lance and the long cut-and-thrust sword. Just as the Sarmates and Parthians before them, they had their long sword at their left, and the corresponding dagger at their right. Though contemporary ar-ar chaeological objects are almost missing from Persia, pictorial art gives us a rather good information of the Sassanian sword in spite of the curious mixture of elements, such as revival of ancient tra-tra ditions,ditlons, foreign influence, nationalistic renaissance etc. in the style of ornamentation and in the subjects treated inin art. The magnificent series of silver bowls with embossed figure scenes of kings and princes hunting wild animals, or enthroned, receivingrec~~iving investiture and the like, are instructive."2)instructive.:\2)

Fi'l·F111 11.11 Si/vel'Sllve~plate withunth appliedapplled repOU88f:repoussr and en!lm.vedenqraved de/ails.deturls, pu~tzallypartially rJilt.qllt. BnhrernBa!lra'l!! I (271-27'(;(ZYIYG A. D.) /Ht1It'inUhu+?tzngboars. Index[lule;): fingerfmyer across till;t11~forjOi'f'-qnillon c-qurllon of tliethe sword. D'om.Doam 28 cm.cm UlerrnitoyeIHw?nztnc/e Mus,Mus., Lenin!Jrwl)Lenmrli clrl) .

In these representations from about the 3rd-7th centuries A. D. we see the horseman using his sword frequently as a thrusting sword, but more often as a pure cutting weapon. The Sassanian sword is different from the swords rooted in ancient Assyria, and from the swords used by the Scythians and the Median Persians. Nor has it much in common with the true Sarmate sword, though they may have a common source. Most frequently the guard is a cross-guard with straight, rarely curved quillons, the grip as a rule is longer than the Sarmate grip, and now and then it is a little bent, sloping towards the cutting edge (fig. 11-12). This sloping grip is remarkable, because it forms the prototype of the Arab swords with sloping hilts from the 9th century and later. At the same time we here find the prototype of the heavy cavalry pallasch, known from Polish, Hungarian and Midland European regulation swords of a far later time. The top of the hilt mostly differs from the hilt-pommels of the Mediterranean and the Sarmate pommels. Sometimes it has a disc. More frequent are the rings or the spherical pommels. But rather often we find it without a pommel at all. The top may be flat or rounded, pistol-shaped like the later Turkish kilij guards, or have a ))bird's»bird's head<scimitars. The grip itself sometimes has a concave outline in order to be more suitable to the hand which grasps it; a shape of grip, which is met with on later time Polish and Hungarian sabres and pallasches. Even one or two little horned thorns, one near the top, the other near the base of the grip, are seen on some of the swords. The Sassanian sword has more similarity to a pallasch than to an ordinary cut-and-thrust sword. Sometimes the grip is extraextra- ordinary long, such as for instance the swords on the East Iranian silver bowl from about 400 A. D. in Brit. Mus. or in the bowl of Khusram III1 (590-628) in Bibl. Nat. Paris. The swords represented here have long double edged blades, horizontal quillons and an unusual long grip, almost like the late medieval European two-two handed swords. Possibly this type has come to Iran from Central Asia. In the wall paintings from the caves at Qumtura and Quyzil, possibly from about 6th-7th century A. D. we find almost the same type of swords, even combined with Persian daggers.daggers.:jY)a:!) This type of sword with long grip was unknown to the Persians of the Achemenide time. With the Sarmates and particularly with the Parthians as intermediaries the type may have come to the Iranian world from Central Asia at a rather early point of time. We find it already in the 3rd century A. D. on stone reliefs representing military persons in Dura and even in Palmyra, brought to Syria by the Parthians.

Fig. 12. SzlverSilver plate partaallypartially galt.gilt. Shapur 111III (383-388 A. D.) daspatchzngdispatching a((, lzon.lion. The kangIcing asis uszngusing a long sword. RaghtRight andexindex fangerfinger across the fore-quallon.fore-quillon. In gardlegirdle the sword-sheath and accompanyingaccompanyzng dayyer.dagger. Daam.Diam. 21,721,1 cm. (Hermataye(Hermitage 1I1us.,Mus., Lenzngrad).Leningrad).

The blade of the Sassanian sword is more or less pointed, somesome- times even almost blunt. Particularly remarkable is the manner of grasping it. In most instance we see the index-finger bent across the fore-quillonfore-quillon in the manner known to us from 16th century Spanish and Italian representations of fencing with the rapier. We can follow this manner from the Sassanian bowls, on Persian rock-rock reliefs, Ghandara-sculptures, toto Byzantine art and in Frankish book-book illuminations from 9th and 10th centuries, particularly in such il-il luminations, the style of which are more or less free treatments of Byzantine prototypes. Even in Greek, Bulgarian and Serbian pic-pic torial art, for instance in church-frescoes from the end of the first and thethe beginning of the second millenium, it is to be seen. Its routes are moreover to be followed to Italy (Venice, Tuscany) and above all to the Iberian peninsula, where it occurs at a rather early point of time.time. A good instanceinstance from the church Santa Lucia del Mar, Bar-Bar celona, from thethe 13th century is now inin Museo de arte antiguo in Barcelona.

LeoLeu in his Tactica states, that thethe Arabs took over every detail of the Byzantine military warfare, the organization as well as thethe armament. With the expansion of Islam it followedfolluwed the routes of this expansion along thethe coasts of North Africa from where it was brought to the Iberian peninsula. Sassanian manner of grasping the grip is known in Central Asia, as stated by the 7th century wall paintings in Chinese Turkestan, Chinese water colourcuIour drawings from the 13th century show obvious examples. Here we tootou find the quillons - not in the usual shape of quillons - but in the shape ofuf two finger-rings below the grip. The curved yuillonsquilluns and the rlng-shapedring-shaped finger protections below the quillons serve as protection malnlymainly against cutting. The Chinese drawing clearly testifies this, one of the weapons Inin this drawing being a curved sabre used for cutting. The prolonged grip on the Parthian, Sassanian and Turkestan swords formsfurms the counter-bacounter-ba- lance of the long and heavy blade, and at the same time it serves as a support to the hand and lower arm, as seen in the pictures. In the Spanish and Italian paintings from the 13th and 14th cencen- turies we find the finger protections on long, pointed swurds swords used for both cut and thrust. The index-finger crosses the fure-quillunfore-quillon just as on the Sassanian swurds.swords. The Berber tribes ofuf Benu Marin moving to the Iberian peninsula during the 12th and the 13th cencen- turies,introduceturies, introduce a cavalry sword with an extraordinarilyextraordmarily shortshurt grip. This type of cavalry sword is taken over by the Spanish jinetes. The so-called Boabdil-swordsBuabdil-swords adopt this short grip. The illustrations of the Italian fencing book by Achille Marozzo show the same manner of handing the sword, but the art of fencing at that time still is more cutting than thrusting. In the bookbouk of Camillo Agrippa the thrusting manner has come to play a more important role, the master having founded his system of fencing mainly upon the thrusting technic. The masters of fencing from the middle of the 16th century combine the methods of Oriental cavalry technic, where the index finger crosses the foremost quillon, with the Mediterranean infantryman's thrusting sword wlthwith shurt short grip, the importance of which is obviously testified from literary sources at least from 13th century. The rapiers and estocs first appear in Spain, but soon after they are in use in Italy. From these countries they are brought to France. During the 16th century the art of fencfenc- ing together with the Latin rapier crossed the Alps and was ex ex- panded over most parts of Central- and Western Europe. It inin- fluenced the development of the sword in the Germanic countries, but still during the 16th century a dividing line separates the Latin and the Germanic evolution of swords and rapiers.

DifferentDifferellt MentalitiesMelJl~lities

Though the Germanic lineline had itsits outspring in the Sarmate cavalry cut-and-thrust sword, it developed quite differently to the swords of the Latin line, because the peoples north of the Alps had simply another mentality and another way of understand-understand ing. The manner of cutting with the single edged scramasax was felt more natural to these peoples, who were from olden time a people of infantry.infantry. By degrees they turned into a cavalry people already during the 9th and 10thlOth century. About the middle of the 9th century the Franks for instance had become a people of cavalry. The literaryliterary sources have it,it, and thethe archaeological material agrees with the literature.lit.erature. The double edged broad-sword has come toto play a rather importantimportant rolerole all over Europe. But thethe evolution takes a way different to the Latin sword. Particularly from the end of thethe 13th century the Germanic sword grows still longer, heavier, with a longlong grip for two hands, long and as a rulerule straight quillons and a heavy pommel. The medieval one-and-a-half and two-handed swords are creations of the Germanic line. They are not unknown in the Latin countries but theythey never got such an importance as in the countries north of the Alps. To thethe South they were mostly in-in troduced by Swiss and German mercenaries. The evolution of thethe complex rapier guard with its numerous protective branches and bows differs from the Germanic evolution in spite of interactinginteracting influencesinfluences during the 16th and 17th centuries. It bears witness toto a fundamental difference Inin mentality between the Latin and Germanic peoples, a difference which roots as far back as inin prehistoric times. Through the ages it isis reflectedreflected inin theirtheir warfare and weapons. The outline of the evolution of thethe sword, presented in these pages, shows thatthat the historyhistory of thethe sword contains a multitude of problems, still unsolved.

Notes

1) Arthur J. Evans: The prehistoric tombs of Knossos. (Archaeologia(A rchaeologia 1903. Vol.Vo\. 59,59. p. 445 ff)ff); ; idem:idem: Palace of Minos. Vol.Vo\. IV,IV. p. 863 ff;ff: Fr. Matz: Kreta,Kreta. Mykene, Troja. 1957. P1.PI. 74. [With reproduction of rapier blades\;blades\: SpyridonSpyrldon Marinatos:Mal'inatos: Crete and Mycenae. 1960. PI.P\. 69, 112 etc. 2) T. D. Kendrick & C. F. C.C, Hawkes: Archaeology inin England and WalcsWales 1914-1931.1914 1931. 1932. PI. XI; EstynEstyll Evans: >>The»The sword-bearers<<. (Anti-(Anti quity 1930.1930. p. 157 ff);ff); H. N. Savory: >)The,,'fhe sword-bearers<<.sword-bearers<<- A re-intcr-rc-inter pretation. (Proceedings of thethe Prehist. Society, N. S. 1948. Vol. XIV, p. 115 ff).ff). 3) Ram6nRaman MenCdez-Pidal:Menedez-Pidal: Historia de Espafia.Espaiia. 1954. Tomo I, vol. 1.

[Swords[Swords andand daggersdaggers fromfrom Huelva p. 798798 fflff] GasparGaspar dede La-Chica: El armamento de los10s Iberos.Iberos. (Revista(Revista dede Archivos, Bibliotecas yy Museos. 1957.1957. Vol. 63,1, p. 309 ff).ff). 4) V. Gordon Childe: TheThe final Bronze Age inin thethe Near East andand inin temtem- perate Europe. (Proceedings of the Prehist. Society, N. S. 1948.1948. Vol. XIV, p. 177 ff). [With[With litt.] 5) C. F. C. Hawkes: From Bronze Age to Iron Age (ibidem p. 196196 ff). 6) J. Brondsted:Brandsted: Danmarks Oldtid. Copenhagen ]940.1940. Vol. IlI1 Bronze Age, vol. IIII11 Iron Age. [With reprod. of Hjortspring find p. 32 fig. 22].221. 7) Paul Couissin: Les armes Romaines. 1926. p. 489 ff. [Gladius[Gladius HispaHispa- niensis, vide p. 371 ff]. 8) Emilio SobrejanoSobrejano R. Rubi: Espadas de Espafia. (Arte Espafiol 1956. p. 204 ff,ff, p. 219). 9) E. Levi-Provenc;al:Levi-Proven~al:Un echangeCchange d'ambassades entre Cordoue et ByBy- zance au IXe siecle.si8cle. (Byzantion(Byzantion 1937.1937. p. 1-24).1-24). 10) N. Aberg:Wberg: Die Franken und Westgoten inin der Volkerwanderungszeit. 1922;1922; idemidem Die Goten und Langobarden inin Italien.Italien. 1923; Birger NerNer- man: Die Verbindungen zwischen Skandinavien und dcmdem Ost-BaltiOst-Balti- kum. 1929; WsewolCldWsewolad Arendt: Das Schwert der WiiringerzeitWaringerzeit inin RusRus- land. (Mannus 1933. Vol. 25, p. 155 ff). 11) A. Bruhn Hoffmeyer: Middelalderens tvereggedetveaeggede Svrerd. Svserd. 1954. Vol. I, p. 36 ff. 12) A. U. Pope: A survey of Persian art. 1939. Vol. VI, pl.pI. 1123.1423. 13) Jose Ferrandis Torres: Espadas granadinas de la gineta. (Arch. EspaEspa- ftolfiol de Arte. 1943. Tomo XVI). 14) D. Talbot Rice and Max Hirmer: The Art of Byzantium. ]959.1959. pI.pl. 99 ff. 15) J. A. Gaya NUllo:Nufio: El arte espafiol.espaiiol. 1946. fig. 2]5-217;215-217; Jacques Las Las- saigne: La peinture e::;pagnole.espagnule. 1952. pI.pl. 56. [Retable[Retable from Valencia before 1443].14431. 16) Giovanni Paccagnini:~kcca~nini:Simone Martini. Milano ]957.1957. p. 123 fig. 38, p. 127 fig. 42. 17) GayaGaya~ufio:NUllo: o. c. fig. 218. [Altarpiece[Altarpiece by Fernando Gallegos, now in Old Cathedral, Salamanca]. 18) J. Schwietering: Zur Geschichte von Speer og Schwert im 12. JahrJahr- hundert. (Mus. fiirfUr Hamburg. Geschichte 1912. p. 52 ff. [Examples for instance in Hortus DeliciarumDeliciarum].j. 19) W. Ginters: Das Schwert der Sky Skythenthen und Sarmaten. (Vorgesch. Forsch. 1928); Ellis H. Minns: Scythians and Greeks. 19]3;1913; M. 1.I. Rostovtzeff: The Iranians and Greeks in South Russia. 1922:]922: idem: Skythien und der Bosporus.Bo::;porus. 1931. 20) O.0. M. Dalton: The treasure of the Oxus. 1926. pI.pl. XIX. 21) Idem: o. c. p. XXVII fig. 10. 22) Ginters: o. c. pI.pl. 20. 23) Idem: o. c. pl.pI. 19, 21, 38. 24) Rostovtzeff: Une trouvaille de l'epoque Greco-Sarmate de Kertch. (Mon. Piot. 1923. p. 128 ff). 25) Idem: Le porte-epee des Iraniens et des Chinois. (Orient et Byzance 1930).- - 26) Idem (Mon. Piot. 1923. p. 128 ff). 27) 0.O. Janse: Notes sur quelques epees ancienncs trouvCestrouvees en Chine. (BUll.(Bull. Mus. Far Eastern Antiquities. Stockholm 1930). 28) F. Aussaresses: L'Armee Byzantine Aa la fin du VIe siecle. 1909;]909; F. Lot: L'Art militaire au Moyen Wge.Age. 1946.]946. Vol. I, p. 27 ff. 29) D. Talbot Rice and Max Hirmer: o. c. pl.pI. 667. 7.

30) Rostovtzeff: Dura-Europos and its art. 1938; Idem: Dura and the probprob- lemslems of Parthian art. 1935. p. 157 ff.; Idem (Excavations at DuraDura- Europos. Preliminary reports. Vol. 6). 31) H. Seyrig: Antiquitees Syriennes, armes et costumes iraniensiraniens de PalPal- myre. (Syria 1937. p. 4 ff). 32) A. U. Pope: o. c. Vol. IV, pI.pl. 205-207, 210-217, 229-233; Ginters: o. c. pI.pl. 34--35.34-35. 33) Ginters: Ginters: o. c. p. 8686 [with[with litt.]litt.] and pI.pl. 41.

13I13LIOGRAPHIEUIULIOGKAPHIE

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