View of Literature………………………………………..30

Home , Ants Marching, A Sure Thing, Caitlyn Jenner, Christopher Small, College Concert, Guitar Zero

AN EXPLORATION OF MUSICAL HABITS OF ALUMNI FROM

“THE LAKEWOOD PROJECT” AND HOW THEY MUSICK AFTER HIGH

SCHOOL

ELIZABETH AYLMER HANKINS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Music

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

May 2017

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES We hereby approve the dissertation of

Elizabeth Aylmer Hankins,

Candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy*

Committee Chair Dr. Nathan B. Kruse

Committee Member Dr. Matthew L. Garrett

Committee Member Dr. Kathleen A. Horvath

Committee Member Dr. G. Regina Nixon

March 29, 2107

*We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein

DEDICATION

To Trish My rock and my best friend and our loving girls Socks, Bella and Shelby. The best family anyone could ever ask for. To my first and most important teachers, my loving parents Dr. Christine A. Newton and Dan E. Hankins, who passed away months before my completion. I miss you!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LISTS OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………...... 10

LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………...... 11

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………….…………....12

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………….…………………..14

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………16

Participation in High School Music Courses…………………………………….16

Music Education addresses the Need for Relevancy…………………………….17

The Mission of Music Education………………………………………...... 20

Adult Music Making After High School……………………………...…………21

Current Adult Music Participation Trends……………………………………….25

Need for Study…………………………………...………………………………25

Musicking………………………………………………………………………..27

Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………..28

Research Questions………………………………………………………………29

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE………………………………………..30

Overview…………………………………………………………………………30

Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………..30

Situated Learning Theory………………………………………...……...... 30

Situated Learning Theory in Music Education………………………...... 33

Related Literature………………………………………………………...... 38

Why Students Choose to Play or Not to Play in College? ...... 39

Formal Music Learning…………………………………….…………………….44

Informal Music Learning………………………………………………...... 47

Reconciling Formal Music Learning and Informal Music Learning…...... 49

Classical Music…………………………………………………………………..50

Popular Music……………………………………………………………………52

Reconciling Classical Music and Popular Music………………………………...55

Summary…………………………………………………………………………57

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY………………………………………………..59

Purpose Statement………………………………………………………………..59

Research Questions…………………………...………………………………….60

The Qualitative Research Tradition……………………………………...... 60

Case Study Design……………………………………………………...... 62

Multiple Case Study or Collective Case Study…………………………………..64

Multiple Case Study and TLP……………………………………………………66

The Role of the Researcher………………………………………………………66

Researcher Bias…………………………………………………………………..66

Entry into the Field………………………………………………………………72

Bounding the Study……………………………………………………...... 73

The Setting……………………………………………………………….73

Events…………………………………………………………………….73

Processes………………………………………………………………....73

Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………...74

Data Collection Strategies………………………………………………………..74

Participant Interviews……………………………………………………75

Observations……………………………………………………………..76

Unobtrusive Data Sources………………………………………………..77

Data Analysis Procedures..………………………………………………………77

Trustworthiness…………………………………………………………………..80

Reliability………………………………………………………………...... 82

Limitations……………………………………………………………………….82

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS OF DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY….……………...... 83

Demographic Background…………………….………………………...... 83

CHAPTER FIVE; CASE STUDIES………………………………………………...... 93

David, The Movie Orchestrator: The Eager Student…………………………….93

Jeff, The Marketing Executive: Athlete and Class Clown……………………...108

Rachel, The Musicologist: The Concertmaster…………………………………123

Lenny, The Pizza Delivery Driver: The Apprentice……………………………134

John, The Sales and Marketing Association for a Music Talent

Agency: First True Garage Band Member………………………...... 138

Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………147

CHAPTER SIX: CROSS CASE ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION………….………..149 Musical Motivation……………………………………………………………..151 Voluntary Risk Taking in Pursuit of Music…………………………………….152 The Musical Zone…...………………………………………………...... 156 Camaraderie…………………………………………………………...... 161 Comparison of TLP Musicking Environment with Current Musicking Environment…………………………………………………………………….163 Democracy is Alive and Well……………………………………...... …………164

Formal and Informal Experiences…………………………………..…………..170 Formal Learning Experiences……………………………….………………….171 Informal Learning Experiences……………………………..…………………..173 Skills Missing from TLP Environment……………………………..…………..176 Giving Back……………………………………………………….……………177 Chapter Summary………………………………………………….…...... 182 CHAPTER SEVEN: ASSERTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS…………...…..…...... 184 A Well Trained Ear………………………………………...…...………………185 A Safe Environment……………………………..……………………...... 190 Arranging, Composing, and Improvising…………………………..…………..192 Public Musicking……………………………..………………………...... 198 Enabling Musicians to Evolve with Music……………………………………..201 Lifelong Musicking………………………..…………………….……...... 204 Environment……………………………..……………………………………...204 Skills……………………………………………………………...…………….204 Setting…………………………………………………………….…………….205 Implications for Music Education………………………………….…...... 205 Potential Role of Situated Learning Theory within a Secondary

Ensembles………..…………………………………………...... 207

Developing a Growth Mindset….…………..……………………...... 209

Environment………………………………………………………...…………..211

Democratic Collaboration…………………………………...………………….212 Use of Popular Music…………………………………………………...... 213 Voluntary Risk Taking-In a Safe Place………………………...………………214 Skills………………………………………………………………...………….215 Teaching Improvisation…………………………………...……………………216 Empowering Students to Compose……………………...……………...... 218

Learning to Arrange…………………………………………..………...... 219 Planning Concerts………………………………………………………………221 CHAPTER EIGHT: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH…………………………………….…………………………...224 Summary…………………………………..……………………………………224 Conclusions………………………………………………………..……………228 Suggestions for Future Research………………………………....…...... 230 APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………….232 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………...... 252

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Characteristics of Respondents………………………………………………..85

Table 5.1 Members of Jeff’s Indie Rock Band and How They Joined…….…………...116

Table 5.2 Members of Lenny’s Band Vessel of Mischievousnes………………...... 136

Table 5.3 Members of John’s Band The Four T’s……………………………………...142

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 Education Level of Respondents………………………………….………….87 Figure 4.2 Undergraduate Majors of Respondents…………….………………………...88 Figure 4.3 Graduate Majors of Respondents……….……………………………………88 Figure 5.1 David entering Horace Mann Middle School…………………………...... 97

Figure 5.1 Pre-concert Rehearsal...... 97

Figure 5.2 Private Lesson Studio…...... 99

Figure 5.2 Piano Lab…………………...... 99

Figure 5.2 Music Rehearsal Room………………………………………………...... 99

Figure 5.2 Recital Hall…………………………………………………….……...... 99

Figure 5.3 Jeff performing at Machine Gun Kelly Concert…………………………….113

Figure 5.4 Jeff’s Indie Rehearsal Space……………………………………….…...... 115

Figure 5.5 Jeff’s Indie Rehearsal Space……………………..………………………….116

Figure 5.6 Poster announcing Jeff’s concert at The House of Blues…………………...121

Figure 5.7 Picture of Kefka in the final battle from Final Fantasy V……………...... 130

Figure 5.8 The Rehearsal Space for Vessel of Mischievousness.……………...... 138

Figure 5.9 Truck and Trailer The Four T’s purchased to travel to gigs…………...... 143

Figure 5.9 The Four T’s Rehearsal Space (Center View)……………………...... 143

Figure 5.10 The Four T’s Rehearsal Space (Side View).………………………...... 143

Figure 7.1 Pachelbel’s’ Canon in D Bass Line………………………………...... 216

Figure 7.2 Pachelbel’s Canon in D Chord Progression………………………………...217

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It took a village to create this document and I am deeply grateful to those who have supported me through the process.

To my dissertation committee, Dr. Nathan B. Kruse, Dr. Matthew L. Garrett, Dr.

Kathleen A. Horvath, and Dr. G. Regina Nixon, I thank you for your time and efforts on my behalf. Your varied perspectives and counsel greatly improved this inquiry.

To my dissertation advisor, Dr. Nathan B. Kruse, I am truly grateful for your cheerleading, guidance, and mentorship. Your words were always meaningful, inspiring, and comforting. Words cannot express how much I appreciate you.

To Dr. Kathleen A. Horvath, thank you for encouraging me to pursue this degree.

Your encouragement, mentorship, and friendship were invaluable. I am looking forward to years of working together in the future.

To Dr. Matthew L. Garrett, your guidance and support throughout this dissertation have been invaluable.

To Dr. G. Regina Nixon, your social justice class changed my life as a teacher and made me a better person. Thank you for inspiring me to continue to be the best I can be.

To my colleagues at Case-Dr. Barry Hartz, Dr. Tammy Kuntz, and David Scalise

who supported me every step of the way. Thank you.

To my colleagues at Lakewood-Mrs. Patty Mullinax, Mrs. Mary Jo Mallchok,

Mrs. Renee Wagner, Mr. Clinton Steinbrunner, Mr. Peter Hampton, Domenic Farinelli

and Mrs. Anne Giffels- Thank you for always having my back and being dear friends.

To my students at Lakewood who encouraged and supported me every day. They

believed in me even more than I believed in myself at time.

To all of the alumni from The Lakewood Project- you inspired me every day to be a better teacher and person.

To my family- Mom, Dad, Trish, Jessica, Audrey, Maura, Paul, Socks, Bella, and

Shelby-Thank you for your unending support and love.

An Exploration of Musical Habits of Alumni from “The Lakewood Project” and How They Musick After High School By ELIZABETH AYLMER HANKINS

ABSTRACT The purpose of this multiple case study was to explore the musical habits of alumni from

The Lakewood Project (TLP), a high school rock orchestra whose alumni tend to participate in music making experiences after high school at a high rate. Two lenses were used to explore this phenomenon. First, Christopher Small (1999) defined musicking as a person contributing, in any capacity, to a musical performance or in any activity that adds to the human encounter of music. Second, Situated Learning Theory, a theory derived from the apprenticeship model, stating that students are more inclined to learn when actively participating in their learning. Both components have been the bedrock of TLP environment. Thus, the research questions in this study included (1) the ways in which

TLP alumni were motivated and enabled to musick after high school, (2) how TLP learning environment emulated their current musicking environment, (3) what aspects of formal music learning and informal music learning have they continued to use, and (4) what skills or knowledge were missing from their TLP experience.

This multiple case study was based on ethnographic data collection techniques and included five TLP alumni. Data were collected through observations, interviews, and participant artifacts. Codes and themes were assigned following data analysis. Themes included musical motivation, voluntary risk-taking, the musical zone, camaraderie, and democratic collaboration. Within-case and cross-case analysis produced overarching themes, including a well-trained ear; arranging, composing, and improvising; knowledge 14 of technology; and the ability to develop and implement performances. Unexpected findings included participants’ motivation to give back to younger musicians and their comfort with failure. Embracing failure as an opportunity to achieve greater success.

Because one mission of music education has been to enable students to continue musicking after high school, several compelling implications were drawn from this study.

Exposing students to formal and informal learning skills can empower them to make music in all settings and genres. Furthermore, teaching students to self-diagnosis musical problems; communicate musical concerns to others in a constructive way; and create scenarios that build confidence and empower them to take chances may lead to productive jobs and performances.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Graduation from high school symbolizes a pivotal moment in the lives of many young people. As the day approaches, some students may feel excitement and others fear, for the reality of embarking on a new journey is imminent and unpredictable. Until now, most events in their lives have been somewhat structured and predictable. Most have learned how to operate as individuals within a secure environment, usually overseen by parents, teachers, administrators, and coaches. Sports teams, music programs, and clubs are some of the structured environments in which students may have thrived during their years of schooling. As graduation approaches and as they sense that they are going to be leaving these familiar environments, students start making decisions about their

“education, work, peer group, leisure activities, cultural and political participation and family” (Chisolm & Hurrelman, 1995, p. 131), all of which may be impacted by some of the choices they made while still in high school.

Participation in High School Music Courses

According to Elpus and Abril (2011), only 21% of all American high school seniors in 2004 were members of their school band, choir, or orchestra. Of the 21% reported to be participating in a music ensemble, a large majority were female, white,

English-speaking, and in the top half of the socioeconomic quartile. These findings are

10% lower than Stewart’s (1991, as cited in Elpus & Abril, 2011) study, which indicated that 30.9% of high school seniors participated in a music performing ensemble. Some of the reasons for this decline included finances, race, and gender (1991). However, several music researchers (Allsup & Benedict, 2008; Hope, 2004; Isbell, 2007; Kratus, 2007;

O’Neill, 2012; Williams, 2011) believe that there are additional contributing factors for

16 this decline in music participation. They contend that if music educators do not add more diverse and relevant music-making opportunities and courses to complement traditional ensembles, participation may continue to decline (Allsup & Benedict, 2008; Isbell, 2007;

Kratus, 2007; ONeill, 2012; Williams, 2011, Woody, 2007).

Music Education Addresses the Need for Relevancy

The music education community has been discussing the need for relevancy dating back to 1967 with the creation of the Tanglewood Symposium Declaration

(Choate, Fowler, Brown & Wersen, 1967). One of the main tenets of this document was that music of all genres should be studied, because it is all types of music, especially popular music that is relevant to students. Another aspect that the Tanglewood authors addressed was the need for music educators to pay closer attention to the individual goals, desires, and abilities of each student in order to assist them in attaining said goals and future musical opportunities (Choate et al., 1967). The Tanglewood Symposium

Declaration served as a historic bedrock to inspire change in music education; however, little change occurred.

Over 30 years later in 1999, another group of music educators, researchers, and arts advocates gathered in Florida to discuss the future of the arts, and to make the recommendations outlined in the 1967 Tanglewood Symposium a reality. The result was a document entitled Vision 2020: The Housewright Declaration. The discussions were similar to 1967 and once again addressed the issue of musical relevancy. These conversations continue today as music educators and researchers (e.g., Jellison, 2000;

Kratus, 2007; Reimer, 2004) search for a ways to provide a musical education that is relevant, addresses individual desires and goals, and is meaningful and sustainable.

In the same year that 21% of high school seniors were reported to have

participated in their school band, choir, or orchestra, Bennet Reimer (2004), an important

figure in the field of music education, wrote, “The music education profession like others,

must engage itself in continual efforts to improve its effectiveness and viability” (p. vii).

Reimer is not alone in these sentiments. Kratus (2007) wrote an article entitled “Music

Education at the Tipping Point” in which he stated that “for music education to remain relevant and provide value, it too must change with the times” (p. 42). He cited a report by the Music for All Foundation of a 50% decline in the number of students taking music classes in the state of California during a 5-year period from 1999-2004, despite an overall increase in student enrollment of 5.8% within the district. Kratus (2007) surmised that one might attempt to blame this decrease on recurring school issues such as restricted budgets, No Child Left Behind, testing, or a lack of support for arts education, but during this same period of time in the state of California, enrollment in art, dance, and theater classes increased, which negates these possible explanations. Kratus (personal communication, October 1, 2016) surmised that the reason dance and theater enrollment increased was because of their use of popular music, which is more relevant to teenagers, like the Tanglewood Symposium suggested. As a result, Kratus (2007) lamented that this dramatic drop in music class enrollment could be attributed to music education’s detachment from today’s culture and lack of relevancy.

Allsup (2007) echoed the need for relevancy in the school music setting by encouraging music teachers to stop treating students as if they do not possess any musical knowledge and are simply waiting to be told what to do, and instead embrace democratic principles within the music classroom by empowering students to share their musical

18 experiences and to contribute to the process and product of the ensemble. This democratic approach to music making was one that Allsup (2003) documented during his study of two small instrumental ensembles that came together “to create music that was meaningful and self-reflective” (p. 24) in an attempt to bridge the gap between music in the classroom and music students enjoy outside of school. One ensemble was comprised of traditional band instruments, while the other consisted of electric guitar, bass, piano, and drums. Students who chose to play their traditional band instruments also elected to use classical music’s structure as a guiding principle. Eventually, after working independently and after much debate and lack of forward movement in the classical genre, they moved toward jazz, where they “had a lot less problems” (p. 32), because their music evolved as a group instead of individuals who attempted to work independently. In contrast, the non-traditional group jumped in immediately, choosing popular music as their genre. After watching these groups navigate the process of making music together, Allsup stated that “democratic learning seems to benefit both cognitive and skills based development while encompassing broad humanist values of fairness and equity” (p. 28). This suggests, then, that providing students a place to experiment with, think about, interact with, discuss, and make music can empower students to create music that is theirs and can motivate them to gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of music. This also suggests that informal music learning is a viable way of empowering students to interact with music.

As these prominent music education researchers call for relevancy, the inclusion of democratic principles within the classroom, and the need for school music to evolve with culture, other researchers have uncovered alternative programs that do not follow

the traditional performing ensemble structure that is typically found in most secondary

music programs (Abramo, 2010; Abril, 2010; Beitler & Thorton, 2010; Constantine,

2010; Gardner, 2010; Seifried, 2006; Tobias, 2012). Most of these examples can be found

in school settings and use popular music, informal music learning techniques, and/or

democratic learning techniques. As these educators venture into uncharted territory, and

as music researchers urge for reflection and possible change with regard to music education’s traditions, only time will tell if these new approaches and ideals will help music educators achieve one of the profession’s missions.

The Mission of Music Education

Scott C. Shuler, past president of the National Association for Music Education

(NAfME), formerly known as the Music Education National Conference (MENC), from

2010-2012, dedicated his message from the president articles in the Music Educators

Journal to the topic of music education for life. “The ultimate goal of music education is to empower our students to continue active musical involvement as adults” (Shuler, 2011, p. 11). Shuler was not the first NAfME/MENC president to use their position to refocus the profession on the mission of lifelong music involvement. June Hinckley, past MENC president, asked music teachers to widen their attention from K-12 school music to include community music programs in order to provide opportunities for people to keep music as an essential component of their lives (Hinckley, 2000). Constructing a bridge between school music and life after school has been a mantra dating back to John Dewey

(Tanner & Tanner, 2007). Roger Mantie (2012), a leading music education researcher in this area, took time to look back at the history of this objective. For years, the topic of connecting school music to music making after school was referred to as “carryover” (p.

22). Mantie found this term in the Music Educators Journal from the 1930s through the

1950s, and in empirical research studies from the 1940s through the 1970s (p. 22). The term carryover has faded but has been replaced by words like transfer (Jellison, 2000, p.11) and transition (Jellison, 2000, p. 5).

Adult Music Making after High School

Mantie (2012) was interested in tracking the history of researchers who investigated the topic of adult music making. He discovered a variety of viewpoints:

music making for senior adults (Coffman, 2002b; Coffman & Levy, 1997; Darrough &

Boswell, 1992; Ernst, 2001; Larson, 1983), adult reflections of their school music

experiences (Arasi, 2006; Chiodo, 1997; Flowers & Murphy, 2001; Holmquist, 1995;

Royse, 1990; Thornton, 2010; Turton & Durrant, 2002), examples of enduring learning

through adult music participation (Boswell, 1992; Dabback, 2007; Wilhjelm, 1998), the

benefits of music to enhancing adults’ quality of life (Coffman, 2002a, 2002b; Darrough,

1992; Ernst, 2001), the specific learning needs of the aging learner (Boswell, 1992;

Bowles, 1988, 2010; Kruse, 2009; McCullough, 1981; Olseng & Burley, 1987; Rohwer,

2009), specific traits of community music ensembles and its participants (Bell, 2000;

Bowen, 1995; Busch, 2005; Cavitt, 2005; Coffin, 2005; Coffman, 2009; Faivre-Ransom,

2001; Griffith, 2006; Heintzelman, 1988; Hosler, 1992; Martin, 1983; Patterson, 1985;

Spencer, 1996; Thaller, 1999; Vincent, 1997), and predictors in lifelong music learning in

music (Busch, 2005). The prolonged interest of researchers in lifelong music making has

kept the topic at the forefront of industry leaders when addressing the future of music

education and what that could look like. In the 1999 Housewright Symposium report,

notable educators such as Judith A. Jellison, from The University of Texas at Austin

presented a vision to guide the future of music education over the next 20 years.

Jellison (2000) was commissioned to write a paper for the MENC Vision 2020

book about how music education can help all people to continue to be involved in

meaningful music participation after formal K-12 schooling. In this paper, she stated that

“education is intended to improve the quality of life” (p. 3). In a response to Jellison’s paper, Carter (2000) questioned which musical skills and knowledge acquired in school music programs improve the quality of one’s life. For instance, learning a foreign language enables one to travel and navigate life in another country, which can improve one’s quality of life. Jellison did not proclaim to have the answer to this question. Instead, she stated that music educators should pay attention to the types of music making in which adults participate, whether alone or in groups, and, additionally, the future musical situations in which they may find themselves, such as being a musical advocate, listening to music, composing music, talking about music, or simply thinking about music.

Considering how people interact with music could provide educators the data they need to provide their students with the skills and the knowledge required to transition into those opportunities. In an attempt to comply with Jellison’s suggestion, Carter (2000) examined four adults who studied music in high school and continued to play after high school. Their profiles are discussed below.

Adult Vignettes

The first person in Carter’s study (2000) was a pianist who learned music outside of school and continues to perform as an adult, but does not see any connection between her in-school general music classes and her involvement in music today. She did feel,

22 however, that her education on the piano was important and vital to her success as an adult pianist. She only wished that in high school, she could have had the opportunity to accompany others or participate in a pop or rock ensemble.

The second participant a mellophone and baritone horn player in high school. He continued to play mellophone in his college marching band, but stopped after college. At the time of the study, he had neither participated in music since college nor attended any concerts. In fact, he did not have his children participate in music because he did not see the relationship between performing music and his current life circumstance. He did, however, possess a large CD collection of rock and pop music, which he enjoyed immensely.

The third was a talented vocalist in high school who had a number of solos and was an active participant in musical theater. He loved his musical experiences in high school and only wished that there had been more opportunities such as madrigals, swing choirs, jazz choirs, pop choirs, and quartet singing. The participant indicated that if he had had more opportunities, it would have afforded him the ability to participate in adult music making experiences even as a high schooler. Despite this lack of diversity in his high school music education, he continued to pursue active music making in community choirs, church choirs, and musicals; however, he was not able to read music, so this interfered at times with his ability to participate seamlessly in groups where others could read music, hence providing a hurdle when sight-reading or learning large works in a short period of time.

The fourth person was primarily a self-taught guitar player who fancied rock and roll and occasionally sought private instruction from a local music store. Guitar was not

offered in high school, so this was his only way of advancing his musical interests.

Following high school graduation, he continued to make music in garage bands and attend rock concerts while owning an extensive CD collection. He possessed a great ear

and loved to improvise, although he did not see any crossover between school music and

his current musical involvement.

The four preceding vignettes (Carter, 2000) offer an interesting and compelling

discovery. Of the four adults, the three who followed unconventional paths to music continued to make music following their high school education, and the one who followed a traditional school music path did not continue to perform after college and did not encourage his children to perform. Two of Carter’s examples learned outside of their respective school music programs and continued to play, while the third did participate in choir but did so without ever learning how to read music, a fundamental objective of school music (Duckworth, 2013; Gordon, 2012; Liperote, 2006; Woody, 2012). Carter argued that music education’s goals are “much too narrow (as) they do not relate to the whole spectrum of music” (p. 14). Jellison (2000) agreed with Carter, stating that music educators need to design “meaningful school experiences that will increase opportunities for students to make real choices in their musical lives” (p. 22). Carter urged that in order to create meaningful school experience that will help students make real choices as they transition into adulthood, music education must widen its lens in order to equip students with the skills and knowledge that enable them to evolve with the entire spectrum of music, not just prepare them for school music (Carter, 2000). With our current approach to music education in the secondary schools, which typically revolves around teaching students to perform in bands, orchestras, or choirs (Kratus, 2007; Williams, 2011), it

seems that more and more generations may not be equipped to function within the current

trends of adult music participation. This perception, in part, was affirmed in a 2012

survey of adult music participation trends.

Current Adult Music Participation Trends

In 2012, The National Endowment of the Arts conducted a national survey of

public participation in the arts (SPPA) because they were interested in looking at adult

participation in the arts within the past decade. The SPPA, a periodic supplement to the

Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey (CBCP), is sent to 60,000 households in a predetermined month, and has been since 2002. As a result of this mailing, 35,735 completed surveys were received from randomly selected adults in 2012. This survey averages a 71% response rate when distributed. Survey results indicated that between

2002 and 2008, there was a sharp decline in adult attendance at arts events, but that

attendance remained steady from 2008 to 2012 (Silber, 2015). Most people listened to

music via TV, the Internet, or a handheld device, and 46.9% of the music consumed was

Rock, Pop, Country, Folk, Rap, or Hip-Hop, as compared to Jazz at 11.8% and Classical

Music at 13.6%. The survey also indicated that adult interest in learning music increased

by 5% between 2002 and 2012. To feed this interest, 28.3% of all respondents enrolled in

lessons or a music class at an educational institution and 19.8% advanced their musical

education through informal learning styles like copying or learning from a friend (Silber,

2015). Based on these results, it appears that adults have an interest in learning music.

How they choose to continue pursuit of this interest, however, is not readily aligned with the structure of school music.

Need for the Study

Over the past several decades, music education researchers have begun to

determine why and how adults make music after high school, in order to provide data for current music educators so they can prepare high school students to participate in music after graduation. Exploring these types of decisions was the type of research to which

Jellison had previously referred (2000). A number of studies have examined whether college students continue in music (Bishop, 2015; Busch, 2005; Delano & Royse, 1987;

McClarty; 1968; McDavid; 1999; Milton, 1982; Mountford, 1977; Stewart, 2007), and few researchers have investigated individual adult musicians who do not share membership in a performing ensemble such as college group or community band

(Bishop, 2015; Busch, 2005; Casey, 1994; Clothier, 1967; Delano & Ryse, 1987;

McClarty, 1968; McDavid, 1999; Milton, 1982; Mountford, 1977; Stewart, 2007). After college, there are two broad categories in which adult musicians have tended to participate. The first is musical settings that are direct extensions of K-12 offerings (e.g., band, choir and orchestra). The second is musical settings that are not direct extensions of

K-12 experiences. It appears that few have investigated adults who make music within one of the above broad categories. Smilde (2008) investigated four professional musicians, all of whom participated in offerings that were extensions of school music, and Thornton (2010) examined three adult musicians who participated in music making activities that were not directly linked to K-12 offerings. However, in addition to investigating adult musicians’ participation in direct or indirect extensions of the K-12 classroom, perhaps researchers should seek a definition or word that encompasses both extensions as well as encapsulates a more rich inclusive purpose of music. One such word is musicking, coined by Christopher Small (1995).

Musicking

Christopher Small was an educator, lecturer, and author from New Zealand,

whose fields of interest included musicology, sociomusicology, and ethnomusicology.

Small (1995) believed that “the essence of music lies in the performance” (p. 2) and “the

performance is an encounter between human beings in which they relate to each other”

(p. 2). In this sense, music is being used as a verb, not as a noun. Small’s dedication and

passion to the new use of the work music, led him to coin the term “musicking” (p. 2).

Small’s (1999) definition of musicking was “to take part in any capacity, in a musical performance…to perform, to listen, to provide material for performance (composing), to prepare for a performance (practicing or rehearsing), or to take part in any activity that can affect the nature of that style of human encounter which is a musical performance”

(p. 12). This definition lends itself to the relationships that are experienced as a result of music. Small’s example of a symphony performing in a concert hall demonstrated the human relationships, or sometimes lack of relationships, that exist within this setting. The musicians perform the music for the audience, but do not have any contact with the audience. Instead, the symphony musicians perform the music, and as they play, each individual audience member sits quietly, listening intently, not talking to others, and creates his or her own personal meaning of the music (Small, 1995). In contrast, a band performing at a bar may dialogue with the patrons who are listening to their performance.

Additionally, audience members might dance alone, or with others, which is usually not a response that audience members exhibit during a symphony orchestra concert. Each relationship that exists is unique, but is created because of the act of performing music, or

“musicking.”

When viewing music as a verb, not a noun, the act of lifelong musicking is much

more palatable and meaningful for students. It broadens the purpose as well as the environments that teachers can use to teach and experience music with their students. If

Small’s (1995) definition of musicking is coupled with the Tanglewood Symposium document, the likelihood of achieving Shuler’s music education for life goals appear

attainable.

Now with a new lens in reviewing a need for this study, no known research has

explored an individual secondary music program that produces a large number of

graduates who continue to music after high school in both broad categories: direct

extensions of school music and activities that are not usually connected to K-12 music

offerings. Furthermore, researchers have not had many opportunities to evaluate the

lifelong music patterns of graduates who participated in an alternative music program that combines formal music learning with informal music learning, embraces the music with which students identify (Allsup, 2007), and broadens the types of music played to include those important to adults (Carter, 2000; Jellison, 2000). Educational environments such as this might allow researchers to delve into some of the profession’s more controversial topics such as formal music learning vs. informal music learning, classical music vs. popular music, and democratic vs. autocratic instruction to see if including a mixture of these approaches has an impact on the profession’s mission to build lifelong musical engagement.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this multiple case study was to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between participation in an alternative school music programs and lifelong

music making. Participants in this study were past members of “The Lakewood Project”

(TLP), a unique high school musical learning environment that combines formal music learning via private lessons with informal music learning as it relates to rock music.

Members advance their personal musical abilities outside of school, and then come together to share their knowledge, ideas, and problem-solving as a group, much like a rock band. As revealed in a previous study (Koops, Hankins, Scalise, & Schatt, 2014) involving TLP members, 71% of TLP alumni continued to engage in lifelong music making opportunities after graduating from high school. The current researcher sought to determine how different learning contexts may have enhanced the participants’ ability and desire to continue making music after high school. Data were collected through an initial survey of all TLP alumni, and then via interviews, observations, and collection of artifacts involving five TLP alumni.

Research Questions:

1. In what ways, if any or at all, did alumni’s experiences in TLP influence their

motivation and ability to continue making music after high school?

2. In what ways, if any, did the learning environment of TLP emulate or differ from

their current musicking environments?

3. What formal and informal music experiences in high school impacted TLP alumni

participation in music after high school?

4. What skills and content were missing from TLP experiences that would have been

helpful to alumni’s current musical endeavors?

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Overview

The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of alumni from a high school music ensemble who have elected to continue making music after graduation from high school. This particular rock ensemble consists of string players, electric guitar players, electric bass players, keyboard players, and percussionists. The learning context includes aspects of both formal and informal learning techniques as well as the use of popular and classical music. Because of these attributes, the review of literature contained here begins with a discussion of the theoretical framework in which this study is based,

“Situated Learning Theory,” a theory of learning where learning occurs while participating in real-life activities. In this structure, the acquisition of knowledge and skills is not intentional, but instead is acquired through legitimate peripheral participation. This is followed by a review of several studies that indicate, in part, why students elect to continue, or not to continue playing their instrument after high school.

The subsequent sections will address formal music learning, informal music learning, classical music and popular music.

Theoretical Framework

Situated Learning Theory

During a brainstorming session in the halls of the Institute for Research on

Learning, Lave and Wenger (1991) honed in on the benefits of an older form of learning:

“apprenticeship.” They sought to examine and maintain the idea of apprenticeship within the realm of education and developed the concept of “Situated Learning Theory: (SLT)

Legitimate Peripheral Participation.” In the middle of the brainstorming session, Lave and Wenger made connections between “learners as apprentices, about teachers and computers as masters and about cognitive apprenticeship, apprenticeship learning, and even life as apprenticeship” (p. 29). As they reflected upon these different paradigms, they believed that an essential component to STL is that learning was contextually fixed, and that it was much more nuanced than apprenticeship or “learning by doing” (p. 31).

Learners were members of a community whose learning began peripherally, a concept they called legitimate peripheral participation (LLP).

Peripherality is a social structure, in this case a learning community, where one moves through different positions of power or responsibility, hence growing in involvement. The act of intentional instruction (i.e., execution of a pre-planned lesson) does not exist in traditional sense; instead, activities undertaken by the learning community, which typically includes a “master,” aim to promote understanding. Learning is the process by which “the learner internalizes knowledge whether discovered, transmitted by others or through experienced in interactions” (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p.

47). This is an important distinction in SLT, as the phrase “learning by doing” is one that many music educators recognize. Elliott (1995) referred to experiential learning as a central component of his philosophy of music education. There is one major difference between Lave and Wenger’s (1991) concept of “learning by doing” and Elliott’s (1995), and that is that situated learning activities relate to real-world situations. According to

Lave and Wenger (1991), it is this connection to real-world settings that motivate and create connections for participants as they seek knowledge and the development of skills so that they can move forward within these communities of learning. In contrast, Elliot

(1995) clearly stated that he believed the purpose of the music education curriculum was

to create an environment where students could enjoy their efforts to make “real-music”:

It does not attempt to duplicate real-world practices, because the aim of music

education is not to educate all students for careers as professional musicians. The

curricular goal is to organise music classrooms and programs as effectively and

genuinely as possible by simulating the ways in which musicing and listening are

carried out by artistic musical practitioners (p. 270).

The difference between SLT and Elliot’s view of the music education experience,

is that

Elliot favors an environment where students gather to make music by “doing it” and

relish in the joy and excitement one feels in the process. While SLT is not a pedagogy, it

is simply the process of learning through understanding and can incorporate behaviors

beyond doing, including observing, conversing, and evolving as a person within a

community where members can rise in power, responsibility, and ability. The end

product at times may be the same; however, SLT is based on the apprenticeship model,

where the goal is functioning within a real-life situation at the highest level possible.

Learning communities and how they function are not entirely new to education.

SLT a social and cultural world regards “learners as active participants within that influences and is influenced by them, as they continue to adapt, to evolve and to learn”

(Quay, 2003, p. 106). Dewey (1997) expressed a similar idea, stating that “every genuine experience has an active side which changes in some degree the objective conditions under which experiences are had” (p. 39). Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts are examples of these types of learning communities. Novices join as Cub Scouts or Brownies, and as

they evolve and learn from the more seasoned members through group activities, they

advance through levels of involvement that could ultimately result in a member becoming

a Scout Leader. Lave and Wenger (1991) were not the first to recognize that learning

occurs through participation. What makes their theory unique is that learning is

“relational, not an individual process” (Linehan & McCarthy, 2000, p. 437). As a result,

learning is participating in a socially acceptable field, where individuals “move from

being at the fringes of a community to engaging in more centralized performances in that

community” (p. 437). This organic form of learning can be found in a variety of

situations, although the key is peeling back the layers to uncover the legitimate peripheral

participation (LLP) that occurs.

SLT has been used as a theoretical framework in a variety of settings. These

settings include organizational management and human decision making of the transfer

of knowledge within a firm (Argote & Ingram, 2000); entrepreneurial learning in family

business (Hamilton, 2011); management education (Fox, 1997); nursing (Cope,

Cuthbertson, & Stoddart, 2000); adult education (Marsick & Watkins, 2001; Schell &

Black,1997); enhancing socialization and self-regulation in higher education

(McLoughlin & Luca, 2006); and sports education (Kirk & Kinchin, 2003), among

others. Of particular interest to the current study is how SLT pertains to music education.

Situated Learning Theory in Music Education

In the field of music education, SLT has been applied to a variety of settings.

Jorgensen (2000) discussed student responsibility in learning in higher education instrumental settings. Jorgensen referred to a 1996 document authored by Klaus Nielsen,

who reported a study about transferring responsibility for musical independence from the

teacher to the student. It is referred to as “scaffolding” (Jorgensen, 2000) and “is

associated with Lev Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development” (p. 71). In regarding the three stages through which a conservatory pianist progressed while developing musical independence. According to Nielsen (1996), there were three stages through which conservatory pianists progressed while developing musical independence. The first stage

was dominated by the teacher. The student was placed in a peripheral position and was

discouraged from asking critical questions. During this stage, each student was required

to internalize the teacher’s way of playing prior to asking any questions. The second

stage involved the pianists being placed in different communities of musical engagement

within the conservatory. Stage two students were placed in groups, where students

explored the use of their musical skills in a variety of musical settings. The students were encouraged to be reflective as they transitioned to the final stage, which incorporated their use of independent music skills within a professional context (e.g., as teachers, as

performers outside of the academy). Students began to see themselves as musicians.

Nielsen (1996) related these stages of learning to Lave and Wenger’s (1991) SLT model.

Conkling (2007) used SLT for preservice teacher professional development.

Conkling (2007) asserted that placing preservice music teachers within a real-life school

context (i.e., a professional development partnership site) to observe seasoned music

teachers from the sidelines was an excellent way for them to be immersed in active

settings, without the responsibilities of teaching. Preservice teachers watched the school

students, the teacher, and the interactions between the two during lessons. They

mentioned the high level of musical skills the teacher possessed. They commented on

how the teacher was able to assist individual students with vocal technique, coach the

ensemble, and maintain classroom order because the teacher had all of her music

memorized and was able to focus on the moment instead of being tied in a musical score.

Preservice teachers also recognized the varying levels of ability between the students. All

of these observations became part of the preservice music teacher’s memory as they

advanced closer to the act of teaching music. In addition to observing music rehearsals, preservice music teachers met with the master teacher and asked questions about the classroom events they saw and heard. Establishing this type of two-way communication permitted the preservice music teachers to connect their content knowledge to actual settings with a practicing music teacher who could explain in real time how and why things happened in the lesson. This helped them transfer their college curriculum into practice (2007).

Eventually, the preservice music teachers began to take on small teaching responsibilities within the professional development partnership site (e.g., planning and teaching warm-ups, planning and teaching sight-singing, working with individual students on solo and ensemble material). In addition to providing preservice music teachers with classroom observations and experiences, they participated in staff meetings, interacted with administration, parents, and fellow teachers, as well as assumed some of the paperwork responsibilities of music teachers. This type of situated comprehensive field experience enabled preservice music teachers to “become a different kind of person”

(Conkling, 2007, p. 48) through learning from experts, productive teaching opportunities, and joint critical reflection. These types of learning communities promote learning as a change; “change to persons, to practices, and to communities of practice” (p. 48.)

Through legitimate peripheral participation (LPP), the preservice music teachers were

involved in the process, which can help them “develop a clearer image of the kind of

teachers they want to be” (Conkling, 2007, p. 44).

Recent advancements in technology have created other avenues for exploring

SLT. Partti and Karlsen (2010) gathered data over 7 months from an online community called Mikseri, which specialized in sharing copyright free music created by its members.

Members shared music and sought suggestions from other members. This community’s

strong allegiance to each other was propelled “through their joint activities of sharing

music, as well as music related knowledge and skills” (p. 375). This is an excellent

example of the types of LPP learning that can occur because of technology. Members can

join a site, a community, or a blog, and can interact as little or as much as they like. They

can be novice musicians or professionals. As they advance their learning through

observation, conversation, and personal experimentation, they may elect to take a more

active role within the community. The existence of a participatory culture via one’s home

computer can transform consumers into participants (Booth, 1999; Bowman, 2005;

Regelski, 2007; Reimer, 2003; Tobias, 2015). This transformative process may call for

school music to become more relevant and to offer similar types of learning

environments within the school setting.

One musical community that has received special attention from music education

researchers over the past several years is that of the garage band, which sometimes

emulates an apprentice-type setting. According to Green (2002, 2004), popular music

bands are microcosms of social structures where learning and making music are done

with the intention of satisfying real-life situations like personal music interests,

performing gigs, creating and composing music, and generating overall motivation and

enjoyment of participating in music. The activity of participating and making music in

this way is “connected to a larger activity scale-community and culture” (Westerlund,

2006, p.123). These types of participatory communities, which resemble apprenticeships, are attractive to students as they tend to be welcoming and inclusive, and are able to provide a platform for growth by acquiring knowledge and understanding from their personal world (O’Neil, 2012). As Westerlund stated, “Expertise is more likely to flourish in communities where students support one another in knowledge construction and where, at the same time, they develop collective expertise that can be distinguished from the expertise that individual students may have” (p. 122). These types of

communities may be what Juntunen, Karlsen, Kuoppamak, Laes, and Muhonen (2014)

envisioned when they asked music educators to visualize imaginary settings where their

students were able to make music and how they, as teachers, could equip them with the

future skills they needed in to order to function in those spaces. Based on the Green’s

description of how rock band communities function, one could envision creating an in-

school model where the teacher is present and their role might shift to facilitator and co- learner instead of director. This supports Lave and Wenger’s (1991) assertion that

“mastery resides not in the master but in the organization of the community of practice of which the master is part” (p. 94).

A final area of music making that has been examined through the lens of SLT is that of informal music learning in the context of everyday lives of children and adults.

The playground is one such place outside of school where children embark in informal music making (Harwood, 1998). Harwood discovered that it was commonplace for children to choose which songs were to be sung, which games were to be played, and in

what styles the songs and games were to be executed. Her participants functioned in differing roles such as music maker and learner. There were identifiable newcomers and old-timers in the community, and layers of periphery were visible through the act of participating or as an onlooker. Batt-Rawden and DeNora (2005) studied how adults used music in their everyday lives to promote social enculturation, health, and emotion well-being. In this study, the authors showed how communities learned to use music in order to create social events, satisfy personal and emotional needs of the participants, enhance exercise routines, and improve mind and body wellbeing whether through music and medicine or simply in promoting well-being (2005).

Related Literature

Because TLP is a hybrid music learning environment that incorporates formal music learning with informal music learning and classical music with popular music, it is important to review the literature that is available in each of these areas. Through careful examination of each topic, the goal is to uncover as many defining characteristics as possible in order to develop a complete understanding of which traits align with each category. This will make recognizing said traits in the field easier and may provide the clarity needed to articulate the findings of this study.

Some secondary music students in the United States advance his or her musical study through formal education, which can be different from their ancestors and counterparts around the world (Campbell, 1991; Hargreaves & North, 2001; Woody &

Lehmann, 2010). Students who participate in school bands, orchestras, and choirs tend to perform challenging music written by some of the greatest music composers from the

Western Canon. They can compete for ratings as individuals and as members of a larger

group. They often share their passion for music within the school and their communities

through marching band, jazz band, show choirs, and pep bands. All of these experiences

require hard work and dedication, and usually culminate in excitement and pride for students’ accomplishments. Many student musicians might consider these memories the best of their high school years and eagerly await seeing their music friends during reunions (Morrison, 2001).

These are all worthwhile notions, but for many students, they appear to cease upon graduation from high school. Why does this occur when the profession is renewing its focus toward lifelong music making? How do issues of access and interest play a role in continued music making experiences in adulthood? The following review of related literature broaches these issues, among others, and addresses more specifically considerations surrounding formal and informal music learning as well as classical and popular music styles. These facets are integral to the current study on TLP alumni’s perceptions of musical participation in and out of school.

Why Students Choose to Play or Not to Play in College

Music researchers have been interested in uncovering what motivates students to participate or not participate in music making beyond high school. College band directors have been studying this topic for years as “higher education in the United States has become an exceedingly competitive industry” (Stewart, 2007, p. 1), and recruiting the best and “most talented musicians has been a concern of college band directors for years and is becoming more and more difficult (p. 1). Stewart focused on first-year college students and the factors influencing their nonparticipation in college band. He included an exhaustive review of literature detailing the reasons why students play in college and

why students elect not to play. Many of the reasons have been similar for decades (2007).

Reasons that students elected to continue making music as first-year college students included playing in 12th grade (Clothier, 1967); practicing a lot in high school (Clothier,

1967); participating in solo and ensemble (Clothier, 1967; Delano & Royse, 1987);

participating in chamber music in high school (Clothier, 1967); feeling they were the best

musicians in high school (Clotheir, 1967; Delano & Royse, 1987; Milton, 1982); owning

their own instrument (Clothier, 1967); enjoying the social aspects of ensemble playing

(Casey; 1994; Delano & Royse, 1987; McClarty, 1968); desiring to further the skill

development (McClarty, 1968); loving band (Casey, 1994; Delano & Royse, 1987;

McClarty, 1968; Milton, 1982); having a positive image of the college band

(McClarty,1968); deciding to continue while still in high school (McClarty, 1968; Milton,

1982 Mountford, 1977); playing in church( Mountford, 1977); being advised by their

private teacher to continue (Mountford, 1977); sitting in the top third of the section in

high school (Mountford, 1977); continuing because of parents and friends encouragement

to do so (Milton, 1982; Mountford, 1977); thinking the time commitment between high

school band and college band would be the same (Mountford, 1977); being encouraged to

continue by high school director ( Delano & Royse, 1987; Milton, 1982); taking lessons

(Delano & Royse, 1987; Milton, 1982); being able to participate without playing an

audition (Casey, 1994) and meeting the college band directors when the visited my high

school (Casey, 1994).

Some of the reasons given as to why they chose not to continue included feeling

academic pressure (Clothier, 1967; Milton 1982); preferring to listen to music over

performing (Clothier, 1967); having conflicts with other things (Mc David, 1982;

Stewart, 2007); losing interest in playing (McDavid, 1999; Stewart, 2007); deciding in high school (McClarty, 1968; McDavid, 1999); participating was discouraged by parents

(Mountford, 1977; Stewart, 2007); not participating in solo and ensemble or chamber music (Mountford, 1977); disliking band (Mountford, 1977); not discussing continuing with high school band director (Mountford, 1977); taking private lessons for a short period of time (Mountford, 1977); not wanting to audition (McDavid, 1999; Stewart,

2007); having less out of school time (Mountford, 1977); sitting in the lower third of the section in high school (Milton, 1982; Mountford, 1977); feeling as though it is not import (Mountford, 1977); not owning an instrument (Mountford, 1977; Stewart, 2007); being told by the high school director that they were not good enough to continue

(Mountford, 1977); not being advised or asked by their advisor if they wanted to play in band (Milton, 1982); not being aware of the possibility of participating (Milton, 1982;

Stewart, 2007); feeling concerned about time commitment (McDavid, 1999; Stewart,

2007); having a negative high school band experience (McDavid, 1999; Stewart, 2007).

In a more recent study, Bishop (2015) focused on highly skilled orchestra students’ decision to continue making music after high school. He concentrated on (a) intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, (b) parental musicianship and support of musical study,

(c) director influence, and (d) socioeconomic status. Bishop was perplexed as to why students who work so hard to achieve a high level of musical skill on their stringed instrument cast it aside when they enter college. This narrative study chronicled the lives of three students, two female and one male. All three students loved music at one point in their lives and found it fun. However, somewhere along their journey of transitioning from high school to college, they found reasons not to join the college orchestra. Some of

their many reasons echoed those found in previous research. They included not owning

an instrument (Bishop, 2015; Stewart, 2007); losing interest (Bishop, 2015; Stewart,

2007); demanding college major and/or advisor discouraged adding music to the schedule

(Bishop, 2015; Stewart, 2007); lacking access to a non-music major orchestra; and lacking knowledge about how to audition for the college orchestra, but did not actively seek information either (Bishop, 2015; Stewart, 2007). Of the three participants in

Bishop’s study, only one continued to play in college, but as a student in a private studio not associated with the college. The student relished playing solo repertoire, and his high school private teacher helped make a connection to a private teacher near the college. His

parents even purchased and transported his string bass to college so their child could play

for his personal enjoyment. This participant stated that he found value and joy in taking

private lessons and performing solos, but that he was sure that as soon as the enjoyment

ended, he would discontinue playing. He did leave open the slight possibility of joining

the college orchestra the following year, however, if time allowed.

As music education researchers continue to seek information to help them

accomplish what many in the profession believe to be part of their mission enabling

lifelong music making (Hinckley, 2000; Jones, 2009; Mantie, 2008; Myers, 2007, 2008;

Shuler 2011), after high school, Busch (2005) sought to identify the predictors’ of

lifelong music learning by surveying adult members of community college performing

ensembles. Busch surveyed 352 adults who were participating in various performing

ensembles at six randomly selected community colleges in Illinois. A previous study of

community college students conducted by the same researcher indicated that there was a

decrease in music participation between elementary school and high school during formal

school music. Replicating these results, which also were found by other researchers

(Busch, 2002; Constantine, 2011; Jellison, 2000; Larsen, 1983), led Busch to ask why

people continue in music and in the ways in which they continue to learn through

participation in music. This new approach included looking into non-formal and informal

ways of learning through music. Busch (2005) defined non-formal music learning as

“learning in music that takes place alongside the mainstream systems of education and training, and which does not typically lead to formalized certificates or degrees” (p. 20).

She continued by giving examples where non-formal music learning takes place, such as community centers, community colleges, youth organizations, and churches, and cited

Coffman (2002c) and Bessenyei (2002) as resources for the definition (Busch, 2005).

Informal music learning, as defined by Busch (2005) with the help of Conner (2002), was

described as “learning in music that is not necessarily intentional and serves as a means

by which individuals acquire attitudes, values, skills and knowledge in and toward music

from daily experiences and resources in one’s environment such as family and friends,

work and play…” (2005, p. 21). Some of these non-formal and informal ways included

listening to the radio; purchasing music; talking about music with others; promoting

community and professional musical events; humming; supporting fundraisers that

benefit music education, public radio, or television; advocating for music education;

belonging to a music club; surfing the internet in order to learn about music; visiting

music stores; attending various concerts; and practicing by themselves (2005).

Findings from Busch’s (2005) follow-up study suggested that participants: (a)

continued to learn through music because they enjoyed listening, playing, and talking

about music with others who share the same interest; (b) preferred making music or

43 listening to others make music over formal classroom music course; (c) learned music in phases, from early childhood using informal learning strategies, to formal education in schools, to the non-formal setting of the community college; (d) believed that the learning process was continual, starting with trial and error and ending with encouragement from mentors; (e) felt that encouraging people was the most important ingredient; (f) perceived that past musical experiences foretold which musical settings individuals felt most comfortable; (g) believed that the community college setting offered a structured setting that was diverse in age, ability, and variety; and (h) enjoyed making, listening to, seeking, and purchasing music.

Ultimately, Busch (2005) recommended that music educators expose their students to as many musical settings and genres as possible in order to establish a broad platform from which musicians can choose during life transitions. She also stated that her participants primarily were interested in performing, rather than participating in history, theory, composing, or music appreciation classes. Busch also urged college communities, and the music education profession as whole, to establish structured musical ensembles for adults that are sensitive to their work schedules and family lives, are cost effective, and are non-threatening, positive, and encouraging, yet appropriately challenging.

Formal Music Learning

In the 1950s, music education in the United States shifted from a focus on music appreciation to large group performing ensembles such as bands, orchestras, and choirs

(Leonhard, 1999). With this shift toward performing groups, most school music programs adopted formal music learning as the platform for teaching music. There are several defining characteristics of this model. Typically, teachers lead the way in formal music

learning. They chose the music to be performed, conducted the students, and planned all

of the musical drills and content for each rehearsal (Isbell, 2015). The primary vehicle of

delivering music to the students in this mode is through notation, and the overarching

goal is to reproduce existing music (Isbell, 2015). Often, teachers consult the National

Standards for Music Education (or other state music standards) when preparing lessons

for their rehearsals. These standards, originally created in 1974 were published by the

Commission on Instruction and The National Council of State Supervisors in Music –

“The School Music Program: Descriptions and Standards” (Mark, 1995), and have

evolved over time. The standards were revised by the then Music Education National

Conference (MENC) in 1994, who outlined a model music curriculum and guidelines for teachers to implement this curriculum, examples of appropriate musical experiences for children of all ages and groups, as well as recommends for scheduling, equipment, and facilities (Mark, 1995). MENC attempted to provide as many resources and guidelines for

music teachers so that programs could “improve quality,” be “consequential, and

“measure music learning” (Mark, 1995, p. 38). However, as society has changed, so have the standards. The most recent edition of the National Standards for Music Education was released in 2014, and is substantially different from its predecessor. Now the outcomes

(formerly called standards) focus on musical processes such as creating, performing and

responding to music using the following steps: imagine, plan and make, evaluate and

refine, and present (http://www.nafme.org/wp-

content/files/2014/11/StandardsComparison_REVISED2.pdf), instead of musical

products such as the acquisition of skills and knowledge (http://www.nafme.org/wp-

content/files/2014/11/StandardsComparison_REVISED2.pdf) (Appendix G). As opposed

to the old standards which stated singing performing, improvising, composing, reading,

listening, analyzing, evaluating, and understanding (http://www.nafme.org/wp- content/files/2014/06/Archived-1994-Music-Standards.pdf) (Appendix F). The 2014 were developed in promote understanding and independence. These outcomes (i.e., standards) are essential to formal learning, as they are the guides that can assist teachers in planning, pacing, and delivering the progression of skills necessary to play or sing music from the Western Canon. However, instead of being able to check off a standard as accomplished, teachers and students will instead be exercising their musical brain via the processes listed in the 2014 standards with the goal of becoming fluent and hopefully stimulating a life of music making (Shuler, 2011).

Another defining characteristic of formal music learning is the venue in which performing groups perform. Most concerts are held in an auditorium or gymnasium

(Isbell, 2015), where audience members usually sit with programs, listen intently, and

show their appreciation for the performance through applause. State-sponsored

adjudicated events are also venues where students of formal learning perform for

feedback and ratings. These adjudicated events are held for individuals, small groups

(i.e., solo and ensemble), and large performing groups (i.e., district and state adjudicated

events). Student participants typically perform music that is selected from a vetted

repertoire list (Isbell, 2015), which is produced and approved by high quality educators

and is only modified over time, not revamped entirely. Hence, the literature remains part

of the prescribed curriculum for several years. Most states have their own repertoire lists.

Some aspects of formal music instruction also can be found in private lessons. In

these venues, a student receives personalized instruction from an instructor who is

considered an expert on that instrument or voice. Private teachers usually structure

private lessons to include scales, etudes (e.g., music drills, exercises) (Isbell, 2015), and

solo repertoire (i.e., existing repertoire) (Isbell, 2015), which is usually predetermined. A

distinct characteristic of formal music learning in string education is acquiring skills from

a teacher who is linked to one of the preeminent pedagogues. For example, in the violin

world, there are four teachers who have developed an approach to scale systems: Sevcik,

Flesch, Galamian, and Sassmannshaus (Kim, 2006). Students of these masters continue passing down their pedagogical techniques to their students, and the family tree grows

and is highly regarded as an important detail in the resume of a classical musician.

Formal private instruction is strongly rooted in the use of the Western Classical canon

Formal music learning frequently is used in school music education as well as in most string education private studios. Green (2002) defined formal music education as a

systems that consists of “educational institutions from primary schools or conservatories, partly involving or entirely dedicated to the teaching and learning of music” (p. 4). The formal approach to music education has “historically been associated with teaching western art music” (Jaffurs, 2004, p. 190) and has served music education community in the United States well for decades (Woody, 2007). The tradition for formal learning is one based on structure, handed down through a lineage of great teachers that has served the classical community and music educators well because it is logical, prescriptive, and requires an autocratic figure to dispense knowledge.

Informal Music Learning

The use of informal music learning techniques has been gaining popularity in

Europe (Folkestad, 2006; Karlsen, 2010; Lebler, 2008; McPhail, 2012; Wright &

Kanellopoulos, 2010); however, within the United States, informal learning has yet to be

fully embraced within the classroom setting (Davis & Blair, 2011; Jones, 2009). Informal

music learning strategies usually are outside of the school setting and distinguish

themselves through five main characteristics. Informal music learners (a) select the music

that they will play, (b) learn by copying music off of recordings by using their ear, (c)

create and learn music in self-made groups, (d) acquire skills and knowledge in an

arbitrary way with little regard to pedagogy, and (e) integrate listening, performing,

improvising, and composing throughout the learning process with an emphasis on

creativity (Green, 2006). While informal music learning strategies may have been

uncovered when working with popular musicians, these strategies can be utilized outside

of the popular music genre (Green, 2006). Schippers and Campbell (2012) claimed that certain aspects of informal music learning have been used by a variety of cultures from around the world when learning music, including young American children as they sing children’s songs in a range of settings.

The inclusion of informal music learning strategies, which are found outside of school, can shift the primary focus away from “teaching to learning, teacher to learner, teaching methods to outcomes of teaching, what content to learn and how to learn it”

(Folkestad, 2006, p. 136). Researchers have described an array of benefits regarding the inclusion of informal music learning techniques in a school setting, including escalation in student motivation, responsibility, and group collaboration (Green, 2008; Lebler, 2008;

Scalise, 2015); the inclusion of students who have otherwise been neglected (Green,

2008); growth in student metacognition (McPhail, 2013); the nurturing of individual,

group, and musical identity (Seifried, 2006); and an enhanced desire to continue making

music beyond high school (Koops, Hankins, Scalise, & Schatt, 2014).

Reconciling Formal Music Learning and Informal Music Learning

Formal and informal learning are both aspects of the phenomenon of music learning, despite where the actual learning takes place (Folkestad, 2006). Instead of formal music learning strategies monopolizing the pedagogy of school music classrooms,

Folkestad (2006) argued that music educators should consider incorporating informal music learning practices in order to prepare students for lifelong music making.

Nonetheless, in Green’s (2002) study on rock musicians, participants divulged that their experiences in a traditional music education setting had not acknowledged, encouraged, or assisted them in their pursuit of acquiring the knowledge and skills for popular music that they were developing outside of the classroom. This finding might imply that informal music learning practices are naturally motivating and more aligned with lifelong music making. Researchers have asserted that implementation of informal music learning strategies (e.g., playing by ear, democratic rehearsing, use of popular music, copying music by ear) within the formal music education setting may lead to more students furthering their music making beyond high school (Folkstead, 2006; Isbell, 2015; Jaffurs,

2004; Leiber 2007; Woody,2007).

A similar line of research to that of informal learning is the importance of developing lifelong musicianship skills. Louth (2006) interviewed adult jazz musicians in order to distinguish what skills were important to their success as jazz musicians. Louth

(2006) found that learning music aurally, learning through modeling, and fostering self- motivation were the key to lifelong musicianship. Williams (2011) posited that if music

educators would explore incorporating “creative decision making, instrument choice, and musical styles, that it could have a significant effect on the acquisition of lifelong musical skills” (p. 56). Exemplars of formal and informal practices can be found in classical and popular music as well.

Classical Music

Classical music, or Western canon music, was transplanted to American from

Europe. Americans swarmed to major cities just to hear this impressive music. In the

1800s, as European classical music was being celebrated and performed in spectacular

music halls like Carnegie Hall and Severance Hall by the New York Philharmonic, the

Boston Symphony, and the Cleveland Orchestra, Americans were secretly waiting for an

“American Beethoven” or an “American Mozart” (Horowitz, 2005, p. 6) to emerge. In

1882, Antonin Dvorak came to America to direct the National Conservatory of Music at

the request of the conservatory’s founder, Jeannette Thurber. She brought Dvorak to

America in hopes of “fostering an American National School” (p. 6) to cultivate

American classical music. This was important to Ms. Thurber and many others as they

were trying to foster the swelling enthusiasm for classical music in America.

Unfortunately, the fact that Dvorak used “real values of negro melodies” (p. 7) as part of

his inspiration for his “New World Symphony” upset many prominent American classical

composers, as they believed that “negro melodies [were] not fully typical of our country”

(p. 7). This marked a divide within the classical music community that would eventually

give way to popular music, since the American classical community could not fully

embrace an American style of classical music.

Decades later, a new conductor of the New York Philharmonic attempted to

reignite and propel classical music and American classical music into the lives of all

Americans: Leonard Bernstein (Horowitz, 2005). At one point, classical music concerts were given freely in parks and eagerly anticipated on television, but when Maestro

Bernstein arrived at the New York Philharmonic, some time had passed since classical

music was center stage. Maestro Bernstein made it one of his missions to not only

perform classical music for the masses, but dismantle it and put it back together for them,

in hopes of building a stronger bond with the genre. An example of this approach was

when Maestro Bernstein played Gershwin’s “Rhapsody in Blue” and asked a violist to

play the clarinet solo in order to demonstrate that classical music is well thought out and

notated, unlike jazz which is more free form and often times not notated, but improvised.

This resulted in more musical color, texture, and expressive tonality (Kramer, 2007). This

was Maestro Bernstein’s way of helping people listen and connect to classical music.

Bernstein used this approach to his educational concerts with other American composers

like Copland, Ives, Simon and Garfunkel, the Beatles, and Elvis Presley.

Playing classical music takes specialized instruction and practice, but according to

Kramer (2007), learning how to listen to classical music is a skill that also requires

instruction and practice. Although Bernstein attempted to pave a path for people to

connect and understand classical music, Americans struggled to do so, unlike most of

their European counterparts. Horowitz (2005) attributed this to the fact that American

culture was a melting pot of musical ideas and backgrounds and never produced an

American Mozart. Subsequently, classical music was moving in the direction of 12-tone

music, which was difficult for most Americans to listen to and hum afterwards.

Additionally, Kramer (2007) believed a number of Americans equated classical music

with formal concert halls, museums, high culture, and etiquette. He bemoaned these

characteristics because if classical music in fact did hold a place in a museum, then

perhaps Americans would view classical music as a living aural history instead of an archaic form of music and be able to focus on the timeline classical music offers.

During this same time, the 1950s, American music educators began to focus on

replacing music appreciation courses with performing ensembles (Mark, 2007). As a

result, students were able to replicate the music they heard played during Bernstein’s

education concerts. School ensembles were also an ideal place to play contemporary

music and have been the crux of secondary music education for decades (2007). High

school bands, orchestra, and choirs became the pride of communities as they would take

part in competitions and were present at noteworthy community events. Unfortunately,

what was lost was the ability for educators to provide students with valuable training in

the art of listening which had previously been done in the music appreciation classes

(Horowitz, 2005). Some ensemble directors did continue incorporate listening to their

rehearsals, but their primary focus was playing, not listening. In a world that was

transforming with the growth of technology, this was a worthwhile skill. However, as

society changed, most secondary music ensembles did not.

Popular Music

In 1967, a group of distinguished music education advocates met to discuss and

make recommendations about the future of music education. The committee suggested

that “music of all periods, styles, forms, and cultures belong in the curriculum. The music

repertory should expand to involve music of our time in its rich variety, including

currently popular teenage music...” (Choate, Fowler, Brown, Weresen, 1967, p. 139).

Despite this endorsement, popular music, defined by Rodriguez (2004) as a type of music

that is widely consumed, distributed via multiple types of media, and represents a particular group of people, it has struggled to find a comfortable place in the school music curriculum. Some music teachers are resistant to the idea of including popular music in the music classroom because (a) they feel it is their job to retain the musical

tastes of the country (Humphreys, 2004); (b) inclusion lends credibility to the musical

message conveyed by the artists such as sexuality, drugs, anti-establishment, and anti-war

(Green, 2006; Humphreys, 2004); and (c) popular music can be associated with certain

social classes of people, which could be perceived by locally-elected school boards as

defying middle class ideals (Humphreys, 2004). However, despite these negative

connotations, some music educators advocate for popular music for some of the same

reasons, albeit through a different lens. According to Bowman (2004), popular music

gives music educators the ability to acknowledge the fact the music and culture are

intertwined. Acknowledging this sentiment can provide music educators with a viable

platform for inviting students into the process of making music, not just replicating a

product. Confronting human issues that are at the forefront of contemporary society, such

as equality, social justice, discrimination, and classism, provide students with the

opportunity to see music as a part of living history, which includes classical music

(Bowman, 2004; Dunbar-Hall & Wemyss, 2000; Green, 2006; Small, 2011).

Still, the ways in which music teachers incorporate informal music can be varied and, in some cases, run counter to the spirit of informal music making. Some music teachers have elected to use popular music as a carrot to entice students to join their

53 performing groups or music classes and then switch back to classical music (Green,

2006). This tactic, along with taking popular music out of context, such as performing popular songs on stringed instruments in a classical orchestra setting, can be negative for the students and the program (Green, 2006 Woody (2007) provided examples of such negativity. They included (a) musical arrangements for school ensembles that do not adequately replicate pop music; (b) the notion that popular music is more for entertainment and does not have educational value; and (c) the disregard of musical authenticity that is disrespectful to all types of music, and, subsequently, is disrespectful to students (2007).

To combat these concerns, some music educators have forged new ground and have created popular music ensembles and courses, where students not only perform, but also compose and improvise their own music. Yet, many educators who wish to add such experiences for students have had to overcome obstacles such as “aesthetics, logistics, and the most common educational obstacle, funding” (Boespflug, 2004, p. 193). One such course, a Songwriting and Technology Class (STC), involved high school students creating, performing, recording, and producing an original song on the instruments of their choice while using technology (Tobias, 2012). A particular focus was placed on how students engaged with music while in the course. Tobias found that students collaborated and acquired a variety of skills depending on their interests and strengths.

Students exuded pride and strong dedication to their musical endeavor because the product resonated with their personal musical preferences, and because they did not have

“set parameters as to what or how they should play” (p. 334). One student proclaimed that STC students performed “better than those in the school band programme, since,

according to Carl [one of the participants], STC students “are more serious about their

instruments and what they play” (p. 334). However, Tobias also discovered that students

who elected to work independently were hampered by their personal performance

abilities, if they elected to compose a song that included instruments on which they were

not proficient or exceeded their proficiency on said instrument. In contrast, students who chose to work in groups were able to collaborate and complement each other’s musical strengths, much like what other researchers have uncovered when observing garage bands

(Abramo, 2009; Allsup, 2004; Davis, 2005; Green 2008; Jaffurs, 2004, 2008).

Reconciling Classical Music and Popular Music

In a 2014 Music Educators Journal (MEJ) reflection on MEJ’s 100th year, Reimer

wrote, “The end point of philosophy, its most deeply important effect, is on how children

in schools and whoever else is learning music are enabled to more fully internalize the

ways of knowing and being that music and only music can provide” (p. 28). This statement does not favor one approach over another, but simply invites educators to think about their audience (their students) when selecting their approach and materials when preparing to teach. For some, this may be solely classical music, for others, popular music, and yet for others, a mixture of the two. For example, educators might consider

that some classical music is, in fact, popular music. VanWeelden (2014) asserted that this angle broadens what other researchers have stated, in that “popular music is music created by, and, especially for, the enjoyment and enrichment of everyday people in their everyday lives” (Bowman, 2004, p. 36), while classical music has “the distinction of its listeners’ taste over and against the mass cultural predilections of the popular classes”

(Toynbee, 2000, p. xix).

Advancements in media, communication, and technology were not factors included in previous authors’ work, but VanWeelden (2014) demonstrated how these technological advancements have changed the ways people hear and interact with classical music. VanWeelden used Copland’s Hoedown to make the point, as some students might only know this song as the “Beef: What’s for dinner” song associated with a commercial. This insight drove VanWeelden to determine whether preservice music teachers could identify popular classical music by its classical name, composer, and era, or by the contemporary context to which the music was linked. VanWeelden concluded that preservice teachers’ ability to bridge this gap may help their students (2014), as most students prefer popular music or “outside of school” music, as it reflects their musical and social needs (Boal-Palheiros & Hargreaves, 2001; Britten, 1991; Campbell, Connell,

& Beegle, 2007; Greer, Dorow, & Randall, 1974; Hargreaves & North, 1999; LeBlanc,

1981; North, Hargreaves, & O’Neil, 2000; Tarrant, North, & Hargreaves, 2001). Other researchers found that young people held negative attitudes toward classical music because they believed it closely resembled school music (North et al., 2000), and that classical music was not something most fifth graders wished to study (Geringer &

Guerra, 2002). However, Hameln and Sheull (2006) found that adolescents were interested in learning classical pieces with which they were familiar, especially if the music was associated with some form of video media.

VanWeelden (2014) asserted that music teacher educators need to spend more time connecting commonly heard classical music to its composer, era, and history so that when their preservice teachers inherit their own music classroom, they can use these classical tunes that are heard in everyday life as a way of introducing their students to

56 classical music (2014). Creating these connections for students as well as acknowledging the value that popular music has in the lives of students can help create an environment of respect and broad-mindedness so that teachers and students can “more fully internalize the ways of knowing and being that music and only music can provide” (Reimer, 2014, p.

28).

Summary

One long-term goal of music education has been to enable adults to interact with and engage in music after leaving high school (Hinckley, 2000; Jellison, 2000; Shuler,

2011). Bridging this gap has been of interest to the music education community for decades (Coffman, 2002a, 2002b; Jellison, 2000; Jones, 2009; Mantie, 2012; Myers,

2007). Researchers have investigated why adults decide not to continue in music, and why they stay involved. Additionally, they have attempted to answer the question of what is meaningful music engagement to adults; examined adults who continue to make music that is an extension of their school music settings as well as adults who participate in musical settings that do not emulate a school music program (Arasi, 2006; Bell, 2000;

Bishop, 2015; Booth, 1999; Bowles, 1988; Bowles, 2010; Bowen, 1995; Busch, 2005;

Carter, 2000; Casey, 1994; Cavitt, 2005; Chiodo, 1997;Clothier, 1967; Coffin,

2005;Coffman, 2007; Dabback, 2007; Darrough, 1992; Delano & Royse, 1987; Faivre-

Ransom, 2001; Flowers & Murphy, 2001; Griffith, 2006; Heintzelman, 1988; Larson,

1983; Louth, 2006; Mantie & Tucker, 2008; Mantie, 2012; Martin, 1983; McClarty,

1968; McCullough, 1981; McDavid, 1999; Milton, 1982; Mountford, 1977; Myers, 2007,

2008; Olseng & Burley, 1987; Patterson, 1985; Regelski, 2007; Royse, 1990; Smilde,

2008; Spencer, 1996; Stewart, 2007; Thaller, 1999; Thorton, 2010; Turton & Durrant,

2002;Vincent, 1997; Wihjelm, 1998).

As researchers continue to seek data that will build the bridge between school

music and music after high school, they tug at the very core of how teachers deliver

music education to their students in American schools. The profession appears to be in

the midst of a slow transformation from formal music learning using only Western Canon

music, to slowly incorporating informal music learning and popular music to the school music curriculum. The ideas have been around for decades, but the implementation has been slow. As the music education community searches for which ways are most viable right, this study has the potential to illustrate several possible paths.

This study included the experiences of five adults who have graduated from the same secondary school music program that combines formal/informal music learning and classical/popular music, all within a hybrid music setting that relies of the apprenticeship model for longevity. The lens through which this environment will be viewed is “Situated

Learning Theory,” which embraces the concept of apprenticeship for understanding over

learning. It is hoped that this study adds to the body of knowledge that informs music educators how to “more fully internalize the ways of knowing and being that music and only music can provide” (Reimer, 2014, p. 28).

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY

This chapter outlines the methodological framework that guided this research, including (a) the purpose statement, (b) the research questions, (c) qualitative research traditions, (d) case study design, (e) multiple case study design, (f) the role of the researcher, (g) bounding the study, (h) data collection and analysis, (i) trustworthiness, (j) methodological limitations, and (k) reporting the findings. The steps presented here were viewed as the most appropriate choices for garnering the types of information that could result from this study. The information learned through TLP alumni perceptions was framed logically through this type of protocol.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this multiple case study was to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between participation in an alternative school music programs and lifelong music making. Participants in this study were past members of “The Lakewood Project”

(TLP), a unique high school musical learning environment that combines formal music learning via private lessons with informal music learning as it relates to rock music.

Members advance their personal musical abilities outside of school, and then come together to share their knowledge, ideas, and problem-solving as a group, much like a rock band. As revealed in a previous study (Koops, Hankins, Scalise, & Schatt, 2014) involving TLP members, 71% of TLP alumni continue to engage in lifelong music making opportunities after graduating from high school. The current researcher sought to determine how different learning contexts may have enhanced the participants’ ability and desire to continue making music after high school. Participant selectios was based on

59 a demographic survey. This survey provided a purposeful sample. Data were collected through interviews, observations, and focus group discussions involving TLP alumni.

Research Questions:

1. In what ways, if any, did alumni’s experiences in TLP influence their motivation

and ability to continue making music after high school?

2. In what ways, if any, did the learning environment of TLP emulate or differ from

current musicking environments?

3. What formal and informal music experiences in high school impacted TLP alumni

participation in music after high school?

4. What skills and content were missing from TLP experiences that would have been

helpful

to alumni’s current musical endeavors?

The Qualitative Research Tradition

Qualitative research stems from cultural anthropology and sociology (Bresler &

Stake, 2006; Creswell, 2013) and seeks to explore, understand, or describe a phenomenon, group, event, institution, social situation or interaction. Primarily used in the social sciences as a way to examine the phenomenon within its authentic context, qualitative research lends itself to “the personal and political nature of education (Bresler

& Stake, 2006, p. 271), and, therefore, has found a home in the world of educational research and, more specifically, music education research, because of its ability to actualize complex, contextual situations.

Qualitative research possesses many characteristics. While these can be found in a number of texts (e.g., Creswell, 2013; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2014), the traits outlined in

Bresler and Stake (2006) are perhaps the most applicable to the current study because of their germane relationship to collective case study research in music education. These characteristics are:

(1) Noninterventionist observation in natural settings,

(2) Emphasis on interpretation of both emic issues (those of the

participants) and etic issues (those of the writer),

(3) Highly contextual description of people and events, and

(4) Validation of information through triangulation (2006, p. 271).

In qualitative research, the investigator enters the natural environment of the phenomenon with the purpose of observing and examining “the case” in real time and in real-life, without compromising the environment. The intent is to acquire an in-depth understanding of the emic perspective, or that of the actors or people who belong to the case (Stake, 1995, p. 20). Immersion in the field exemplifies the nature of qualitative research.

The analysis of data in qualitative research is interpretive by nature (Barrett,

2007). Therefore, this requires “a degree of mind involvement with subject matter not acceptable to the quantitative, positivist, realist tradition” (Bresler & Stake, 2006 p. 277).

Denzin and Lincoln (2000) explained the importance of the interpretive nature of data analysis by stating, “qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, materials and practices that make the world visible” (p. 3). In order to make the world visible to others, the qualitative research enters into the field to observe, interview, and collect documents and artifacts, and since it is the role of the researcher to elicit information and responses from the phenomenon

and the participants, the researcher becomes the tool that gathers the data. This closeness

permits the researcher to see the raw data unlike others, and relies on the researcher’s

“artistry, imagination…and knowledge in the field of study” (Barrett, 2007, p. 418) to

produce a final report that objectively articulates the intertwining of the raw data with the

researchers “reasoned interpretation” (p. 418).

Since the majority of the data collected is text-based, description is an important aspect of qualitative inquiry (Bresler & Stake, 2006; Creswell, 2013). The use of narrative writing, such as vignettes and stories, is strengthened by using direct quotes and providing as much context as possible to the reader when reporting such information.

These are also known as ethnographic techniques and can be found in several qualitative approaches (Bresler & Stake, 2006; Creswell, 2013; Patton, 2015).

Because of the interpretive nature of the qualitative research paradigm, validation is established through triangulation. According to Stake (2006), triangulation is the

“redundancy of data gathering and procedural challenges to explanations” (p. 35).

Notable discoveries must be supported by a wide variety of evidence gathered from the field such as observations, field notes, interviews transcripts, and artifacts, and are challenged via an exhaustive examination of “a substantial body of uncontested description” (Stake, 1995, p. 110). Creswell (2013) argued that with multiple forms of data collection, critical reflection of the data, the collection process itself, and potential bias, triangulation is an essential hallmark of the case study method.

Case Study Design

Case study research can be traced back to sociologists from the University of

Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s (Bresler & Stake, 2006; Creswell, 2013; Yin 2014). The

origin of a case study is linked to “the exploratory stage of some other type of research

method” (Yin, 2014, p. 15), the collection of life stories (Yin, 2014), or the “case history”

or “case work” of social workers (Platt, 1992, p. 19). After a long absence starting in the

1950s, the term “case study” reappeared in the late 1980s and began to gain traction

within the research community as a viable research platform (Platt, 1992). Yin is credited

with a revised definition of case study and may have helped to clarify the earlier

confusion:

Case study method as a logic of design, seeing it as a strategy to be preferred

when circumstances and research problems are appropriate rather than an

ideological commitment to be followed whatever the circumstances. The logic he

uses is, moreover, one generally accepted among contemporary methodologists

rather than an alternative one; he has brought (his conception of) case study

method into the mainstream intellectually. (Platt, 1992, p. 46)

More recently, in Yin’s (2014) 5th edition of Case Study Research Design and

Methods, he defined a case study in two segments and then provided a comparison to

other methodologies. The first part of Yin’s defines the scope of a case study and states

that a case study is “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon

(the “case”) in depth and within its real-world context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context may not be clearly evident” (p. 16). In comparison, an experiment intentionally separates the phenomenon from the context in order to focus attention solely on the phenomenon and use the context as the control aspect of the method (2014). Alternatively, a study on the history of a phenomenon can address, in fact, the complexity of relationship between the phenomenon and the context, but it is not

63 centered on a contemporary event. Lastly, a survey is restricted by the number of items, and its ability to examine the context is severely limited (2014). These are important distinctions to make, for when one is selecting an approach for contextually-based research, like case studies, it is important to select the right design for the right purpose.

The second part of Yin’s (2014) definition applies to the features of a case study and states

“a case study inquiry copes with the technically distinctive situation

in which there will be many more variables of interest than data

points, and as one result relies on the multiple sources of the

evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulating fashion,

and as another result benefits from the prior development of

theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis” (p.

17)

Therefore, case study research must be “an all-encompassing method” (p. 17) through examining “logic of design” (p. 17), collecting multiple sources of data in order to provide triangulation, and benefitting from any previous knowledge that will enhance data collection and analysis (2014).

Multiple Case Study or Collective Case Study

Single cases are unique because the “researcher and the reader of the case report are acquainted with other cases” (Stake, 2006, p. 4). A multiple case study or collective case study illuminates the interest in each single case because the collection of cases shares a “common characteristic or condition” (2006, p. 4). This “common characteristic” is called a “quintain.” Stake defined a quintain as “an object, a

phenomenon, or condition to be studied – a target, not a bull’s eye” (2006, p. 5). As a

result, understanding the quintain becomes the primary focus of the study. In the case of

the current multiple case study, the quintain is the musical environment of the secondary

music ensemble called The Lakewood Project (TLP), and how this program enabled,

motivated, and enhanced its graduates to continue to participate in music making

activities well beyond high school at the rate of 71% (Koops, et al., 2014).

TLP is a secondary music ensemble that meets outside of the school day and includes students in grades 9-12 who play stringed instruments (e.g., violins, violas,

cellos, basses), electric guitars, electric basses, keyboards, drummers, and auxiliary

percussionists. The ensemble consists of three distinct sections. The first section is a

traditional acoustic string orchestra section. The second is a double electric string quartet, and the third is a rock band consisting of electric guitars, electric bass, keys, drum set, and auxiliary percussion. The musicians work together to arrange, compose, and orchestrate classical rock tunes from a rock band instrumentation to a full rock orchestra score, as well as to take a classical piece and add the rock band instruments. This ensemble is primarily led by the students, and music teachers act as guides. This ensemble has been called “the world’s first high school rock orchestra-of its kind”

(Constantine, 2010; Templton, 2005) and has performed in venues such as The House of

Blues, The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, The Lakewood Civic Auditorium, Lyon and

Healy Jazz Fest, and several national and state music conferences. This ensemble also tours the country, performing for and teaching other students how to play the music they love on the instruments of their choice. The alumni of TLP were the population selected to be studied. Multiple alumni are included in this study in order to provide the best

understanding possible from all possible positions of participation within this hybrid

ensemble.

Multiple case study and TLP. TLP is a unique secondary music ensemble that incorporates formal and informal music learning through the use of rock music. This multiple case study featured graduates of TLP and was designed to describe and illuminate how the distinctiveness of the inner workings of TLP music ensemble have

tended to produce a large number of graduates who continue to participate in music

making after high school. According to Stake (2006), multiple case studies should

include more than four cases but less than 10. This parameter, coupled with the desire for

varying characteristics (Stake, 1995; Yin 2014), yielded five TLP alumni who were

recruited for this study. These varying characteristics enabled an examination of the types

of musical endeavors in which they were engaging, as well as addressed the extent to

which the two music worlds (e.g., classical strings, rock band) have influenced graduates’

musical pursuits. Other variations included students who attended college for music, but who have created their own music career outside of what may be considered the norm

(e.g., classical performance, education, composition), compared to graduates who did not attend college for music, but who were making music semi-professionally. Observing and interviewing TLP alumni in their current music making settings helped reveal more direct connections between how (and why) people made music after high school and the skills and content they desired in order to continue.

The Role of the Researcher

Researcher bias. One of the primary themes of qualitative research is reflexivity, which is “a way of emphasizing the importance of self-awareness, political/cultural

consciousness and ownership of one’s perspective” (Patton, 2015, p. 381). The researcher

must take responsibility for her own perspective throughout the entire process of the

study (2015). In order to aid novice researchers in becoming aware of their perspective,

Patton offered a questionnaire that guides researchers in considering how they might look

within to discover possible bias, so that those biases can be addressed or kept in mind

when in the field and reporting findings. I believed that it was imperative for me to

complete this questionnaire and report the results because of my unique, dual position in

this multiple case study: that of the researcher and that of the founder of TLP.

Patton’s (2015) questionnaire provides reflexive items for the researcher to

consider so that she gains an understanding of her perspective and owning those

perspectives. Triangulated inquiry requires the researcher to stay cognizant of “reflexive

screens,” which Patton places in the center of a triangle in a diagram. These screens

include (a) culture, (b) age, (c) gender, (d) social status, (e) education, (f) family, (g)

political praxis, (h) language, and (i) values (p. 72). This triangle is surrounded by three

categories. The categories include (a) myself, (b) those studied (participants), and (c)

those who receive the study (audience) (p. 72). I have used these prompts to help me gain

an understanding of my viewpoint and construct my own personal narrative, which is

included below.

I am a middle-aged, white, American female, with 26 years of teaching music

education in a public school setting. I have a bachelor’s degree in music education and a

master’s degree in education. I was raised in an upper middle-class family who valued education, helping others, and social class. By social class, I mean that behaving in a professional manner at all times was expected, and participating in high society activities

67 was central to our family values. Those activities included classical music training, classical music concert attendance, art education, visiting museums locally and around the world, acquiring the ability to speak more than one language, world travel, and philanthropy.

My musical education prior to college consisted of private piano lessons beginning at the age of 3, starting the viola in the school orchestra program at the age of

10, entering private viola lessons at the age of 11, and gaining membership into the 8th grade orchestra as a 6th grader in a highly regarded orchestra program. The level of this program was extremely high because the majority of its members started playing their stringed instrument at the age of 3 through the local Suzuki Program. The Suzuki method of music education was created by Shinichi Suzuki, who believed that all children could learn music if he applied the “principles of language acquisition,” which he called “the mother tongue” (Suzuki Associations of the Americas, 1998). Students were encouraged and supported by their parents. They formed a team that worked together and emphasized listening, repetition, learning with others, and graded repertoire (Suzuki Associations of the Americas, 1998).

Upon graduation from high school, I enrolled at the Oberlin Conservatory of

Music with the intention of obtaining a degree in viola performance. As I continued my education, I added a degree in music education, as I enjoyed children and had witnessed the power and benefits of a music education in my hometown. After college, I was hired by a large urban public school to teach its middle school orchestras, Grades 6-8. After 3 years of teaching middle school orchestra, I was promoted to the high school orchestra director position, which included one high school orchestra, one middle school orchestra

68 program, and elementary strings, which began in Grade 5. I instructed and managed the orchestra program with the philosophy of musical excellence, discipline, and the notion that every child could learn with the proper support, so I created an in-school private lesson and tutoring program that stretched from Grades 5 through 12. The program grew steadily.

In 2002, I took my students to a clinic given by the “Trans-Siberian Orchestra,” a contemporary rock group that combines a rock band with a string section, at The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. Prior to attending the clinic, I neither knew of this group nor was educated in the type of music that they played. The only reason for my attendance was because my principal decreed that I take my students. After the clinic, my students’ eyes glistened with excitement, wonderment, and eagerness to make music like that. It was then that I created TLP.

First, I met with the orchestra parents to gain support for this new idea. Once I had their support, I approached my administration, who was very supportive of the idea, because, at that time, Lakewood High School had a highly successful jazz choir, and the administration believed that TLP would complement that curriculum. Once I had permission from the administration, I sought funding. I did this by writing a grant, which

I received, to bring a rock string player to assist me with starting this ensemble. I also was able to purchase the electric string instruments because of a gift from a Lakewood alum from the class of 1942, who believed that music could make a difference in student’s lives; he wanted to bestow his money to his high school music program instead of his college. I also consulted professional theatre and sound technicians from the

Cleveland community in order to determine the proper sound equipment to purchase, and

69 how to stage the group. These connections were made possible by my co-founder, Trish

Hendy, manager of The Lakewood Civic Auditorium, a professional road house which is located in the middle of our high school.

TLP became a rock orchestra whose current instrumentation features an acoustic

Western classical string section and an electric double string quartet that is supported by a rock band, which consists of two electric guitars, electric bass, keyboards, auxiliary percussion, and drum set. The combination of these two musical worlds required me to learn how to improvise, compose, and arrange music. As I was learning, so were my students. Every member worked together, teaching each other and learning from each other because the dialect of the two worlds was so different. For example, orchestra musicians typically refer to rehearsal letters when rehearsing, while rock bands, who primarily play by ear, refer to chord progressions and structure. This presented a problem when the group would stop to address issues. In order to save time, the rock musicians explained to the orchestra musicians the definition of a verse and a chorus. The classical musicians marked their music accordingly. Additionally, when the group needed to zero in on more specific measures, the rock musicians thought in chord progressions. This language was quickly translated to the cello and bass sections, who, subsequently, became the translators for the group. Eventually, all members were able to communicate via structure, form, and chord progressions in order to expedite rehearsals.

As the facilitator of the group, I bring a unique lens to this study. I am sensitive to the high school context that each participant shared while in TLP. I also believe that I am able to look objectively for those influences within the graduates’ new musical environments. This perspective will allow me to share my insights with the music

70 education community and hopefully provide insight in ways of possibly achieving one of the missions of music education, that of lifelong music making. As Creswell (2013) noted, “thick rich description, and the closeness of the researcher to participants in the study all add to the value or accuracy of a study” (p. 250). However, my closeness to the participants and the musical environment also require me to examine my subjectivity, as it “carries such negative connotations at such a deep level and for so many people that the very term can be an impediment to mutual understanding” (Patton, 2015, p. 726).

Researchers are charged with staying rational and independent. Personal writing is controversial because of its “rampant subjectivism” (Crotty; 1998, p. 48). Displaying emotions or feelings is admonished by some researchers. According to Patton (2015), some researchers believe it “blurs the lines between social science and literary writing”

(p. 101). However, caring comes from connecting to people and creating an “empathic sense of interdependence rather than independence” (Patton, 2015, p. 61). Patton described how at times he has been scolded for is lack of objectivity, despite his belief that some subjectivity is inevitable (Peshkin, 1988) and can be considered a valued tool to understanding (Soldz & Andersen, 2012). Subjectivity is using one’s own experiences to comprehend the world through reflexivity (Connolly & Reilly, 2007), and, once acknowledged and vetted, “can lead from a focus on the researcher’s subjectivity as a window into sense making to shared meaning making: intersubjectivity” (Patton, 2015, p.

726).

Intersubjectivity refers to “knowledge as socially constructed in human interactions” (Patton, 2015, p. 726). In this study, those interactions within a rock orchestra learning environment may be unconscious and natural to the students; however,

as the music educator and former teacher of the participants, I am able to label such

moments in education jargon. Therefore, listening carefully to the participants’ stories

and closely observing their interactions with others, as well as their music, will inform

me of the skills and knowledge they use in real-world music making. As the founder of

TLP, I am acutely aware that many of those skills may have been formed, in part, in TLP.

Gathering historical information from each participant also will be helpful in determining

whether skills were acquired prior to membership in TLP, and if so, attempting to

understand how TLP learning environment may have contributed to their lifelong music

making. As a way to ground my own perspectives during this process, I will keep a

personal journal in conjunction with my field notes in order to document my feelings,

thoughts, and reflections while in the field. This journal may prove to be a valuable

resource and provide clarity when reviewing and analyzing data.

Entry into the field. In 2010, TLP organized a reunion concert. Two alumni

collected contact information via Facebook in order to communicate with their colleagues

about the upcoming concert. As a result, these two alumni have continued to

communicate with alumni and currently maintain an updated database for future concerts.

This database was used in Koops et al. (2014). I used this list to help me identify

prospective participants for a purposive sampling. Stage 1 of this study included sending

an e-mail to all TLP alumni containing an initial recruiting letter (see Appendix A). The letter asked the TLP alumni to take a demographic survey. This survey was used to gather demographic information as well as descriptions of their current musical engagement

(Appendix D). At the end of the survey, TLP alumni were asked if they were willing to participate in Stage 2 of the study, which included in-depth interviews and observations

with a select number of participants. Upon examining the survey results, I invited

individuals who fit a diverse representation of cases (Flyvbjerg, 2006; Miles &

Huberman, 1994), until I reached the desired number of five participants.

Bounding the Study

The setting. This study involved five alumni of TLP. Participants were intentionally selected for maximum variation (Flyvberg, 2006; Miles & Huberman,

1994), following Stake’s (2006) suggested criteria that cases should offer “diversity across context” and a “good opportunity to learn about complexity and context” (p. 23).

The musical settings in which TLP alumni are based were located in several cities across the United States. These contexts included rock bands, classical orchestras, recordings

studios, movie music production, and private performing venues. Each setting will be

described in detail in Chapter 4.

Events. I endeavored to gather a holistic picture of post-high school music making by using ethnographic techniques in a collective case study design. I examined artifacts, actors, values, norms, and cultural processes of the five cases through qualitative data collection. Furthermore, I observed each case in their personal music making time (e.g., business management, group rehearsals), as well as in their performances (e.g. concerts, clinics, workshops).

Processes. During each visit, I focused on the everyday experiences that related to participants’ music making. For the purposes of this study, music making processes included, but were not limited to, singing, playing, arranging, composing, rehearsing, experimentation, performing, and management. I attempted to replicate this in a variety

of contexts as well as acquire as many responses from participants as possible regarding

musical processes.

Ethical considerations. Any time an outsider enters a natural setting, it could feel

invasive to participants; however, in order to gain an understanding of the meaning made

by the participants in these settings, it is necessary for the researcher to respect and

ensure that the participants feel secure, and safe. To protect the participants and keep

them informed of my entry into their natural setting, the following safeguards were put in

place: (a) an initial communication between potential participants were made by the

researcher (see Appendix A); (b) subsequent communication took place via e-mail, phone

call, or casual conversation; (c) participants shared history and familiarity with me helped

to alleviate any undue pressure; (d) consent forms containing a description of the study

were e-mailed to each participant so that arrangements could be made for observations

(see Appendix B); (e) confidentiality of all participants was accomplished through coded data collection, with all identifying information being separated out and locked in the researcher’s office; and (f) pseudonyms were assigned to all participants in order to

protect their anonymity.

Data Collection Strategies

I collected data via the use of traditional ethnographic techniques as

recommended by Hatch (2002), including in-field observations of context, participant

observations in the field, participant interviews, and collection of artifacts. Artifacts

included materials such as promotional posters, CDs, performance contracts, evidence of

marketing (e.g., websites, business cards), rehearsal schedules, programs, and

photographs of recording studios and performing venues (Creswell, 2013). Furthermore, I

engaged in all three forms of Hatch’s data collection protocol (e.g., interviews,

observations, collection of artifacts), as well as follow-up protocol: (a) participant interviews, (b) with the potential of conducting colleague interviews, (c) rehearsal observations, (d) performance observations, (e) collection and analysis of artifacts, and

(f) follow-up phone interviews. I recorded all interviews on an Olympus WS 853 digital voice recorder and took pictures of the surroundings with an iPhone 6, in order to help generate a rich description for future readers. I maintained hand-written notes in a notebook and then transferred them to an Acer Aspire E 15 laptop computer, so that I had

multiple copies of data.

Participant interviews. Participant interviews as well as observations served as

the primary data sources for this study. I used the interviews to develop an understanding

of the skills and knowledge required for the participants’ current musical settings as well

as their perceptions of how TLP may have impacted the development of those skills. I

constructed participant interviews with the guidance of Seidman’s (2006) three-part

phenomenological interview model that combines general life history with a detailed

examination of the participant’s current music career, as well as the meaning and value

the participant attributed to his or her current and past experiences. While I used the same

structure with each participant in order to establish consistency, the interviews

themselves were semi-structured in nature, which allowed for spontaneity and flexibility

during interviews (Creswell, 2013). I also added supplemental, spontaneous questions

garnered from the topics that participants raised during the interviews, and also followed- up with phone conversations or e-mails in order to ask further questions or seek

clarification. A complete list of participant interview questions can be found in Appendix

Observations. The role of the observer can take many forms such as “participant,

nonparticipant, or middle ground position” (Creswell, 2013, p. 172). The mechanics of

observing included taking field notes, recording accurate quotes, learning how to take in as much information as possible without becoming overwhelmed, and providing extra measures to ensure accuracy of reporting such as recordings, photos, videos, and reflections prior to entry in to the field and immediately after (Creswell, 2013; Patton,

2015). Patton offered six continua to help researchers balance all interaction with participants during fieldwork (2015): (a) reflexivity, (b) credibility, (c) transferability, (d)

dependability, (e) confirmability, (f) peer debriefing. These six aspects are discussed in

more detail in the following pages. Using these continua, my role as an observer became

more of a middle ground position. While I am extremely familiar with TLP learning

environment itself, I may have had minimal to no experience in the musical realms in

which my participants existed. For example, if I chose to include a violinist who was a

teacher and performs in the city opera orchestra, I would have been quite comfortable, as

this is the environment in which I was raised. However, if I observed a TLP graduate who

was a member of a rock band and who arrange to help researchers balance all interaction with participants during fieldwork and composed his or her own music and performed this music on tour, then I would assume the role of a middle ground participant because I have experience arranging and composing music, but not in a rock band. I also did not have experience touring and was not familiar with the rewards and challenges of that life.

To situate these fluid relationships, I used jottings (Emerson, Fretz, & Shaw, 1995) to record informal interactions outside of rehearsals and performances.

Patton (2015) also identified duration as an important aspect of fieldwork.

Duration may consist of hours, days, weeks, and even years. The design of this study permitted me to spend between 2-3 days with each case, if not longer with participants who geographically are closer. I observed each participant in individual and group rehearsals, as well as performances.

Unobtrusive data sources. Gathering unobtrusive data sources can provide insight into the phenomena of interest without disrupting the environment in which the researcher is visiting, and provides an unmediated look into the phenomena (Hatch,

2002). In this spirit, I collected documents, photos, recordings, posters, contracts, advertisements, and calendars in order to document the participants’ total engagement.

These documents supported my observations in the field, as I believe that part of the apprenticeship nature of TLP includes understanding how to function in the music world and within professional settings. How TLP alumni process music, secure performances, and balance music making with real-world employment seemed central to how and why so many alumni have been able to continue making music after high school. These artifacts also provided historical context for each case.

Data Analysis Procedures

Data collection and analysis embodied a simultaneous process (Creswell, 2013). I transcribed and then reflected upon all data collected from my observation and interview notes within 24 hours of the scheduled visit. I used different types of font to define the difference between transcripts and reflections, and I maintained a journal for reflection,

insights, possible emergent themes, and questions. Once I returned from the field, I

transcribed all audio recordings of interviews using Express Scribe software. Documents,

photographs, and artifacts were collected in the field to support and challenge interview

and observation data. Once each transcript was complete, I commenced with multiple,

thorough readings and referred to my journal in order to add to the richness of the

description (Schmidt, 2014). I then condensed the raw data at the end of each interview and observation into manageable and accessible files, and generated a rough draft of the

case narrative (Patton, 2015).

Hatch (2002) called data analysis a “systematic search for meaning” that is

[A] way to process qualitative data so that what has been learned

can be communicated to others. Analysis means organizing and

interrogating data in ways that allow researchers to see patterns,

identify themes, discover relationships, develop explanations,

make interpretations, mount critiques, or generate theories. It often

involves synthesis, evaluation, interpretation, categorization,

hypothesizing, comparison, and pattern finding (p. 148).

Upon completion of the raw data transcripts, I read and generated initial codes, which

Roulston (2014) suggested should reflect topical content, concepts, and structural features

that stemmed from the literature.

Prior to launching a multiple case analysis, I analyzed each individual case. I read the transcripts and reviewed the artifacts (Creswell, 2013; Maxwell, 2005), searched for

contexts (e.g., historical, cultural, physical, social, economic, political, ethical, aesthetic);

and identified subsections and the contexts of each subsection (Stake, 2006). In

examining these situations, I endeavored to uncover “experiential knowledge, which is

important to understanding the quintain” (Stake, 2006, p. 12). During this entire process,

I sought to find places where my findings could be supported or challenged, and strived

to remain open to both understandings (Marshall & Rossman, 2014) and competing understandings (Yin, 2014). Codes were created and categorized, and I used theses codes

to identify topics that the participants stressed in order to generate a case report. Stake

(2006) provided several worksheets in his text to help researchers maintain the integrity

of each individual case and searching for themes that helped explain the quintain, and,

potentially, to help answer the research questions.

Once the themes were established, these themes were used for cross-case analysis.

Although coding is often mentioned in qualitative data analysis, “Reading and thinking about your interview transcripts and observation notes, writing memos, developing coding categories and applying these to your data, and analyzing narrative structure and contextual relationships are all important types of data analyses” (Maxwell, 2005, p. 96, emphasis in the original). In compliance with Maxwell’s suggestions, I maintained memos, categorizing strategies (i.e., information buckets), and connecting strategies in my analysis. The focus of my memos helped to connect data with the literature and assisted my capacity for remaining reflexive and open to challenges. Maxwell (2005) suggested three types of categories: (a) organizational, (b) substantive, and (c) theoretical categories.

Organizational categories, such as theme buckets related to interview questions, can be established ahead of time. Substantive categories are descriptive of the participants’ views and can be used as subcategories of organizational ones. Emic codes

(i.e., drawn from participants’ views) often are quite informative. Finally, theoretical

categories “place the coded data into a more general or abstract framework” (Maxwell,

2005, p. 97) and usually are researcher-based concepts (i.e., etic, from the researcher).

Field notes and interview data were coded using HyperResearch software.

Each individual case study in a collective case study is itself a connecting strategy

(Maxwell, 2005). I coded data and identified themes and relationships between transcripts and attempted to capture key components by creating vignettes for the each case. Transcripts and field notes were cross-checked with literature and referenced. This,

in turn, helped me to establish contextualized findings for each case.

As in the analysis of each single case, the multiple case or collective case analysis

began with a re-reading of each case. Using Stake’s (2006) guidance, as well as his

Worksheet 3 (p. 45), I identified the uniqueness of each case, the situational constraints, the prominent themes, and the expected utility of each case for each theme and the findings. Stake provided a number of worksheets for the cross-case analysis and

suggested tracks for the researcher to choose from when ready for analysis (2006).

Assertions were then created, which lead to implications for music education.

Trustworthiness

In order to establish trustworthiness, I utilized a number of qualitative validity

strategies that included triangulation of data, member checking, peer debriefing,

observation (Patton, 2015; Stake; 1995/2006), period of time in the field (Creswell, 2013;

Denzin & Lincoln, 2000), and rich description (Creswell, 2013). Data was retrieved from

several different sources (e.g., multiple participants and settings) (Patton, 2015; Yin,

2014). Participants were asked to review all interview transcripts for agreement and

clarity, and were encouraged to elaborate if they so desired. I also shared excerpts of my analysis and requested feedback from participants. In addition, I secured two peer reviewers, one faculty member and one music education graduate student who recently graduated to examine my coding themes in search of consistency and thoroughness.

Throughout the entire research process, I engaged in reflexivity (Patton, 2015) in order to

uncover alternate explanations and reduce researcher bias. These include credibility,

transferability, dependability, confirmability, and peer review.

Credibility (Patton, 2015) was established by permitting the participants to read

how I had interpreted their way of life so that they could confirm that the reconstruction

was accurate. Participants were given the opportunity to correct, expand upon, or clarify

transcripts and analyses throughout the investigation. This provided the participants with

comfort, increased trustworthiness, and decreased researcher bias.

Transferability (Patton, 2015) was strengthened by providing readers with enough information about each individual case that they might be able to discern similarities between cases and to which cases future findings may be attributed. Connectivity establishes transferability, by having the researcher link multiple interests, multiple experiences, and presenting all aspects of each story to the reader, in a “fair and balanced” (p. 725) way. Transferability also served as a connection to the quintain, in this

case, TLP.

Dependability is focusing on the process of inquiry. Ensuring that the inquirer’s

procedures are “logical, traceable, and documented (Patton, 2015, p. 685). This was

established in the current study through extensive note taking before, during, and after

visits, comprehensive pre-planning, documentation (i.e., e-mails), and audio and video recordings. Also, the inquiry process for each case was semi-structured.

Confirmability (Patton, 2015) is the establishment of the fact that the events the researcher documented happened and were not fabricated. This requires the researcher to record interviews, record all interactions, collect artifacts, and schedule reflection time before and after visits to ensure optimal physical awareness during observations and interviews. It permits linking assertions, findings, and interpretations to the data.

Peer debriefing and review were conducted by one music education graduate

students familiar with qualitative data analysis and one music education faculty member

who is an expert in qualitative research. Peer reviewers were asked to look at samples of coded data to confirm consistent and thorough coding. This helped to ensure the accuracy of the findings.

Reliability

To reinforce reliability throughout the study, the initial demographic survey in

Stage 1 was distributed to two content validity panelists prior to distribution, in order to ensure the clarity and logic of questions. Later, in Stage 2, reliability was strengthened further by asking each participant to read, and, if necessary, clarify the transcripts of their interviews. The codes were cross-checked by one music education graduate student and one music education professor, both of whom had previous experience in analyzing qualitative data.

Limitations

This study was limited by time, population size, and funding. Because of funding and personal teaching responsibilities, I had limited time in the field. Data collection at

each site was limited to 2-3 days, and as a single investigator, observations were non-

concurrent. Still, I hoped this provided enough time to observe each participant in a variety of settings, allowing for diverse data collection. As previously noted, a demographic survey was distributed to all 91 graduates of TLP, and based on the information they provided in the survey, the researcher selected five participants.

Selection of these five participants were not limited by funding or convenience as five participants reside throughout the United States. By limiting the purposive sample size to five participants, I collapsed the ability to achieve maximum variation. However, I elected to do this in order to spend more quality time with each participant, which is an expected characteristic of qualitative research. I attempted to select the most diverse cases in order to generate rich findings that represented, in part, the voices of other TLP alumni cases who did not appear in this study.

CHAPTER FOUR

CASE STUDY SELECTION

Demographic Background

In order to select the most diverse participants for this multiple case study, I

created a demographic survey, which was e-mailed to all 91 alumni of TLP. Participants were asked to indicate their gender; ethnicity; age; marital status; number of children and

their ages, if applicable; college majors; and highest level of education. Additionally, participants were invited to describe how they continue to music after high school, if applicable. The results of that survey are revealed in this chapter.

In 2002, when TLP was created, the instrumentation of the ensemble included 27

students: two electric string quartets, two acoustic string quintets, two electric guitar

players, one electric bass player, two electric keyboard players, and four percussionists

who played auxiliary percussion and drum set. As the ensemble grew in popularity, the

directors elected to increase the size of TLP members instead of forming a training

ensemble. Hence, in 2016, the instrumentation of TLP consisted of 43 students: three

electric string quartets, three acoustic string quintets, four electric guitar players, four

electric bass players (however, all played acoustic string bass, as well), four keyboard

players (one also played string bass, and one played bells when needed), and four

percussionists who play auxiliary percussion and drum set. When electing to send out the demographic survey associated with the current study, it was important to note that the number of graduates in each class varied substantially as the time away from high school increased.

As outlined in Chapter 3, a demographic survey was created to survey all

Lakewood Project alumni in hopes of uncovering as much preliminary information about their current musicking practices as possible, so that five cases could be identified. The researcher-constructed survey (see Appendix D) was sent via Qualtrics to 91 alumni of

TLP. Of the 91 recipients, 56 consented to answer the survey initially. This was a potential return rate of 62%. Five days prior to the deadline for completion, a reminder e- mail was sent to all 91 alumni of TLP, encouraging them to participate in the survey. A second reminder e-mail was sent the day of the deadline, extending the deadline for participation by 7 days, in hopes of capturing more participants and urging respondents who had not completed the survey to revisit the link. However, 11 respondents consented, but did not complete the survey, and two completed the majority of the survey but not all.

Thus, 43 respondents actually completed the survey in its entirety, resulting in a final return rate of 47%.

As previously stated, the survey included traditional demographic items such as gender, race, age, marital status, number of children, and their children’s ages. A few results were surprising. First, the willingness of a respondent to identify as transgender, now that they are out of high school, was a compelling result, given the relatively small number of respondents. Second, the lack of African American and Asian respondents was noticeable, given TLP’s diverse student (and community) population. Third, there was a strong trend toward TLP alumni who were single; perhaps this was by choice or possibility in order to complete educational goals. Respondents’ demographic information is presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1

Characteristics of Respondents ______Characteristics n % ______Gender Male 21 47 Female 23 51 Transgender 1 2

Ethnicity Caucasian 43 96 Hispanic 1 2 Biracial 1 2

Age 17-20 years of age 10 22

21-25 years of age 16 36 26-30 years of age 16 36 Over 31 years of age 2 4

Marital Status Single 39 87 Married 5 11 Divorced 1 2

Children Yes 3 6 No 42 93

Ages of Children Under the age of 1 3 75 Between 1-4 years of age 1 25

The next part of the survey included items related to respondents’ education level,

and, if applicable, their college major(s). Figure 4.1 below reflects the education level of the respondents. Overall, the majority of respondents (42%) received a college education,

with (2%) and (0%) receiving masters and doctoral degrees, respectively. However, it is

worth noting that 2% are currently enrolled in graduate school. This suggest that TLP

alumni are interested in advancing their education by pursuing advanced degrees.

Figure 4.1

Education Level of Respondents

Figure 4.2 illustrates respondents’ self-identified undergraduate degree programs.

Of the 40 responses to this questions, 20% (n = 8) majored in music education in college,

while 25% (n =10) majored in music, music (or violin) performance, music business, and

audio engineering. Additionally, 12% (n = 5) declared that they were majoring in two

areas. Other majors (e.g., English literature, engineering (several types), psychology,

international affairs, art history, dance, biology, health sciences, geoscience, and

sociology) were represented, but were reported on a smaller scale.

Figure 4.2

Undergraduate Majors

Undergraduate Degree Majors 9

0 English Literature English Performance Violin Education Music Psychology Engineering Civil History Med studies/Pre Gender Communication Arts Recording Studies Economics/Gender Geoscience Biology Music Performance Music Communications Organizational and Business Sociology Engineering Computer and Electrical Engineering Electrical Sciences Health History Music and Performance Violin International Affairs Policy) (Security Performance Harp Engineering Audio Performance Viola and Drama History Art Accounting Business Music Dance

Of the 13 respondents who chose to attend graduate school, most sought degrees in the humanities and social sciences (e.g., Global Shakespeare, Music, Latin American

History, Social Work, Non-Profit Management, Physical Therapy, Creative Writing, and

Religious Studies). This may suggest that alumni of TLP have several interests, but all share the desire to musick (Small, 1999) and do so even while studying other areas.

Figure 4.3 illustrates respondents’ chosen graduate degree programs.

Figure 4.3

Graduate Degree Majors

Graduate Degree Majors 1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Global Shakespeare Global History American Latin Geosciences Therapy Physical Music Education Performace Violin Performance Harp Performance Music Work Social Writing/Religion Creative Student College MS Non-Profit Management Development Ethics

The third survey section provided respondents with Christopher Small’s (1999) definition of musicking, which was “to take part in any capacity, in a musical performance…to perform, to listen, to provide material for performance (composing), to prepare for a performance (practicing or rehearsing), or to take part in any activity that can affect the nature of that style of human encounter which is a musical performance”

(p. 12). Upon reading this definition, respondents were asked to describe any and all kinds of musicking in which they are currently engaged. Of the 43 individuals who responded to this item, 40 (93%) indicated that they currently were participating in musicking opportunities. Their descriptions included

• listening to music;

• attending concerts from all genres;

• performing regularly with a self-created band;

• recording themselves and others;

• playing in church;

• teaching private lessons;

• teaching in a school;

• performing in chamber ensembles for weddings, gigs, or just for fun;

• playing in community orchestras;

• composing music for movies;

• working as a DJ in a college town;

• learning new instruments like ukulele, accordion, electric bass and

performing publicly on those new instruments;

• participating in college marching band

• participating in local jam nights

• arranging music (classical, popular, as well as improvisation charts for

violin and piano/guitar)

• playing in pit orchestra for musical theatre;

• studying scores;

• performing member of Gilbert and Sullivan Opera Orchestra;

• sight-reading string quartet parties for fun;

• singing in church;

• freelancing as a classical musician, jazz musician, and rock musician;

• playing in community orchestra in Scotland;

• using a loop station for live gigs;

• playing drum set for fun;

• composing music on the computer;

• recording arts-record personal compositions, my improvisation, and song

creation;

• creating lighting for theatre and TV in response to music and musicians;

• moving to France to study Taize Community monastic vocal music, then

becoming music director in Sweden of Taize style monastic services

during leave from college;

• designing and repairing electric instruments-Luthier;

• creating demo videos discussing playability factors during design and

construction of electric instruments;

• singing to my daughter;

• collecting music donations, organize and participate in musical events for

the Lutheran community;

• organizing recitals in varies places for people to perform, including

myself;

• recording a solo CD in New York City;

• performing in a professional rock band based in the west coast

Following the musicking item, respondents were asked to indicate whether they profit financially from their musicking. Results indicated that 30% make a living from their musicking. An additional 16% make a secondary income from their musicking, leaving 55% who do not financially benefit from their musical activities.

Prior to sending the survey, I was interested in selecting alumni who currently

were not enrolled in undergraduate school, as I suspected that their chances of musicking

were greater because of the pre-structured musical opportunities that exist in

undergraduate settings. Instead, I endeavored to include alumni who had either graduated

from an undergraduate program or who currently were not enrolled in an undergraduate

program. After examining the survey results, it became clear that finding five individuals

who fit particular musical roles, for inclusion in Stage 2, would be possible. I selected

two who had attended college to study music, and three who had not attended college to

study music. Of TLP graduates who went on to study music in college, I elected to pick

two who were not making a living solely via traditional musical pathways such as playing

in a professional orchestra, teaching private lessons, teaching at a university, or teaching

in a public or private school.

The five cases who I believed best exemplified lifelong musicking practices of

TLP alumni included (a) David, a commercial and media writing major, who played

keyboard in TLP but who also plays cello and is a movie composer; (b) Jeff, a violinist, who attended college, majored in psychology, and who now performs weekly in an Indie- rock band and records and posts his performances on YouTube; (c) Rachel, a violinist with degrees in violin performance and music history, who currently is working on her dissertation in musicology with a focus on video game music, while making music on the side; (d) Lenny, a pizza delivery man, who plays drums in three different rock bands and is almost making a full-time living playing music without a college degree; and finally,

(e) John, an electric bass player, who works as a talent agent and performs at least 150 shows a year in a rock band. These five participants, as well as their musical trajectories, are described in detail in the following chapter.

CHAPTER FIVE

INDIVIDUAL CASE STUDIES

As a result of the data collected in the demographic survey discussed in chapter 4,

five individuals were selected as participants in this multiple case study. Each

participants had indicated in the survey that they were willing to serve as a case study

participant by supplying their e-mail address. I contacted each participant to ensure that they in fact were willing to participate. They indicated that they were, and arrangements were made for me to visit for a period of 2-3 days. This chapter reveals the events surrounding those interactions.

David, The Movie Orchestrator: The Eager Student

I boarded the plane with great excitement and anticipation about my trip to

California. I had communicated with David1 a number of times since his graduation from

high school about his adventures in Los Angeles, and now I would have the opportunity

to see all that he has accomplished. As the plane reached its final altitude, I leaned back

and reminisced about David as a school student. I first encountered David in our 5th

grade strings class. He had elected to play the cello. His elementary music teacher raved

about his beautiful singing voice and his love of music. I found David to be eager and

focused. He excelled quickly because of his background in piano and his desire to

succeed.

David’s passion for music continued through middle school. He began taking

private cello lessons as well as continued piano lessons. In orchestra class, he was

1 The names of all of the participants, and ensembles have been changed to protect the anonymity of the participants.

93 determined and deliberate, which showed in his playing, as it was forced and tight. Upon preparing for high school, I remember David asking me about his cello audition for the

Lakewood Project. He was so excited and determined to get in, but he was a member of a very strong cello class, so I encouraged him to audition on cello and piano. He reluctantly took the advice and auditioned on both. When we accepted him on piano, he appeared a little disappointed, since cello was his primary focus at the time, but he jumped in and gave the group his all. As David’s high school career began, I arranged for him to start taking private cello lessons with a member of the Cleveland Orchestra, as

David had expressed an interest in pursuing cello performance in college with the ultimate goal of playing the Cleveland Orchestra. David benefited greatly from his new cello teacher. David quickly rose in the ranks of the program achieving membership in the highest orchestra. I recall many conversations about his desire to be a cellist, but near the end of his sophomore year, he started to talk about composing and movie music.

Our middle school orchestra director and assistant director for TLP, Mrs. Taft, mentioned a summer composition music camp at the Cleveland Institute of Music. David enrolled and blossomed as composer. He previously had been dabbling in composition, but this camp sparked his interest. While at camp, he composed a piece for string quartet. It was lovely, but difficult. I remember struggling to figure out how to guide a future composer, let alone one interested in composing for movies, toward college, because this was not something that I had ever experienced. I thought that perhaps the best thing to do was to advise him to apply to the major music schools in order to solidify his fundamentals before embarking on a composing career in the movies. I shared my concerns with my colleagues in hopes that one of them may have some advice. Shortly

thereafter, Mrs. Taft came to a TLP rehearsal with a flyer from MENC (now NAfME)

advertising a composition contest that she found in our professional magazine. We

shared the information with David, who went home and discussed it with his parents.

David decided to enter the competition. Months later, he won! He would be honored on

the West Coast at the national convention, but his composition had to be performed live, so his aunt (a professional violinist), Mrs. Taft, my student teacher, and I learned the piece and accompanied him and his family to the West Coast. After the recital of all of

the winning compositions, we were treated to a panel discussion by working composers.

This was invaluable for David, and for me. One of the panelist was a movie composer,

and he insisted that in order to make it in the movies, you had to live in Los Angeles. The

professional composer also advised David to write as many pieces as possible, and in as

many styles as possible. This advice made sense, but it propelled us into a world that we

knew nothing about.

David and I spoke daily about this future. He began taking private composition

lessons at the Cleveland Institute of Music and writing for TLP, our chamber orchestra,

and other small ensembles as much as possible. One day in chamber orchestra, he was

depressed because he felt like he was already running out of ideas. My advice was for

him to keep a notebook of all of the music we played and that he listened to; to write

down what he liked about each piece, and more specifically, any chord progressions that

spoke to him. He did this and still uses this notebook today.

I am eager to see David. Moving to LA and embarking on a career in composition

has not been easy. He has been fortunate to have parents who have been able to assist

him financially; however, he called recently and told me that he was able to earn a living

95 wage solely through music and pursuing his dreams on his own. I cannot wait to see how he is doing this.

I spoke with David as soon as I arrived in Los Angeles. After exchanging pleasantries, David proceeded to explain the agenda for the next 2 days. Little did I know, the life of a freelance musician in LA appeared to be jam-packed with several different types of musicking, all stemming from David’s main connection in LA, Scott Thomas, an

Academy award-winning composer, whom he met while attending college in LA and was now this composer’s assistant. Our conversation ended with David planning to pick me up promptly at 10:00am on Tuesday, as we were scheduled to attend the board meeting of the local youth symphony that David works for as the educational advisor. David secured this position, without a music education degree, because of his relationship to Scott

Thomas. Scott met David when he was a sophomore in college in LA and took an interest in David and has been mentoring him ever since.

Day 1. After the youth orchestra board meeting, we ate lunch, conducted our interview and headed to Horace Mann Middle School, where David would be presenting a “Meet the String Instruments” presentation with members of the youth symphony for incoming 6th graders who had expressed an interest in orchestra. This was the first step in, hopefully, establishing a long-term relationship with this inner city LA school. The youth symphony board had received a grant in excess of $100,000 to connect with two inner city middle schools, provide educational assistance to the band directors within said schools and to help start an orchestra program. It is a renewable grant with the ultimate goal of diversifying the local youth orchestra membership and bringing high quality orchestra music to inner city families. This year, David will include these new orchestra

students in a concert at “Universal Studios” revolving around music from the animated

film, Despicable Me.

The presentation was fantastic. David played cello and was assisted by a violinist, a violist, and a bassist. They played Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 to show how all of the

instruments can play the melody. Then they each demonstrated their own instrument with

a song of their choice and concluded with two selections; one solo piece that David had

composed for the event, and the last one a medley of “Universal Studios” movie music

that David arranged. The students were ecstatic and eager to pick their instrument. After a

40-minute petting zoo, we packed up and traveled back to the city. David confirmed that

he would pick me up at 6:00am the next morning.

Figure 5.1: David entering Horace Mann Middle School; Pre-concert rehearsal

Day 2. The alarm rang at 4:45 am. The time change was definitely on my side, as

it felt like 7:45am. I had breakfast, pulled together my notes, tape recorder, and other

personal items, and left for the day. It was a little before 6:00am when I stepped out onto the busy sidewalk of Union Station in Los Angeles; the city resembled a beehive of people zealously pursuing their day’s agenda. I spotted David sitting in his car. As I approached, he jumped out and yelled, “I have some great news! Last night I got a call from Scott, and he hired me to orchestrate my first movie! It is called Girl’s Trip, staring

Jada Pinkett Smith and Queen Latifah through Universal Studios (David, personal

communication, August 17, 2016). “Oh, and one more piece of good news…Scott said he

wants to meet you, so we will be going to his house in Malibu today so the two of you

can chat” (David, personal communication, August 17, 2016). With that we were off,

jockeying through the LA traffic, by Walt Disney Concert Hall, past Universal Studios,

through hills charred by wildfires that had come dangerously close to the city in the

spring, then on our way to Valencia, CA, where David was scheduled to teach two

general music classes for a charter school.

The Setting

The charter school students walk to a nearby music store for music class. Cindy,

the store owner, is a trumpet player who graduated from University of Southern

California with a degree in music education and specializes in early childhood. Cindy

opened this store in hopes of complementing the sparse music programs within local

school district. The store offers private lessons on all instruments, daily pre-school music,

general music classes for middle and high school charter schools, adult instrumental

lessons, band and orchestra classes 4 days a week for the charter school mentioned above,

Saturday band and orchestra rehearsals for all students who are interested, chamber music coaching’s, and piano labs. The store also is the site of a stunning recital hall for studio concerts, ensemble concerts, and other events. David and I arrive at the music store a little before 7:30am, and I have time to appreciate their facilities.

Figure 5.2. Private lesson studio; Piano lab; Music rehearsal room; Recital hall.

The high school charter school students arrive and take their seats quietly, perhaps

because they are fixated on their individual cellular devices. There are 14 boys and four

girls of all ethnicities. David calls the class to order and projects his computer screen onto

the dry erase board, which had been moved to the center of the room. David explains to

the students that the topic for the semester is arranging. He continues by asking if the

students know the difference between arranging and composing. A girl in the front row

raises her hand and replies, “Composing is music that originates in your brain, and

arranging is when you take some else’s music and redo it” (field notes, August 17,, 2016).

A boy in the last row raises his hand, and asks, “Do you have to be able to read music in

order to arrange and compose?” David answers with an enthusiastic, “Yes!” and the

young boy moans and returns to his cell phone screen. David proceeds to tell the students

that a useful skill in arranging is having a trained ear. The class just sits quietly,

appearing to be half engaged and half disinterested. I find it interesting that even though

they are not sitting on the edge of the seat eagerly anticipating the next step, they are

definitely hearing David, answering his questions and half-heartedly participating in his exercises.

David turns his focus to ear training and begins his lesson on intervals by defining an interval as the distance between two notes. He asks the students if they recall the name of the key with no sharps and flats from last year, and they all respond, “C Major” (field notes, August 17, 2016). David leads the class through identifying the distance between

two notes “not the quality” (field notes, August 17, 2016). David adds, but that comment

appears to just fly over the students’ heads. I was surprised to see how quickly the small

group mastered the concept. David then asks, “Do you remember what song you wrote

100 down on your music survey last week in response to the question, ‘What is your favorite song?’” “Yeah!” they say, with an inquisitive tone as everyone looks at David. “Well, those are the songs that you are going to be arranging this semester.” Several students jerk forward in their seat, eyes wide, and one shouts, “Are you kidding?” “No, we can do it!” and David starts to play Do Re Mi from the “Sound of Music” on the piano saying,

“Let’s start by reviewing our solfege.” (field notes, August 17, 2016). The class joins in with a renewed vigor and starts singing. David continues by taking the class through a series of ear training exercises that focus on intervals, then concludes the 45-minute lesson with the class assisting in the transcription of the melody and bass line of “Let it

Be” by the Beatles.

After the students left, there were a few minutes in between classes. David began setting up the room for the next group. It was apparent that the students had previous training in creating rhythms, as they did it seamlessly, and without hesitation. The scaffolding of the lesson plan was logical and easy for the students to follow. David does not have a degree in music education, but has served as a counselor at TLP summer camps for several years. I cannot help but hope that some of his ability to break down objectives and guide students through the building process is because of his experiences in those summer TLP settings. The moment was interrupted by eight middle school boys bursting into the room eager for their rhythm lesson.

We left Valencia for a quick bite and the long drive to Malibu. Siri says that it is a

54-minute drive, but in the LA area, it is rush hour all day long. In actuality, the drive was closer to 2 hours. David has lived in LA for years, but still uses Siri to help navigate traffic.

101

An Unexpected Interaction

As we snaked through the Malibu Creek State Park on a two-lane highway called

Malibu Canyon Road, David prepped me for my meeting with Scott. Scott is quite private

and passionate. He enjoys composing for films, but his current project is conducting

orchestras. Scott’s true infatuation is reviving old film music by conducting a live

orchestra while the movie is showing above. He has conducted orchestras from LA, New

York, Chicago, Boston, Sydney, England, and Germany, and he is hoping to come to an

agreement to conduct his favorite orchestra, The Cleveland Orchestra, during the 2017-

2018 season. David lists a number of films for which Scott has composed and another set

of films on which Scott has played. As a violinist, Scott started his career in the movie

business by playing in a studio orchestra. I am in shock at the resume of the man with

whom David has been working the past few years, and I cannot wait to meet him.

The hills break open next to Pepperdine University, and instantly we are looking

at the Pacific Ocean. We turn right and continue along a small highway. David points out

Cher’s house and the intersection where Bruce Jenner (now Caitlyn Jenner) was involved

in a fatal car accident on the Pacific Coast Highway. My head is twisting and turning as

fast as possible in order to catch all of the celebrity sights. We slow and turn right on to a

tree-lined road that has horses grazing in pastures on either side. We parallel park in front

of a beautiful home. David sits in the car for a second and explains that Scott’s father was

in the movie business, and that each child received a house personally designed, built,

and furnished by Frank Lloyd Wright on a plot of land in Malibu. I looked out the car window, toward the house, and stopped breathing for a second. “Wow, let’s do this!” I said, and with that, we jumped out and approached the Wright home.

102

David walked right into the basement without knocking, and we could hear Scott loudly talking to the internet service man about how inconvenient it was for the internet to stop right now. Scott’s personal assistant met us, asked us to stay in the family room while he informed Scott of our arrival. He soon returned and took us back to Scott’s recording- composing studio. Scott was seated behind a large black desk situated in the middle of the studio, facing the wall which housed four large computer screens containing his most recent film score. As we entered, he spun around in his office chair, popped to his feet, and yelled, “David!” David introduced us, and my astonishing interview began.

We exchange pleasantries and he asked about the reason for my visit. I explained that I was working on my dissertation and hoped that he might be able to add some valuable information. He responded with “OK, I hope so.” My big question was what he saw in David at the tender age of 19 that made him want to work with him, and why he continued to do so. Scott looked at David, “You were 19 when we met; I forget how young you are.” Scott flatly states, “Because he has all this skill” (interview, August 17,

2016). Scott excuses himself, thanks the IT service man, and returns, continuing to speak as if he had never left the room at all.

So much of Western music was built on an amateur culture. If you think

about before there was TV and film, in 1890 anywhere in America, people

would go and have dinner, and after dinner, the entertainment was

someone playing the piano or something. So in my musical family, we

were trained obsessively. I do not mean that in a negative way, but we

went to Palisades High School. I was in LA Unified [the public school

103

system]. I had a course in 10th grade, a music history course, which met

for an hour a day every day. This course went way beyond my USC

undergrad and graduate school courses. I felt like most of us that are

continuing to do this [music] learned more in high school than we did in

college. So for me, with David, it has been sort of a slow matriculation. I

asked him to help me more and more. Sometimes I pay. It’s just that he

came from the same world that I came from, which is some kind of world

training. I do not know that it is a rock orchestra thing, but we are all kind

of open to various ways of doing things. Training is training. Reading

music is reading music. It is reading pitches and rhythms and then being

able to learn for yourself. Figure out what you do not know; learn what

you do not know by using your training. So I found that David, little by

little, has proved invaluable in my life (interview, August 17, 2016).

“I never knew that,” David injected, beaming with pride. “It’s true,” Scott answered. He continued.

Well, there is, of course, a culture of non-reading music…and as much as I am

about craft and being trained, I do not think the impulse to compose is predicated

on training… I grew up, in the late 60s. I am 62, and I grew up loving Hendricks,

and then…in our school system, there was a full-time orchestra, chorus, art, you

know. It was the richest, loveliest environment. The exact opposite of what it is

now. And I cannot think of anyone that I worked with in high school that is not

doing something in music. Funny...it seemed to me that David came out of this

same sort of environment (interview, August 17, 2016).

104

A few minutes later, Scott returns to the music history course from his high school days.

I was in 10th grade, in a music history class, it was amazing. There were 30 of us

that all read music. Maybe not everyone was equal, but equal enough, and we

went through everything. When I look back on it, it was so bizarrely extraordinary

that that happened, and I think in everyone’s life [there] is something like that that

they will never forget. It is a permanent part of your psyche, your work ethic, the

whole thing. And I have never really thought about this, but this is why David has

sort of gravitated into our little orbit…but it is all kind of interrelated (interview,

August 17, 2016).

As Scott relishes the connections he had made between his musical past and

David,

I wondered if there were particular skills that David has that stood out to Scott, considering David’s young age. Scott responds.

David has the skills…and if he doesn’t [know something], he figures it out. So

now we have a lot of technology in this. When I was you [gestures toward

David], we just wrote it down. Now there is a lot of technology involved, and it

is just part of the thing. Using Sibelius and Finale, this is a huge part of this now.

And this is another skill to learn, because it is a barrier between you and your

brain and how you want to output your brain onto paper. Essentially, so other

people can play what you write. Also, David has done some really clever, really

well done arrangements of my own music, which I am sure he has done with

other people’s music, which is what I am sure he did with you. Right? For

instance, I did a conducting class here in January, and had David do a little

105

piece. I listened to it over and over and I thought this is really clever. (interview,

August 17, 2016)

We merge into the topic of the youth orchestra, and Scott states that it is

imperative for David, who is young, to reach out to the young people of today and get

their attention.

I know that you [David] are a film music fan and probably a geek in ways that not

everybody is, but you are young enough to understand and relate that stuff. Music

is music, is music, is music. We say, shit in shit out. It is what it is. Whether it is

good rock, pop, or jazz, anything; it is all a good way of [learning], you know

(interview, August 17, 2016).

I am feeling so relieved because Scott is a down-to-earth person who is passionate about music, and I am inspired by his passion. We continue to discuss the challenges of music education’s success in the LA Unified School District, and how music education must stand up and meet the needs of society with clever people like David. As we prepare to leave, Scott proclaims, “David is just part of our tribe!” I smile and look at David, who is grinning from ear to ear. We shake hands and float out of the Wright house.

David and I are exhausted but pleased with the events of the day. As we travel back on the Pacific Coast Highway, listening to Scott’s film music, I ask David how it made him feel when Scott called him “one of the tribe,” David replies,

I was shocked. Since I was a little boy, I can remember watching movies

and loving the music. When I was in middle school, I knew Scott’s name

because he had written the music to some of my favorite films. So when I

was given the chance to meet him in college, I took advantage of the

106

exchange…I e-mailed him and thanked him for his time and visit. Then

when he returned to campus, I was there again. Every time I saw him, I

made sure to talk to him and eventually, I was in a position to offer to help

him. So I e-mailed him immediately, which he responded to with a task,

which was to transcribe some music. I stayed up all night and e-mailed it

back to him in the morning. I just made sure that every time he needed

something that I did it quickly, ahead of schedule, and as accurately as

possible, the first time. It paid off. Now I am his orchestrator on a movie.

(personal communication, August 17, 2016)

David continued, saying,

I am not sure if you remember, Beth, but all through high school you

would say, “Reply to e-mails and phone calls quickly, be early to

rehearsals, be prepared, and always send handwritten thank you notes.” It

seems so simple, but it is true. I have been hired not because I am the best

player or composer, but because I respond, I do what I say I am going to

do, and I try and exceed their expectations.

Summary

David left Lakewood with the dream of becoming and working as a composer in the film industry. He possessed the musical confidence to try, and the determination to take chances in order to achieve his goals. A number of themes emerged during our visit.

First, from a musical standpoint, he started college with a well-trained ear, a working knowledge of music notation software, experience in arranging and composing, and a strong classical foundation in cello and piano. Second, his intrapersonal skills included a

107 work ethic that was highlighted by his persistence, a willingness to interact with others, and to bring music to them through creating opportunities for young children to listen, play, and explore music. David claimed that his teaching skills were developed in TLP during camps and clinics. His intrapersonal skills included a strong work ethic driven by a determination to please others and present his best work. He was confident thinking on his feet and comfortable interacting with all types of musicians in all types of musical genres. Third, he held a firm interest in the amateur culture of music making and how to connect that population to concert and film music. Although I did not observe it during this trip, I have seen David in the past work with a group of eight middle school students on composing music to accompany the book Harry Potter. Similarly, David has worked with a number of schools in the LA Unified School District, for free, helping kids to create musical snippets that express the mood and emotions of the books that they are reading. Tying music to reading is a pathway that David is passionate about, because he sees it as a stepping-stone to movie music.

Jeff, The Marketing Executive: Athlete and Class Clown

As I leave LA to fly to Chicago, I find myself switching gears. David was a passionate musician who chose to major in music and create his own musical career.

Jeff, on the other hand, is someone who I never dreamed would continue his musical endeavors. My first memory of Jeff was a conversation I had with Mrs. Taft, Jeff’s middle school orchestra director and TLP assistant director, about Jeff as an 8th grader who was struggling to decide whether to attend a private high school, which was a family tradition, or to attend Lakewood High School because of the music program. Mrs. Taft was fond of Jeff and found him to possess a large amount of untapped musical talent. He

108 was considered the class clown who never practiced, and Mrs. Taft often found herself having to discipline him. Ironically, despite his intense interest in sports, Jeff elected to attend Lakewood High School. This surprised everyone including his parents because of his lack of follow through when it came to music. Jeff had fallen in love with the sound of the violin in 2nd grade and asked his parents to put him in private lessons. They hesitated but eventually fulfilled the request. Jeff attended weekly lessons and found them interesting, but he preferred to play tunes by ear instead of read and learn the technical aspects required to progress. This trend continued in high school. Jeff rarely took his instrument home, and when he did, he would hide it under his coat when he was dropped off so that his athletic friends would not see him. In orchestra, his natural talent led him to an upper-level orchestra, where he would sit in the back, crack jokes, and see how high he could throw his violin in the air when I turned my back. Another example of Jeff’s flippant attitude toward his instrument was when he asked me for gaff tape prior to a concert. I complied only to notice Jeff’s bow taped together as I raised my arms, about to give the downbeat. Jeff sat up tall, ready to begin with a huge smile on his face. Jeff was the kind of student who teachers both love and dread, because they are witty and oftentimes inappropriate with their timing. He was always quick to apologize and then continue with something equally as funny, causing all to laugh, including me. His talent was envied by many, as the other students were aware that he never practiced and did not take orchestra seriously.

When Jeff decided to audition for TLP his junior year, Mrs. Taft and I simply entertained the audition. However, what we witnessed was a spark of greatness. He played a simple concerto that included some basic shifting, and while his positions were

109

still a mess, his improvisation was brilliant. His ear was magnificent. His journey around

the violin as he navigated the chord progressions was impressive. Against our better

judgment at the time, we took a chance and offered him a position. Jeff entered TLP with

the same jokester attitude, but he was now performing music that he enjoyed, and he

blossomed during his 2-year tenure.

The Lakewood Project was the right group for Jeff at the time, but as he ventured off to college, I felt like his musical journey was coming to an end. He never expressed an

interest in continuing, and when I would see him during the holidays, he would reminisce

but never indicate that he wanted to return. Imagine my surprise when some TLP alumni

started talking about Jeff and how he was posting music videos of himself playing violin

on YouTube. I was stunned. When Jeff submitted his survey information, I knew that he

would be a unique case who deserved attention.

Day 1. I grabbed a taxi from the airport at 5:15pm and headed to my hotel in

downtown Chicago. I was anxious because I was trying to get to Jeff’s bands rehearsal, which was scheduled to start at 8:00pm. This was the going to be the second-to-last rehearsal before their performance at The House of Blues, the prize for winning the 2016

Chicago I AM Festival, an independent art and music festival that strives to promote and celebrate individuals who create art and music. When I booked the flight, I thought that 4 hours was plenty of time, but I neglected to consider rush-hour traffic in Chicago. I called

Jeff from the taxi, and we decided that I would call upon my arrival at the hotel and that he would pick me up and take me to the rehearsal with him. I had not seen Jeff in years, and was quite excited to see him and hear about his accomplishments.

110

Jeff pulled up in front my hotel in his roommate’s Range Rover and hollered,

“Ms. Hankins!” I jumped in the car, we embraced, and then Jeff calmly began navigating

the Chicago traffic. As we started the drive to the band’s rehearsal space, Jeff and I

chatted, trying to catch up about family, life, and stories about his musicking since high school. I was taken aback by the loud volume of his voice, but quickly remembered that this was a prevalent trait of his in high school, as well.

Musicking Since High School

Jeff graduated from Lakewood High School in 2007. He attended a 4-year college and majored in psychology. He did take his violin to college, but he recalled only playing it a couple of times, jamming (improvising) with the twin brothers who lived across the hall. One played guitar and the other played piano a couple of times. On occasion, another guitarist who lived down the hall joined their jam sessions. Other than these few instances, Jeff did not play his violin while in college.

When Jeff moved to Chicago, he again packed his violin. As he settled into a new job and a new life, he found himself missing his violin, so he started playing on his own.

His friend base was unaware that he played violin, but an important part of their socializing included attending concerts as a group. This is where Jeff’s musicking stories began, in the car as we crept through the downtown Chicago streets.

Jeff laughed as we drove by the bar, Howl at the Moon, where he paid $40.00 to play Ants Marching on a red electric violin owned by the lady who was dueling musically with the piano player one evening. He was with his friends from college celebrating his birthday, and they did not know that he played violin; they were shocked. It was so much fun that it has become a tradition for Jeff’s birthday. As we approached another music

111 venue, Jeff started cackling and described yet another moment of musicking in which voluntary risk-taking was involved.

We used to follow this band called The Wheeler Brothers. They are a

family band from Texas, real cool, like country rock. They would come up

here [to Chicago] a couple times a year and play, so we would always go

watch them…I remember one time I was standing outside by that venue

and some guy came out. It was just me and my buddies outside standing

there waiting to go in, and this guy asks if we have a lighter. We said,

“Sorry, we do not smoke,” and he said “Aww, you guys here for The

Wheeler Brothers?” We said, “Yeah!” He said, “I am their manager.” We

introduced ourselves, and I decided to mention that when we were in the

venue earlier, I had seen a violin on stage. I had listened to this band a

number of times, and I knew that none of them played violin, so I asked,

“What’s the violin up there for? Who plays?” The manager said, “Oh, our

guitarist AJ plays on a couple of songs. He is not very good.” I told him I

have played my whole life and asked if I could jam with these guys after

the concert for 5 minutes that would be awesome. The manager said,

“What is your name?” I said, “Jeff.” He said, “I will go ask them. Maybe

we can work something out.” So he disappeared. Later during one of the

last songs of the night, the lead singer/guitarist goes up to the mic and

says, “Is there a Jeff out there that plays violin? Get up here!” We were in

the front row. I was with 5-10 of my friends. I was, like, looking at them,

and I was just like...they just shoved me up on stage and then it was so

112

funny. They handed me the violin. I just played along by ear. They gave

me a solo and I improvised. It was amazing (interview, August 20, 2016).

Jeff paused only for a moment to take a breath, and he continued with more musicking

stories. The next one involved playing music around a fire pit with the college music

majors who lived above him. Jeff commented on how nice it was to play with music majors, as he found that his playing improved quickly and empowered him to pursue his next musical endeavor: recording himself and making You Tube videos.

Jeff moved to his own apartment and set up a recording studio. He spent time

after work playing and experimenting with his new equipment and eventually posted a

number of videos on You Tube and Twitter. I wondered whether Machine Gun Kelly, a

popular Cleveland rapper, saw any of Jeff’s YouTube videos or Tweets, since he was asked to perform with him on his tour. Jeff responded with, “Well, kind of.” One of those tweets resulted in a private message from an old high school friend telling Jeff about a competition on Grammy U to perform with Machine Gun Kelly, who was now touring and making it big. Jeff created a video, submitted it, and was selected to perform with

Machine Gun Kelly on three shows in July and October of 2015.

Figure 5.3. Jeff performing at a Machine Gun Kelly concert.

113

The musicking stories continued as we left the bright lights and tall buildings of

downtown Chicago to the quaint townhouses of Lincoln Park, where Jeff and I were

going to meet up with his band for their rehearsal. Jeff pulls into a driveway and runs in

to grab his violin, a white Fender violin he had purchased only 18 months earlier. He

collects his instrument and we walk toward the rehearsal space for the ban’s final dress

rehearsal. During our walk, Jeff explains how the band won the Chicago, I AM Festival.

The competition began in early summer with over 50 bands at a local venue called The

Elbo Room, which was also one of the sponsors of the Chicago I AM Festival. After each

band performed at The Elbo Room, the audience would vote on their performance. The

winner of the evening would move on to the next round. There are four total rounds, and at the conclusion of those four rounds, five bands remain. The ultimate winner of the top five bands is based on the number of tickets each band sells to the House of Blues concert. In this case, Jeff’s band was named the ultimate winner just a few hours prior to this rehearsal, so two of Jeff’s bandmates were at The House of Blues selecting their performance time for the following evening.

We approach a Chicago-style townhouse and enter as the front door was

unlocked. Jeff yells, “Hello,” but there is no response. We proceed down to the basement

and enter a small bedroom that has been transformed into a rehearsal space. In the far

corner is an electronic drum set surrounded by parts of an acoustic drum set. Directly

behind the drum set is a street sign that read “The FRIENDLY CONFINES” leaning

against the window on the sill. Along the wall to the right of the door is a dresser that

contains clothes. On top of that dresser is a television where the band can watch sports or

watch videos of their most recent public performance so they can listen and critique.

114

There is a small end table that holds an amp and surrounds a small refrigerator. Two black and silver stools are placed randomly within the room. Along the wall to the left of the door is a large piece of furniture that is covered by two shipping blankets and topped with a pillow. Empty cases, mics, mic cords, mic stands, amps, empty water bottles, partially full soda bottles, and empty beer cans litter the rest of the floor space. Hanging on the walls are guitars; pictures of Paul Stanley, singer and guitarist from KISS, one in make-up and one without; and a mirror. The closet has been transformed in to a recording studio with a computer, keyboard, microphone, and acoustical foam tiles on the walls of the small studio space.

Figure 5.4. Jeff’s Indie Band rehearsal space

115

Figure 5.5. Continuation of Jeff’s Indie Band rehearsal space

Jeff bemoans the fact that he is the only band member present at the predetermined rehearsal time. He helps me find a small space on the floor, grabs his instrument and a stool, plugs into the amp on top of the refrigerator, and starts warming up with scales and classical etudes. Slowly, the other members arrive. Below is a list of band member names, the role they play in the band, and some personal background related to their membership in the group.

Table 5.1

116

Members of Jeff’s 6-person Indie Rock Band and How They Joined ______Name (pseudonym) of Band Members Role in Band/And How They Joined Band ______Alex Rhythm guitar player with whom Jeff enjoys making videos of their music for YouTube. Jeff met Alex through a mutual friend. Bert Lead guitarist, songwriter, and band leader. Saw Alex and Jeff’s YouTube video of them playing Ants Marching with one of Bert’s friend and asked to meet Alex and Jeff to see if they were interested in joining a band. Luke Drummer, who lives with Bert in the townhouse that contains the band’s rehearsal space. Luke and Bert went to high school together. Dr. Burke Bass player and medical student in Chicago. Fellow medical student of Bert’s girlfriend Jeff Violinist and former member of TLP Hannah Singer. Accompanied a friend on a ski trip that all of the above members were on. Learned of the band and asked if she could join as the lead singer. ______

117

The rehearsal begins with Luke giving everyone an update on Dr. Burke’s travel

plans. Dr. Burke was completing his internship at the Mayo Clinic and would be flying in

the next morning with the intention of meeting the band at their rehearsal space so they

could run their set. It had been several weeks since the band had all been together, and

the stress of not having full rehearsals precipitated the next conversation, which entailed

the order of the set list and contingency plans in case Dr. Burke was not prepared. The

band starts rehearsing their original songs.

There were seven original songs, entitled “Fireflies”, “Fifth of Whiskey”, “One

More First”, “Bluebird”, “Back Porch Cigarette”, “On Fire”, and “Chicago

Summertime”, all of which Bert composed. What follows is an intricate dance between playing, diagnosing trouble spots, and solidifying structure. They use phrases about musical form, chord progressions, and transitions, and then they finalize the improvisation order and placement. Every member of the band is participating in the review of the performance product. Jeff leads most of the conversations by seeking comments from all members. After reviewing the group’s original material, they move on to their two cover songs: “Work from Home” by Fifth Harmony and “Don’t Let me

Down” by The Chainsmokers. During The Chainsmokers song, the band experiences a loss of time because the drummer missed the transitions in and out of cut time. At the conclusion of the song, Luke yells, “Argh, I keep doing that.” Jeff responds with, “That is

OK, let’s listen to it again.” Jeff turns on the television and finds a video of “The

Chainsmokers” playing Don’t’ Let Me Down. The group watches and listens. They mime their parts along with the video. As the video approaches the section in question, the group’s focus grows more intense. At the end of the video, there is silence, then

118

collaborative effort continues with each member articulating things that they heard and

felt were essential to navigating the passage successfully. Hannah mentions the exact

words that she will sing immediately before the change. Jeff comments that the bridge

will repeat twice and then it goes into cut time for 8 measures, and then the drums drop

out. Jeff reviews his comments by playing for the group the part in question, calling out

the transitions that he referred to while playing. After those comments, the group begins

reviewing the section by detangling the parts and slowly rebuilding the section. Hannah

talks through the words while Bert plays the chord progression. Jeff nods his head with

the beat as Luke acts out his drum part on his lap. Both Jeff and Hannah prep the time change by raising their hands and pointing to Luke as the transition goes by. Jeff suggests that the group play through this transition five times, perfectly. Everyone agrees and the repetitions begin. After successfully completing five reps, they talk through who will lead the group through the transition visually, so that the mistake is not made again. Bert takes the lead, and Jeff is the back up.

After playing for approximately 90 minutes, a few members grab an adult

beverage while others grab a bottle of water and start talking about the set list order, and

how to build the show. As they discuss which song to open with, they also block the

members’ entrances onto the stage. “Black Porch Cigarette” will be the first song. Jeff

will sneak out onto the dark stage and start a vamp. Once the vamp cycles through, a new

member will enter and join in the loop. Once the entire band is on stage, the song will

continue. In addition to blocking the stage entrances, Jeff jots down lighting cues for the

stage technicians in hopes that they will be able to help build excitement for the audience.

As the set list grows in length, the conversation segues to the last song. A debate

119 commences about whether to end with an original song or a cover song. Half of the band wants to end with a cover so that the audience will sing along, while the other half wants to conclude the set with “Chicago Summertime,” because it is upbeat and celebrates

Chicago. Upon further discussion, the band votes to finish the set with their original

“Chicago Summertime,” and adds props such as sunglasses and beach balls that they will throw out into the audience. The rehearsal concludes with a review of their schedules for show day.

Show Day

Jeff wakes up early because he is playing violin for a friend’s wedding that afternoon and had some preparation to do. He gets up at 6 a.m. so he can learn the melody for each song by ear and transfer the accompanying karaoke tracks to his phone.

He will use these tracks as back up for this performance. After the wedding, Jeff picks me up and we return to the townhouse in Lincoln Park. Show day starts in a similar fashion as the previous day, with band members slowly trickling into rehearsal. After a rough start, the band starts making music, minus Dr. Burke. They play through the set without stopping. The same intricate dance from the day before ensues. They elect to review a few spots, and then the members scatter to finish their own personal preparation, agreeing to meet at The House of Blues at 1:00pm to load in.

When I arrive back at the hotel, I call Alice, another former TLP member, who lives in Chicago and wants to see Jeff perform. I meet Alice in the lobby of the hotel and we walk to The House of Blues. As we arrive, we jump in line to pick up our will call tickets. The concert is sold out. As we wait, we spend some time catching up, and then

120

Alex notices one of the many posters announcing the concert. Seeing the posters only affirms the reality of the event, and we are both eager to see Jeff on stage.

Figure 5.6. Poster announcing the concert at The House of Blues.

Showtime

As Alice and I enter the venue, the lobby is crowded with excited fans. We hand

our tickets to the ticket taker and go through security. As we enter the auditorium, the

energy is palpable. Alice and I worm our way to the front row after we grab a drink.

Behind us is Jeff’s family from Cleveland. We embrace and they show us their large cut-

outs of Jeff’s face that can be seen from across the room. Hannah’s mother joins our pre-

concert celebration and distributes pins that depict the name of the band. The families of

the band members are so proud and excited to see their children on stage making music.

121

The lights dim, the stage blackens, and Alice and I secure our place in the front row,

standing room only. We watch Jeff sneak out onto the stage. He sees us, smiles, and starts

“Back Porch Cigarette”. The screams are deafening. The band enters the stage precisely

as planned. The dynamism on stage ignites the audience.

Nine songs later, the venue erupts in applause and cheers as they hit beach balls

around the hall. As Jeff and the other band members join their fans on the main floor,

they are greeted with high fives, hugs, and free drinks. I express my congratulations and gratitude to Jeff and begin to say my goodbyes. Alice needs to leave, and I want Jeff to

celebrate with his friends and family. As I give Jeff one last hug, I thank him for the

stories about him improvising in concerts, making recordings and videos that lead to

shows with rappers, learning music by ear just to make a friend’s wedding more

meaningful, and finally, for including me in his amazing journey of preparing to play at

the House of Blues. I am so proud and honored to have been present for this short, yet

saturated 48 hours of his musical life.

Summary

Jeff, a violinist, discovered that he missed playing his violin after college. He

started making music again simply by practicing at home and learning or re-learning popular songs by ear. He sought performance opportunities as a soloist at public venues, such as open mic nights, posting videos on his personal YouTube channel, and sharing his performances via Twitter. He used his social connections to find other musicians and form a band that performs regularly around Chicago. Jeff continues to utilize a set of skills that he acquired while a member of TLP to pursue his musicking today. This set includes his ability to improvise, learn music by rote, plot and stage a show,

122

communicate musically with musicians from all genres and families, and use technology

to record, improve, and seek out performance opportunities. In addition to his use of musical skills, Jeff credits TLP with providing him with the opportunity to increase his personal confidence, which has impacted greatly his musical and professional life.

This confidence has enabled him to take risks. He enjoys the challenge of making

music in new and what some may call high-pressure settings, whether with people he

barely knows in whatever instrumentation is present, jumping up on stage to perform at a

moment’s notice, joining a national tour and performing in front of thousands, competing

in a large-city music competition, organizing and building a show, or posting music

videos for the world to view. For Jeff, the desire to musick is stronger than the fear of

failure. The factors that appear to weave themselves into every musical situation with

Jeff, however, are the relationships, both musical and personal, that he has fostered with

people. These relationships, and the ability to interact with others in a variety of roles,

seem to be a foundation in which he has built and continues to serve his musical interests.

Rachel, The Musicologist: The Concertmaster

My first memory of Rachel was when she was in middle school and announced, “I play the violin because they always have the melody.” Rachel was an ambitious, talented pianist who had chosen the violin for the reason stated above. As a middle school orchestra student, she loved music, all kinds of music. She played the violin in orchestra and piano in jazz band. I assumed her primary musical interests leaned toward piano, jazz, and alternative styles, as she spent much of her middle school years conversing with the middle school band director because she was always talking to her about jazz,

123

improvisation, and the accordion. However, as time went by, I discovered that her true

passion was classical music. She loved listening to and practicing classical music.

As her abilities on the violin increased throughout high school, she became the

concertmaster, first violinist of our string quartet, and a member of our local youth

orchestra. When the time came for her to decide whether to audition for TLP, she loved

the idea of playing popular music on her violin and also was enamored with the idea of

changing classical music into rock style pieces. Her piano teacher was not happy with

her decision to join TLP, claiming that it would “destroy her Beethoven” (interview,

September 29, 2016), but Rachel was adventurous and out-going, and this was something

that she enjoyed.

Along with her passion for music, she excelled in foreign languages. During high

school, she studied Latin, German, and French. Her strong ear helped her with her

language studies as well as complemented her strong interest in stylistic articulation and

communication. Rachel’s outgoing personality, coupled with her interest in culture,

communication, and articulation, made her a strong member of TLP. Her talents were

expansive, and I will be interested to see and hear about her paths since high school,

which have included three degrees and a wide range of experiences.

Musicking Since High School

I arrived at Rachel’s house to pick her up for dinner. She leapt in the car, eager to eat at Lakewood’s newest Mexican restaurant. During the short ride, we reminisced about

Lakewood High School as well as a mutual friend who had just resigned from the education department of a major orchestra. As we entered the restaurant, we were seated in the quiet section, ordered water, and continued the conversation from the car. Rachel

124

recently had returned to Lakewood after living and teaching at a large university while pursuing a Ph.D. in musicology. She returned home to write her dissertation and to

reestablish relationships in hopes that they may lead to a job. I was eager to hear about

her dissertation, but elected to start our conversation inquiring about her musicking

practices following the completion of her master’s degree in violin performance.

“The biggest and probably most prominent is the Rosewood Strings, which is the

string quartet that we started as the Four Seasons String Quartet in high school, and continued to play together under a new name after we graduated.” (interview, September

29, 2016). The quartet averages approximately 10-12 gigs a year, performing at a variety of events including weddings, cocktail parties, grand openings, and recitals. As the manager of the Rosewood Strings, Rachel explains that the group employs 10 different string players, mostly TLP alumni. She prefers to hire TLP alum because they possess the ability to perform music of all genres, understand how to articulate the different stylistic requirements with their bows, project their sound so that the group can be heard indoors and outdoors, and perform with confidence.

I played a wedding on Saturday with Karen [a TLP alum], and she brought

a violist—I did not know who he was—but I just kept thinking, “Play

louder, play louder, play louder.” He sounded good but he was so quiet.

And Karen and I were playing much more to each other and louder, and

this wedding had a ton of pop arrangements, and so I do not know, I don’t

know if that was him not being as comfortable with it. We were just

knocking it out. She had this incredibly syncopated bassline, and I was just

floating right over it. (interview September 29, 2016)

125

When clients request specific songs, Rachel arranges all of the music for the quartet, which is one of the Rosewood Quartet’s key marketing strategies, because they are not restricted to only performing pre-arranged selections. Rachel takes great pride in her chamber music arrangement, as sometimes when she subs in other groups, the musicians who have not had any alternative style training do not play with the proper accents, or driving intensity, and their arrangements usually are created from piano sheet music and lack any consideration for the type of music being performed. Rosewood arrangements are not simplified versions of the piano sheet music selections. Clients may have hired a classical string quartet, but they want the music performed by that ensemble to be as close to the original as possible, and this is the Rosewood Quartet’s specialty.

The income generated by the Rosewood String Quartet has been essential in Rachel’s pursuit of her Ph.D., although the skill of transcribing also has proven to be a defining characteristic of Rachel’s research pursuits.

The Music in Video Games: The Dissertation

Rachel pulls out her computer, her primary setting for musicking, as she is currently writing a dissertation on “Cultural Reductivism, Ludic Replication:

Representations of Disability in 8- and 16-bit Soundscapes.” The central argument of the dissertation is that video games are expressions of broader tacit cultural anxieties surrounding the disabled body. Rachel navigates the main screen with lightning fast key strokes, opening several applications and musical scores to the data for one of her dissertation chapters on the music of “Final Fantasy VI” (a video game), developed for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, released in 1994, and the sixth title of the

Final Fantasy Series, a series which continues to this day. Unlike the first several “Final

126

Fantasy” versions that exist within medieval settings, the sixth version uses hints of the

Second Industrial Revolution. Known by some as the “steampunk” environment, which is the use of steam power, petroleum, steel and iron production, railways, sewage systems, water and gas systems, telegraphs, and electricity. Final Fantasy VI takes place in an undisclosed world made up kingdoms with a growing imperial presence; however, the characters grow in strength by manipulating magic instead of the advancing machinery of the era.

From a macro view, one could infer that the game has a fine arts motif that resembles an opera. The game consists of three acts (the world of balance, the floating continent, and the world of ruin), has a large cast, portrays a feeling of grandeur and spectacle throughout, and even incorporates an actual playable opera scene where the player must select the precise lyrics for the singer in order to advance. “The character design draws some inspiration from commedia dell’arte, particularly with Kefka’s clownish motif” (personal correspondence, January 1, 2017). Kefka is the general to

Emperor Gestahl, a cruel dictator of the Empire. Thousands of years before the time of the game, there was a war between three entities call the War of the Magi. This conflict released a magical energy that transformed inflicted humans into espers, which are the magical beings at the center of the game. Players energize these espers throughout the game and then summon them into battle. Emperor Gestahl captured several espers and used their magical powers in a research project that infused their magical powers with the industrial advancements of the day. Kefka is one of the first humans on whom Emperor

Gestahl experimented, resulting in Kefka suffering from severe impairment to his sanity.

Combating this duo within the magical world is the essence of the game.

127

Rachel further explained some of the technical considerations behind investigating the music in the game:

RD: What I first do for the video game stuff is I get the source code of the

actual file as it would have appeared in the game. So this is an SPC file

(Super Nintendo File). This is just the extracted source file of the game, so

I have to get these specially. I could rip them myself, but I just do not have

the set up to do that, so there are enough fans that I am usually able to find

everything I need.

EH: When you say rip, does that mean pull it off of the game?

RD: Yes, they have ways of doing that. But then, it is special type of file,

so you need a special reader for it such as Audio Overload. This is

freeware, but it plays a bunch of different types of sound files. For

example, this is one of the main ones in my [dissertation] Chapter 6.

[Plays the file] See, it has a lot of different layers that we can hear. I am

going to transcribe that by ear. There are only eight audio channels in the

Super Nintendo, so clearly if there are more than eight instruments, we

have something that is doubling that is switching. So how do I figure that

out if I am just listening to it? I can make a score where I say, OK,

obviously it is MIDI, but that is the strings; that is the oboe; that is the

brass; you know that is the snare drum. This program allows me to

actually go in, and these are all the different kinds of files. This is an SPC

file. I can just un-check [check boxes in the user interface of the Audio

Overload program] and then I will only hear what is happening in SPC 1,

128

so the 1 audio channel. (interview transcript excerpt, September 29, 2016)

(Appendix E).

Rachel swiftly clicks around the screen in search of the audio files from the battle scene in Final Fantasy VI, so she can let me hear some of the music she has transcribed by ear.

The final boss battle music is the one I am most interested in for this character

[Kefka]. Because it is about his deepening insanity and that the initial musical

theme is sort of like mischievous, they present him as very clownish, and you do

not take him too seriously. Then there are kernels of that that show up in the

themes and it gets more and more grandioso, as in most media representations of

a mentally ill villain. It is kind of generic. He is a psychopath, but it’s not like

they are saying he has this disorder, right? It is a generic mental illness equals

bad. He is unhinged, he is murderous; be careful, this character is very similar to

the Joker in Batman. This is a Japanese game, but there it is a similar character [to

Commedia dell’arte, an improvised comedy from the 16th-18th century].

129

Figure 5.7. Kefka in the final battle.

There are five [musical] movements, so you fight different forms of the

boss going up, and it is like you are climbing up a tower and then you

finally get to the Lucifer form, then music starts pulling in all of this organ

crap. You are like, what is this, what is this that is happening [she plays

the organ part]? This is not boss music in a video game. So let's see, let me

find the moment when we get a little toccata moment [she plays it]. Very

weird for a video game, and it’s almost like we want to start a fugue

theme, but we do not quite. And then it will just loop back until you have

beaten that form (interview, Rachel, September 29, 2016).

Rachel is intrigued by this discovery, because the composer of the video game music was not classically trained, loves Prog Rock music (a broad subgenre of rock

130

music from the United Kingdom), and claims that the music for this game was influenced

by Elton John. In an attempt to prove or disprove his claim, Rachel feels that it is

important to see the music in score form, since the music at times is dense, and sometime

hard to hear. Transcribing the music by ear will enable her to analyze it and look for

themes. In order to create an accurate musical score, she decides to isolate the musical

channels. She demonstrates this by opening a program that allows her to isolate one

channel and export it to a wav file. She then opens the wav file in the program Audacity,

which allows her to manipulate the speed and pitch of the file and helps her examine the

music. She notates the score in “MuseScore.”

Her desire to dig deeper has revealed a Baroque figuration classic, akin to a

cantus firmus, performed at first in major and then repeated in minor. Rachel insists that

she would have never heard (“figured out”) that the composer had foreshadowed this

theme in the opening, which ends up being a critical musical component of the game,

without the aid of the musical score which she transcribed by ear. By jumping into her analysis this way, she uncovered a musical connection to a Bach fugue as well as a

Wagner opera. Rachel asserts that the fugues represent the battles between good and evil.

The game has three worlds, which equates with the three acts of a traditional opera. The

game has a large cast of charterers (like an opera), and the game portrays a feeling of

grandeur and spectacle (like an opera). Ironically, the game even contains a playable

opera where the player must select the next lyric in order to complete the level. Although

Nobuo Uematsu, the composer, once denied being influenced by classical music when

writing the music for “Final Fantasy VI”, this sentiment is in direct conflict with Rachel’s findings.

131

Teaching Chamber Music

When Rachel was faced with the difficult situation of not being accepted into any music history graduate programs in 2008, one of the options presented to her was to get a master’s degree in chamber music at CIM. She opted for violin performance, only because one member of her quartet decided to move on to medical school instead of CIM for chamber music. Rachel coaches chamber ensembles at a local high school to supplement her income, and to give the skills that she received from TLP to the younger generation. Currently, she is working with a mixed ensemble of a harpist, a vocalist, a flutist, and a violinist. She plays examples of classical chamber music for the group, they choose what they are interested in performing, and then Rachel teaches them how to arrange a fixed score into new parts for their unique instrumentation. Rachel is always listening to their conversations, and as a treat, will create arrangements of their favorite popular tunes for them to play. One day, the violinist surprised Rachel with mash-up of of “Canon in D” and “Blank Spaces” by Taylor Swift. Rachel was ecstatic and asked her student what inspired her to put these two songs together. The student replied, “They have a similar bass line and I thought it would sound cool!” (interview, September 29,

2016). While listening to their conversations, she has also discovered that they are video game fanatics. Thus, as a final project, Rachel had them select video game music, arrange it as a group, and plan a performance at a local video game establishment.

Summary

Rachel’s intense passion for music continued after high school. She received an undergraduate degree in music history and a master’s degree in violin performance. One might assume that because of her accomplishments, she will continue to musick in her

132

adult life; however, what is surprising his how she continues to musick. Rachel’s non-

conformist and unique examination of video game music relies heavily on her well-

trained ear and her desire to fully comprehend the musical score, for which she credited

TLP. Additionally, she acknowledged TLP for her ability to comprehend and converse with anybody about how the music helps to support and explain the differing roles within the game, and how those roles impact others. Her desire to embark on a fairly new category of research in musicology is yet another testament to what she referred to her

“comfort with failure” (interview, September 29, 2016). For her, TLP was constructed via many failed attempts, and Rachel, as a founding member, was privy to the power of a strong work ethic and determination, which were necessary to succeed.

Some of the themes that were revealed in this case were arranging, ear training, classical versus rock, staging and planning of performances, and the use of music notation software. Other themes were musical confidence, comfort with failure, and comparing TLP trained musicians with non-TLP trained musicians. The notion that

Rachel stressed the most was one of musical relationships. She thrives on her TLP connections. She fancies making music of any form with them, and she recognizes the musical freedom that she received because of her ability to communicate with musicians of all genres. The ability to perform music of all styles and appreciate music of all genres, has allowed her to develop her own personal identity as a musician; not following a prescribed path like a performance major, music educator, composer, or music historian.

An example of the importance of musical relationships that Rachel referred to in her interview was the bond formed between her and a chamber ensemble that she coaches at a local high school. Rachel has exposed the girls to all types of music, including video

133 game music, by which they were fascinated. Rachel taught the chamber ensemble how to arrange video game music and helped them plan a performance at a local coffee shop.

Everyone worked on publicity, staging, program flow, and uniforms. The concert was a huge success, and, like David, Rachel has used her experience in TLP to help other amateur musicians connect to the music in their lives as well as expose them to all types of music. Rachel has utilized the skills developed in TLP with those taught in college to create her own jobs and musical opportunities.

Lenny, The Pizza Delivery Driver: The Apprentice

When I selected Lenny as a case, I immediately remembered him running into the band room one day after school with drumsticks in his hand, laughing loudly, and saying hello to everyone. He was a freshman and ecstatic because he had just joined concert band as a drummer and he was only in choir in middle school. I was shocked that he was starting his instrumental career so late. The reason that Lenny was running into the band room was because he had scheduled a lesson with two of his concert band colleagues.

Jim and Nick were going to teach him how to play a flam, a single stroke roll, and a single paradiddle. Lenny prepped the snare drum and pulled out his band book and a notebook. He started practicing on his own. Jim and Nick wandered into the band room, joined Lenny, and they started working. The boys practiced and practiced until I had to ask them to leave at 5:00pm. This became a ritual 3 days a week. It was amazing how quickly Lenny took to the drums.

When I e-mailed Lenny and asked him to participate in this study, he responded quickly, and we set up our interview first, because we struggled to find a common time that I could observe Lenny’s musicking. Lenny is a full-time drummer in three bands and

134

delivers pizzas to supplement his music income. Therefore, most of his rehearsals occur

during the day, which conflicts with my teaching schedule. Lenny came to Lakewood

High School for the interview. As the interview commenced, he reminded me that he had

gone to a local university to study music education on a scholarship, but he had dropped

out after 1 year because he was more interested in blues and rock and was losing interest

in classical. During his only year of college, he intentionally took an accessories course

so that he could learn as much as possible about auxiliary percussion and different types

of drumming styles, as he felt that this knowledge would benefit him in his new pursuit

of a career as a rock and blues drummer.

Musicking Since High School

I finished teaching Camerata orchestra, cleared the auditorium of lingering

students, and proceeded to my office to gather my thoughts and prepare for the interview.

Lenny had agreed to meet me at the high school. As I emerge from my office, Lenny and

I accidentally bump into each other. We hug, exchange pleasantries, and quickly

disappear into the office so that we will not be disturbed. Before jumping into the interview questions, I ask Lenny to review his college experience with me. Lenny explains,

“I attended college because it was something that I thought I should do.

But while I was there, it felt like I was starting over again. I wanted to

make music and I felt like I was wasting time so I dropped out”

(interview, November 30, 2016).

He then adds,

135

“After dropping out of college, I returned to what worked for me in

college, which was talking and watching people who were drumming for a

living. I recommitted to a band that had been formed while I was in TLP,

which consists of three other TLP members, joined a new band, and

started frequenting local music clubs. I would go to the Lakeview Lounge

on Wednesdays for blues night and Chester’s Biker Bar on Thursdays for

rock and roll. Both venues encouraged patrons to step on stage and jam

(interview, November 30, 2016).

Lenny and other TLP members had done this regularly for fun while in high school, and

Lenny returned with Shawn, a former TLP member who is a member of the rock group,

Vessel of Mischievousness.

The Setting

Vessel of Mischievousness (pseudonym) is a band formed by four TLP students when they were in high school and continues to make music together 8 years after high school graduation. The instrumentation includes two electric guitars, electric bass, and drums. They play original heavy metal music that emulates the music of “Dream

Theater.”

Table 5.2

Members of Vessel of Mischievousness

______Name (pseudonym) of Band Members Context of Membership

______Lenny Drummer, youngest member of the band Steve Guitarist, first guitarist ever in TLP

136

John Electric bass player, first bass player ever in TLP Shawn Guitarist, just returned from West Coast tour with other band, and is Lenny’s high school jam night buddy ______I pack my tape recorder, notebook, consent forms, pens, and wallet, and walk out the door. I head to the office and grab my earplugs, as I am nervous about the volume of this particular ensemble. While driving to the rehearsal, my mind is buzzing with wonder about what I will see, hear, and discover during the rehearsal. I park on the street in front of the auto shop, which is dark, so I call John for help finding the door. John emerges and we proceed toward the entrance. We enter through the back door to the residence that is located next to the auto shop. The room is full of musical instruments and equipment. I count three drum sets, five amps, six mic stands, and even more mics. A stereo system with speakers is mounted on the wall, and there are a number of electric and acoustic guitars around the room. This space is located in the basement of Shawn’s house, and is used by a number of local bands as a rehearsal space.

137

Figure 5.8. The rehearsal space for Vessel of Mischievousness.

Lenny is setting up his drum set, Steve is picking with his volume off, and Shawn is setting up the mics. Every member of this band is a former member of TLP, so I hug each one and express my gratitude for allowing me to attend the rehearsal. We chat about their current lives and reminisce about TLP. As soon as Lenny is finished erecting the drum set, the rehearsal commences. Steve calls out the first original song as everyone inserts their ear plugs. The volume is loud, and you can feel the vibration of the music, but it is melodic and interesting. I am surprised by this, as I had envisioned fast rhythmic ostinatos and screaming. Steve and Shawn’s virtuoso guitar playing is impressive in this first selection. As the song ends, they laugh and celebrate, and it feels like the room physically exhales as the energy generated by the sound dissipates. Shawn breaks the decompression by stating, “God, I love this song, Steve! It is so hard, but so awesome.

138

Will you please show me how to play the second bridge part again?” (field notes,

November 16, 2016). Steve and Shawn face each other, and Steve slowly plays through

Shawn’s part while Shawn mimics Steve’s movements. Steve breaks the riff into

sections. Shawn echoes each section back, slowly pasting the riff together. Steve gives

advice and praise as Shawn works through the passage. Steve isolates certain picking

strokes to assist Shawn in the acquisition of the pattern. In the meantime, John and Lenny

watch. Once Shawn feels ready, they continue.

The mentor-mentee relationships continue; no one person exclusively wears one

hat. The next stop is for Lenny as a passage goes from 6/8 to 9/8 to 12/8, and then back to

6/8, with the accent changing throughout. This time, Steve reaches for the recording of

the piece, which he made on his computer at home. Lenny listens and mimes the parts.

Steve stops the recording and scats a part to Lenny. Lenny responds with the scat on the

drum set. They volley the riff back and forth until it is automatic. John joins near the end

with his bass part, but adds body movements to reinforce the accents. At the end of this

passage breakdown, Lenny jots down notes in this music notebook, which is located on a

music stand right next to his drum throne. I ask about the notebook, as this was TLP

expectation of all rhythm players. Lenny states that all of his musical notes, for every band, are in this book. The rehearsal continues with the same mentor-mentee interactions occurring as they progress through the set. Before we know it, 3 hours have passed and the rehearsal concludes. The next rehearsal is scheduled in 2 weeks. The ultimate goal is to cut a record in Steve’s recording studio, sometime in 2017.

Summary

139

Only recently did Lenny become a full-time musician performing in three bands.

Two of these bands only play original tunes, and the third is a cover band. He supplements his music income by working for a pizza shop. Delivering pizzas was his primary source of income for years while he tried to establish himself in the local music scene. Lenny worked for “Antonio’s,” the most popular pizza place in Lakewood, and was able to make enough money delivering pizzas that he only had to work a few days a week so that he could practice and perform at night. He has kept the pizza delivery job because of its flexibility and his ability to make extra money. Lenny feels alive when he performs and practices. With only 1 year of college music study, the majority of his training on drum set came as a member of TLP. He was taught by the other drummers in

TLP, alumni percussionists of TLP, and by frequenting jam nights at the local music clubs in the evenings and participating. In our interview, Lenny stated, “I have never been

much of a book learner, so all of my learning musically, literally 95%, came from

interactions with other musicians, and there was not a lack of that in TLP” (interview,

November 30, 2016). Lenny’s musicking path was fueled and continues to grow because

of the relationships that he formed while a member of TLP, and because of how he has

nurtured those relationships since graduating from high school.

John, The Sales and Marketing Associate for a Music Talent Agency: First True

Garage Band Member.

Selecting John as a case was an easy choice. John’s father was a musician, but

did not want his son to have anything to do with music. He struggled to create the life

that he desperately wanted for this family, and he did not want his son to travel the same

path. Because of this wish, John steered clear of the music offerings at Lakewood except

140

for the popular music course. Instead, he focused on his academic studies and karate.

However, as he progressed through his teen years, his father became terminally ill. John

took on responsibilities such as a job and helping around the house. To blow off steam,

he would hang out with a friend who played guitar. John started exploring the electric

bass. He enjoyed it but kept it strictly as a hobby, even though his friend base was

beginning to be comprised of mainly garage band musicians.

Eventually, John joined TLP at the invitation of one of his friends, Steve, the

guitarist in TLP and a violinist. TLP was the first formal music education sponsored

ensemble in which John had ever participated. He was talented, but haphazard in his

playing. TLP was a place where he was able to thrive and learn the discipline, as well as

the academics of music. Steve was a huge mentor to John. The two played together daily,

were committed to TLP, and helped bridge the gap between the garage band musicians

and formally-trained musicians in TLP, all without John’s father knowing that he was

musicking on a regular basis.

The time finally came for John to tell his father of his secret. The first concert that

John’s father saw him play was at was TLP’s first-ever concert at The Rock and Roll

Hall of Fame. It was John’s conversation with his father after the concert that makes this case even more meaningful. John’s father saw joy – pure joy – in his son’s face, and he acknowledged that music was the reason. He also knew that his son would be successful because of his strong work ethic. John’s father passed away shortly after that first concert, happy that John was playing music.

Musicking Since High School

141

Since John’s father passed away, he struggled to find his footing. He worked in retail and played in several bands, just to pay his bills. Finally, he found his way to college, graduated, and married. During all of these transitions, the one mainstay in

John’s life was his music. It gave him pleasure, joy, financial relief, and an emotional outlet. Today, he has returned to TLP as a volunteer rhythm coach, and his wife, also a

TLP alumna, is the choreographer for TLP.

The Setting

John meets me at the front door of the bar, and we travel to a space within the warehouse section that has four temporary walls and a door. This is the permanent rehearsal space for John’s cover band, The Four T’s (pseudonym). The band consists of four members.

Table 5.3

Members of The Four T’s ______

Names Role in Band and Instrument ______John Electric Bass player, lead singer and MC Taylor Electric Guitar Liam Keys and electric guitar Don Drummer ______

142

Figure 5.9. Truck and trailer the band just purchased to travel to gigs; Rehearsal space,

center view.

Figure 5.10. Rehearsal space, right side; Rehearsal space, left side

The Four T’s, considered one of the premier cover bands in a large Midwestern city, regularly performs for the local professional sports teams, at local bars, at 15 weddings a year, and annually tours the East Coast during the summer. I am attending a

rehearsal for their next performance at the request of the city’s House of Blues to

celebrate music from the 90s. As I settle in, Don tells me that they are only permitted to

play a 60-minute set and asks if I will time their run-through to see if they need to add or

cut any music. Of course, I replied that I would. I grab my phone and press the clock app.

The band tunes, does a mic check, uses an app on their phone to adjust their monitor

143 volume as they wear in-ear monitors, and finally, they all affirm that they have the set list on their phones.

Don clicks his drum sticks and counts to four; the room fills with music. As the first song ends, Don immediately clicks into the next song, and the rest follow. As the songs whiz by, John and Liam carry a variety of musical responsibilities. John sings and plays bass. Liam plays keys, sings, and switches to guitar when needed. Don is always singing back up as he plays drums. Taylor only plays lead guitar and rarely sings. After the third song, John breaks into a banter with Don: “Welcome to the House of Blues 90’s show. We are The Four T’s. Grab a drink, sit back, or dance, and remember to tip your servers.” This is a true run through. They practice their joke telling, as well as shout-outs to the bartenders.

Throughout the entire set, John is dancing and moving. His movements seem to mimic that of a conductor. He cues solos and cuts off the band, and his body physically accentuates accents within the music. John maintains eye contact with each member of the band, even though they are playing to me, as I am the makeshift audience, not in a circle. When Taylor takes a solo, the others look at him and practice directing the audience’s attention toward Taylor. They are not only practicing the music, they are practicing every aspect of their performance. The music dissipates, and I click the stop watch: 67 minutes of music and talking. Seven minutes over so in addition to discussing rehearsal notes, now they must decide what songs to cut or truncate. They each grab a beverage, some water or beer, put their instruments down, and wipe away the sweat, as the room in July is near 90 degrees and begin debriefing the set.

144

Next, Don grabs the set list and calls out the first song for discussion. The intricate dance, similar to Jeff’s band’s collaboration, begins. John leads. Despite the fact that they are in a small room, they speak to each other using their microphones. The first five songs went well, and the comments are simple. But, when Don calls “Ice Ice Baby”,

Taylor yells, “I hate that song!” John replies, “OK, why?” Taylor responds with, “I just do.” John laughs and then states, “You can state your opinion to us on any song because we want to hear it, but if you cannot justify your feelings or your opinion, it will not be given any weight when we make decisions.” Taylor looks at John, agrees, and looks down at his guitar (field notes, July 27, 2016). The band continues to run down the set list, commenting on all aspects of their rehearsal by using terms such as melody, harmony, keys of songs (d minor, a minor, etc.), and resolve it. They discuss ending pitches of a songs and inquire if the vocalist is able to find the pitch for the next song off of that note. Instead of using the musical terms for form like ABA, they map out their songs by using terms such as riff, verse, specific chords, and solo.

After completing the list, they begin talking about ways to truncate the length of the set. They review tempos and remind each other that things will be faster with adrenaline. They also discuss maintaining the storyline of a song when considering any cuts. All of a sudden Taylor calls out, “Guys, I swear, ‘This I Promise You’ by In Sync is from the 2000s, not the 90s.” Don replies, “I am glad that you brought that up, because I had the same feeling.” Every member grabs their phone and starts looking up the songs and their dates, since it would be embarrassing to play songs in a 90s set that were not from the 90s. After a few minutes, they uncover three songs on their set list that were not written in the 90s. They sigh, and John states, “We cut those first.” (field notes, July 27,

145

2016). They settle on a final set list and review their notes. They do not go back and rehearse anything, because they expect each member to go home and practice.

Even though they have been rehearsing for approximately 2 hours, they start practicing music for their next gig: a wedding. This time, the collaborative effort takes a new turn. The bride has requested a couple of songs, one of which is Adele’s Send my

Love. Don counts off, and Taylor begins a tricky riff. They struggle to maintain time and cleanliness. Taylor stops. Don starts again. Taylor struggles again. John suggests that

Taylor relax, loosen his hand, and play on the back of the beat. Taylor attempts the passage again, still struggles to maintain time. Don jumps in with a click on the high-hat, which helps Taylor keep time while practicing the passage. They play through the song twice and conclude with John advising Taylor, in the firmest of tones yet, to go home and practice. The band reviews a few more tunes and calls it quits.

Summary

Although John was the son of a musician, his path in musicking was not through the school music education system. He was drawn to music, but fought the desire to participate until his best friend in homeroom convinced him that they needed something to do after school, and since they both disliked sports, they should learn instruments and start a band. Instead of seeking advice from his father, John turned to other high school students whom he knew were already performing in a band. Through those relationships, he grew quickly as a musician, resulting in becoming a member of one of the hottest bands in a Midwest city. Despite the lack of initial support from his father, he has excelled in the field and has used his talent, work ethic, and skills to create a comfortable life. “I have finally gotten to the point where, with the help of my perfect wife, I am out

146 of debt, and we are almost ready to buy a house” (interview, John, October 20, 2016). In terms of how his experiences in TLP have affected his current musicking, he responded by simply stating, “TLP was a bedrock” (interview, October 20, 2016).

Chapter Summary

This chapter depicted the essence of five TLP alumni and their musicking activities following high school, and the skills that they use when musicking. David, who is a movie composer in Los Angeles, arranges music, composes music, teaches general music classes, and plans and implements large youth orchestra performances in highly visible venues. Jeff, a marketing associate, spends the majority of his free time playing his violin. Jeff performs regularly with a six-piece Indie rock band, as well as makes recordings of himself improvising and composing music, which he then posts on

YouTube and Twitter. Jeff has enjoyed performing with a variety of professional bands and rappers because he is willing to take risks. Rachel, a classically trained violinist and musicologist, has found a niche in the Ludo musicology. In addition to her unique technique of analyzing recorded music via a fixed score that she generates by ear, she performs regularly in a string quartet, for which she creates all of the arrangements. She also teaches chamber music to high school students and passes on her knowledge of arranging and alternative styles to those students. Lenny, a drummer who thrives on music, recently released an E.P. (extended play) with his primary band. Musicking is his primary focus, even though all of his skill has been acquired by copying others. Lenny learned music by way of an apprenticeship with his TLP colleagues. Finally, John, a talent agent, who performs in a Top 40 cover band at over 150 concerts a year, designs entertainment events for clients using all genres of music.

147

Prior to their membership in TLP, all five participants were trained differently; some using formal methods, and others using informal methods. Upon entering the TLP, each member was exposed to both practices. Today, each participant maintains a tools chest of skills that they can refer to when necessary. Examples of those tools include, but are not limited to: (a) reading music; (b) learning and playing music by ear; (c) communicate musically with any musician, regardless of the instrument they play or their training; (d) knowledge of how to build and carry out a show; (e) a musical confidence and hunger that challenges and motivates them to continue musicking in a variety of ways, and in a variety of places, and finally, (f) a willingness and desire to give back to the younger generation by creating and teaching them the skills that they use to musick, so that those young musicians can enjoy music as much as they do.

148

CHAPTER SIX

CROSS-CASE ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

According to Stake (2006), in a multiple case study, “it is the quintain we seek to understand” (p. 6). The quintain, as discussed previously in Chapter 3, is the “object phenomenon, or condition” (Stake, 2006, p. 6) to be explored. In this study, the quintain I sought to examine was the learning environment of The Lakewood Project (TLP), a high school alternative rock ensemble. In the previous chapter, I provided an analysis of five different cases. Each case varied by instrument (e.g., strings, keys, electric bass, drums); depth of musical study after high school (e.g., college degree); location; genre of music in which they musick; and the level of financial dependence on their musicking. Yet, they are all former members of TLP.

Stake (2006) stated that while some analysts will highlight the commonalities between cases, it is also the uniqueness as well as the similarities that are essential in understanding the quintain. Therefore, Stake (2006) proposed instituting a “case-quintain dialectic” (p. 39) to aid in the effort of providing a complete and thorough understanding of the phenomenon being examined. In the following pages, I will highlight the data analysis process, followed by a discussion of the similarities between the individuals’ musicking as well as their unique differences.

There are multiple goals in cross analysis. In qualitative research, transferability rather than generalizability is preferred. However, as Miles and Huberman (1994) stated,

“the question [of generalizability] does not go away. We would like to know something

about the relevance or applicability of our findings to other similar settings, to transcend

‘radical particularism’” (p. 173). For example, if I had only studied John’s musicking (the

149 electric bass player), his unique context would make it difficult to generalize to the majority of TLP alumni who continue to make music after high school. Instead, a cross- case analysis allowed for a deeper, second look, with the aim of assisting for a better understanding of the quintain (Miles & Huberman, 1994), thus clearing the way for an understanding of a more collective view of TLP learning environment.

As outlined in Chapter 3, data collected from the field via observations and interviews were transcribed within 24 hours of returning from the field using Express

Scribe software. I analyzed each individual case by reading and reviewing transcripts and artifacts multiple times (Creswell, 2013: Maxwell, 2005), searching for context, as well as experiential knowledge of the quintain (Stake, 2006). HyperResearch software was used to code field notes, observations, interview transcripts, e-mails, texts, personal communications, and artifacts. A case report was generated based on the codes that participants emphasized within these data collection documents. Trustworthiness was established through utilizing a number of qualitative research strategies such as triangulation of data, member checking, peer debriefing, observation (Patton, 2015;

Stake; 1995/2006), period of time in the field (Creswell, 2013; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000), and rich description (Creswell, 2013). Participants were asked to review transcripts and to provide clarity, and were given the opportunity to elaborate if they desired. All participants replied, and only Rachel made modifications. She corrected some spelling of unique verbiage used, provided some clarity, and added punctuation. Additionally, I secured two peer reviewers to review my coding to ensure consistency and thoroughness, and to provide an arena for debriefing. I also shared my interpretations of each

150

participant’s way of musicking with each participant to ensure credibility and accuracy,

and to decrease researcher bias.

The themes that emerged during the examination of the individual cases arose

strictly from the data. I cultivated cross-case analysis themes based on my research questions, my review of literature, and those themes that emerged as a result of careful examination. Four themes used for analysis were based on my research questions. These included (a) musical motivation, (b) comparison of TLP musicking environment with current musicking environments, (c) formal and informal experiences, and (d) skills missing from TLP environment. A fifth theme, (e) giving back, was an original theme that surfaced during the cross-case analysis and was deemed worthy of further exploration. This chapter is organized by these five cross-case themes, as well as their

respective sub-categories.

Musical Motivation

According to Hallam (2002), the concept of musical motivation has been studied

from a variety of perspectives including the psychological angle of learning how to play

an instrument, one’s motivation to practice, and gaining expertise in order to continue

playing. Factors contributing to one’s motivation to begin and continue making music are

a combination of interactions between an individual’s characteristics, their educational

environment, and the support received from parents, family, and peers (Hallam, 2002).

Research has been conducted on the majority of the items listed above, but little research

has been conducted on the “institutional learning environment and the motivation to

engage with music” (p. 234). It is through the lens of the institution learning environment

151

of TLP, and how that environment motivated its alumni to engage with music, that this

theme is centered.

A previous study on TLP (Koops et al., 2014) indicated that 71% of its alumni

continue to make music after high school. This unusually high percentage of alumni

continuing to music after high school served as the impetus for this study. As mentioned

in Chapter 4, a survey was sent to 91 alumni of TLP. A question similar to the one asked

in Koops et al. (2014) about continued musicking after high school was included on this

new instrument. Forty-three alumni responded to this question out of 45 total

respondents. Of those 43 respondents, 40 (93%) indicated that they have continued to

musick. Two years after Koops et al., the percentage remained high, and even rose. It

appears that there is a high degree of motivation within this particular population to

continue musicking. This notion of motivation served as the impetus to delve deeper into

TLP alumni’s current musicking.

Voluntary risk-taking in pursuit of music. According to the participants, the

TLP learning environment was built on taking risks. The ensemble was developed by two

classically trained music educators, a theatre technician, a video technician, and a

custodian who played in a rock band on the weekends. As the ensemble took shape in the

“directors’” minds, they were taking a huge risk, as they were not aware of any other rock

orchestra that they could emulate. Every adult and every students entered the auditorium

willing to try, explore, and to problem solve, all in the name of creating a learning

environment for musicians to perform the music of their choice, on the instruments of

their choice. Sociologists refer to this type of risk-taking as voluntary risk-taking (Lupton

& Tulloch, 2002). In voluntary risk-taking, the activity in which individuals engage is

152

perceived to include some sense of risk, but is undertaken deliberately and from choice

(p. 114). TLP is one such activity, as at the time of its inception, such an ensemble had

never been created in a high school and the professional ensembles that were close, like

The Tran-Siberian Orchestra, featured the garage band, not the strings as TLP did. In fact,

Constantine (2010) considered TLP “the first of its kind” (p.57). The participants of this

study knew that they were forging new ground, but were focused on performing the music that they wanted to perform on the instruments that they loved. Making music and taking risks were something that these participants encountered every day in TLP.

After learning TLP, participants in this study continued taking voluntary risks continued in some form for all of the participants in this study after leaving TLP. The risks that these participants chose to take at the time may have seemed unreasonable by some as they were unconventional, but they did further their musical futures. David’s dream of becoming a film composer was fulfilled because of a voluntary risk that he took to leave the comfort of his family, Cleveland, and admission to music schools such as

CIM and Oberlin, to travel to Los Angeles to attend college at a state school satellite branch. This may have appeared to be a high-risk decision, but David had been counseled by a film composer to take a chance and get to Los Angeles, where movies are made and simply work hard, so he did.

Contrary to David, Jeff did not take musical risks in college. He did not disclose to even his closet college friends that he had played the violin in high school, even though the instrument accompanied him to college. During his interview, Jeff only recalled one instance in which the instrument emerged from the back of his closet after a few drinks to jam with the twins across the hall in the wee hours of the morning. Instead,

153 after secretly missing his musicking for months, he voluntarily hopped on stage in front of his closest friends during his birthday celebration at “Howl at the Moon,” paying the violinist and pianist on stage to allow him to perform. He had not prepared; he simply gave in to his musical urge. Jeff recalled the experience: “[I was] totally relieved…I was such an idiot for caring about this so much. I now play for my own enjoyment, and if other people like it, that’s just an added bonus” (Personal communication, Jeff, February

20, 2017). Jeff credited that moment as his tipping point: “Playing at the Howl was too much fun and really served as the catalyst for getting back into the violin again. I had forgotten how much fun being on a stage was” (Personal communication, Jeff, February

20, 2017). In short, Jeff went from hiding his violin in college to being proud of it.

When Jeff chose to jump on the stage and perform, he did not know if his performance would be adequate, nor did he know if his colleagues would support him. This emulates the first concert of TLP at The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, where the group performed for 2,000 Ohio music educators. TLP only knew six songs then, and the group was uncertain about how they would be received by their audience.

Lenny proudly enrolled in college to become music teacher. However, halfway through his first year, Lenny realized that he was not comfortable in his college music classes. He described his discomfort as going through the process instead of learning to create music that was meaningful to him. The thought of dropping out of school echoed louder and louder as the weeks passed, so he started pursuing the idea of a rock band prior to giving up the college path. He felt as though the “key to that [rock music as an] art form is it is not written down on paper, like you kind of have this inner discovery”

(Interview, Lenny, November 30, 2016). Rock music was the genre that Lenny wanted to

154 pursue, so he eventually left college. In hindsight, as he reflected on this choice, he stated that, “The Lakewood Project gave me the confidence and the ability to pursue my musical goals. I realize that I was at my personal best while playing and creating music and it's carried on through my entire adult life” (Personal communication, January 27,

2016). Going to college and majoring in music may be a path for some, but not everyone, depending on the musicking they decide to pursue. In Lenny’s case, it appeared that his secondary music education experiences provided him with the tools to continue creating and performing music independently. Although Lenny elected to leave the classical music world to pursue a career in rock music, he has the option to return because of his skill set. Similarly, members of TLP have the skills to function and participate in multiple genres of music.

Rachel had decided to pursue a career in music before she even became a member of TLP. Prior to TLP, her focus was on the piano, but after her acceptance into TLP, the violin became her priority. However, where Rachel’s voluntary risk taking was revealed upon graduation from her undergraduate education. She received a degree in music history from one of the top music history schools in the country, and her professors encouraged her to apply at musicology schools like Harvard, Case Western Reserve

University, and UCLA. Unfortunately, this was in 2008, when the economy crashed.

Fellowships disappeared, and what Rachel thought was a sure thing, as did her professors, turned out to be a pivotal moment in her life. Rachel found herself without a plan, so she returned to what she knew, the violin, and quickly applied for a master’s degree in violin performance. Relating this situation to her experience in TLP, she believed that failure is inevitable, and that musicians fail and fix all of the time. For

155

Rachel, confidence comes from learning how to deal with your failure and overcoming it.

She continued to recall that in TLP, the group would struggle and struggle to get things

right and then it would eventually come together. But, even when TLP would take the

stage prepared, the musicians knew that they had to be ready to react to unknowns. One

of Rachel’s favorite stories about an unknown was at TLP’s first-ever concert at The

Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Concert, when her string broke a few measures before her solo.

That was scary. But your mind kind of goes into overdrive from the

adrenaline so the instant thought was you have two options: “Well, go

back stage and fix it.” Or you can go without the string…I had to shift into

positions that I was not fully comfortable with and find whatever it was by

ear (interview, Rachel, September 29, 2016).

Overall, Rachel credited TLP with helping her form a personal confidence that gave her the confidence to take risks and not fear failure.

Lupton and Tulloch (2002) acknowledged the negative connotations with risk-

taking; however, they also believed that risk taking can be positive. They asserted that

voluntary risk- taking implies “crossing boundaries” (p. 117) and progressing toward

self-improvement. They also suggested that voluntary risk-taking can be one’s way of

challenging the norm. The five participants in this multiple case study challenged the

music norm through TLP, and took the confidence generated during their time in TLP, to

continue taking risks to please themselves, as well as others around them who benefitted

from hearing and experiencing their music.

156

The musical zone. During my time in the field, four of the five participants were

preparing for future concerts, and I was fortunate enough to attend some of these high-

profile concerts. Watching each participant perform was like watching someone in a

“musical zone” (Marin & Bhattachayra, 2013, p. 1). The musical zone, in this sense, has

been compared to “being in flow,” which means experiencing “an extremely focused

state of consciousness which occurs during intense engagement in an activity” (Marin &

Bhattachayra, 2013, p. 1).

Some scholars have referred to these types of performance highs as flow

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Custodero, 2012;; Lamont, 2012; Privette, 1983; Seilgman,

2004). Marin and Bhattachayra (2013) defined flow as

a psychological state involving the positive experience of being fully

engaged in the successful pursuit of an activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)

and due to its intrinsically rewarding nature, flow seems to motivate

humans to keep returning to the flow-inducing action and meeting greater

challenges (p. 1).

In the current study, the performers were polished, entertaining, energized, and

relishing the applause from their audiences. At the conclusion of their respective set, each

participant exited the stage, exhibiting similar behaviors. They were exhausted, but were

smiling, laughing, and talking, and were ready to perform again. It was evident that they

were living their dream. Although they performed regularly, they eagerly sought

opportunities to perform on stages that were high-profile, challenging, demanding, and unique. Czikszentmihalyi (1990) categorized this type of drive as someone who feels

157

competent enough to perform and satisfy the high demands of the performance in such as

setting.

John and Jeff were preparing for performances at two different House of Blues

venues. John’s band was the invited headliner for a private 90s-themed event, although

they considered this concert a much smaller affair, since they had just performed a few

weeks before at the NBA Championships. For most this performance would have been

the highlight of the year, but it was simply one of many. The Four T’s were invited to

perform at The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and for the World Series celebration.

Meanwhile, Jeff’s band had just been named the winner of a Chicago summer

music festival that featured over 50 bands. The festival involved a number of

performances, with winners advancing to the next level. As the grand prize winner, Jeff’s

band was the main act at the Chicago House of Blues. As Jeff announced at the backstage

door, “This is my second performance at The House of Blues. The first was with TLP”

(personal communication, Jeff, August 20th, 2016). At the conclusion of the concert,

Jeff’s exuberance was visible as he left the House of Blues stage, high fiving people in the crowd with his right hand while carrying his violin in his left. After a few minutes,

Jeff emerged through a wall of concert-goers, some of whom patted him on the back or handed him drinks. His enormous smile was briefly covered by the towel that he used to wipe the perspiration from his face. His glow was not because of his hard work, but a result of the pure joy and relief he felt. He floated over to us (me and his family), exhausted yet pumped. His father, an avid sports fan, embraced his son, slapping his back multiple times yelling, “That’s a my boy!” (reflection journal, August 20, 2016).

158

Entering competitions is one way amateur musicians can elevate the musical risks, but another way is to get stage time at some of the most popular places in town.

Lenny did just that by frequenting the Lakeview Lounge (one of the top three blues venues in Cleveland) and volunteering to play the drum set during open mic nights.

Stepping up and performing at a prestigious blues venue, at an open mic night where one does not know what songs are going to be played in advance, got the attention of his current band, who offered him a job. Agreeing to perform on the spot is one way of raising the level of musical challenge.

On December 2, 2016, Lenny returned to the Lakeview Lounge with his current band, but this time for their E.P. (extended play) album release party. The venue was packed and eagerly awaiting the performance of this new music. Lenny and his band took the stage. You could sense their nerves as they fumbled to get ready for the downbeat.

The crowd erupted and kept clapping through their awkward entrance, and then the band began to play. The entire E.P. was their set list. The screaming and dancing never ceased.

At the conclusion of the last original song, the crowd moved quickly to the table to purchase their own copy of the album. Lenny exited the stage and walked briskly in my direction. As soon as he reached me, he asked if we enjoyed the performance. He was thrilled and relieved he had just performed nine original songs at the town’s most popular clubs. The adrenaline rush made him eager to return to the stage as soon as possible (field notes, Lenny, December 2, 2016).

Another way one of the participants challenged themselves musically was approaching Universal Studios with a personal project about producing a flash mob on their property using their music. He imagined the concept, produced the project, and then

159

taught high school and youth orchestra musicians the music, which they later performed outdoors at Universal Studios in Los Angeles. During David’s interview, he shared a

YouTube video of this flash mob project, in which he arranged the medley, coordinated the licenses, musicians, and rehearsals, and conducted the concert.

In the current study, the participants entered these types of high-profile

performances willingly, almost with a confident saunter, implying that they belonged.

They dedicated hours of personal practice, group rehearsals, and planning to prepare for

this one moment, even though for some it is not part of their full-time job.

The learning environment of TLP was one that regularly prepared for high-profile performances. In fact, TLP’s first official performance was a sold-out show at The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In addition to performing at The Rock Hall, the case study participants also performed at the Cleveland House of Blues for a sold-out crowd of

2,000; at the Lakewood Civic Auditorium for a sold-out crowd of 1,800; at the Lakewood

July 4th of July celebration for an estimated crowd of 20,000; and at other performance

venues in Ohio, Texas, and Utah. Witnessing the same exuberance while in the field a

full decade later was meaningful. This high level of dedication, motivation, and

confidence is required of TLP members, as they only rehearse together 4 hours a week,

but perform 2-3 hour shows. The exuberance generated from TLP performance emulates

the same enthusiasm currently being experienced by the five participants. TLP is always

seeking high-profile performance venues, as well as performing music that requires a

high level of skill. Additionally, their preparation must be stellar in order to perform

(mostly without music), dance, listen, react to other musicians and audience members,

160 and balance the high level of technical requirements with the movements required to move and pull in the audience.

Camaraderie. In addition to the personal joy experienced through musicking in highly energized settings, each participant cherished their participation in a small ensemble for camaraderie reasons. For example, Rachel explained that in middle school, she was already considering studying music in college with a focus on piano, but in high school, her preference moved to the violin because of the ability to play with others.

After receiving a degree in violin performance, she realized, “I am not much of a soloist, either. Like, that is where the chamber music comes from. It is just all relationships. And all of the musical experiences, starting in TLP and beyond, really emphasized how important relationships are to me” (Rachel Interview, October 20, 2016). The relationships in Rachel’s life are important to her, and most of them revolve around music and her musicking.

Like Rachel, David had decided to pursue a music degree in high school, but stressed the importance of relationships. He recalled groups of TLP members getting together in high school and playing at the local park or simply getting together to play and eat. These musical interactions resulted in strong friendships that continue to this day. When David returns to Lakewood for the holidays, he always has a musical gathering of TLP alum to read his new compositions and play through old music. These activities are ones that David continues in Los Angeles with his current comrades.

When Lenny decided to leave college to pursue musicking with a rock band, finding the members of this band was essential. Lenny began searching for a group of musicians that he “vibed with” (Lenny Interview, November 20, 2016) by participating in

161 jam nights at local bars. As a result of these jam nights, he was recruited by his current band and he claims that “this is the most fulfilled I have ever been musically in my whole life” (Lenny Interview, November 30, 2016). Like Lenny, the participants were not only seeking the flow associated with high pressure performances, but they also valued the friendships, bonds, and relationships that have been formed with their current and past musical colleagues. They acknowledged their common interest in music as the platform in which they met, but it was the relationships that were meaningful and highly valued.

When each participant was asked whether TLP influenced their motivation and ability to continue making music after high school, their responses were mixed. John stated that he can find at least a little piece of TLP in almost everything that he does when musicking: from learning how to treat gear, recognizing the importance of relationships, learning how to communicate with others, and maintaining high musical standards and professionalism. Jeff also believed that TLP provided him with the opportunity

“to pivot away from classical music and dive into rock/pop and other

genres made me a better musician…TLP encouraged every musician to

collaborate with each other to learn new music, which was my first time

ever working with others to learn non-classical music” (Personal

communication, Jeff, January 29, 2016).

In contrast, Rachel did not feel that TLP alone impacted her motivation to continue musicking. Instead, she credited the overall Lakewood High School orchestra program.

The relationships that were formed in the Four Seasons Quartet, TLP, and orchestra as being essential to her overall wellness. Now she focuses on camaraderie when musicking.

162

Similarly, the close relationships Lenny formed while TLP provided him the

mentoring to build the skills and the confidence to pursue his dream of being a

professional drummer. Believing in himself motivated him to continue doing what he

loved. Furthermore, from David’s perspective, “The Lakewood Project was the perfect

model of bringing your individual talent and sense of self to be celebrated and shared in

an ensemble effort. It was the perfect model of what effective community should be, and

it led me to believe that I could come into such a community as a professional, and I did”

(Personal communication, David, January 29, 2016).

Although what motivated these members to continue musicking were different, it

appeared that TLP may have impacted their decision to do so. Some were motivated by

their prior successes when taking risks, and therefore sought to challenge themselves by

performing in more high-profile events and venues. Others craved the feeling of intense

joy that they felt when completing a challenging concert. Yet, others relished the

relationships developed while in TLP and those that have developed since and sustained

through musicking. As suggested earlier, whatever motivates the participants to continue,

the seeds were planted in TLP and these alumni continue to nurture them.

Comparison of TLP Musicking Environment with Current Musicking

Environments

Researchers have expressed an interest in encouraging music educators in creating

a school musicking environment that is related to real-life musicking opportunities

(Boespflug, 1999; Davis & Blair, 2011; Hargraeves & Marshall, 2003; Jaffurs, 2004;

Myers, 2003). The TLP was created in an attempt to construct a real-life musicking setting for secondary students. The interest at hand is comparing TLP with the

163

participants’ current musicking contexts to identify similarities and differences in order to

learn more. As a way to make those comparisons, it is necessary to establish some of the

behaviors and expectations that existed (and continue to exist) in TLP.

When the members of TLP are musicking, there is communication verbally and

physically between individual members and sections. When the music stops, members

discuss concerns among themselves, and once those conversations taper down, the

director facilitates a group discussion. When the members have independent discussions,

it is usually to “teach” a younger member a part or remind them to do something.

Although there are 40 musicians, only 23-25 play at one time, while the others listen and provide feedback for the members in their section. The main purpose of the director has been to help all 40 voices be heard, keep the rehearsal moving, and assist in identifying problems and ways of solving problems that arise (Koops et al., 2014).

In this study, the participants’ current musicking environments also necessitate verbal and physical communication on stage. Rehearsals require them to be able to articulate their thoughts to each other, regardless of the instrument that they play. In order to provide feedback to others, the participants must know their parts well enough to listen to other parts while playing, process the situation as it occurs, and then save that knowledge for a conversation that will arise upon the completion of the song. Recalling the stored knowledge, articulating one’s thoughts in a constructive manner, and then applying those suggestions to the product requires a great sense of awareness toward what the final product is intended to sound like.

Democracy is alive and well. Depending on the context, secondary music ensembles tend to be lead in a teacher-centered manner by the director. Some researchers

164 have observed more of a democratic way of rehearsing in garage band setting (Allsup,

2003; Campbell, 1995; Green 2002). TLP has directors present in rehearsals and in the wings during a concert, but the majority of rehearsals and concerts are all run in a democratic manner, where students are encouraged to speak, share ideas, and express concerns about sections so that things can be fixed.

Of the five participants in this study, all of them musicked in small groups, and only one occasionally musicked with more than five other musicians. As each small group met and rehearsed, they embraced their responsibility to communicate their needs to their fellow musicians as well as share their concerns with their counterparts. Referring to his ability to communicate with both popular musicians and classical musicians, Jeff stated,

There were several different instruments in the group (TLP), many that

aren’t found in a typical orchestra, like electric guitar and bass. Learning

how to communicate and play with these different instruments is still what

guides me today when I work with non-orchestra musicians. (personal

communication, Jeff, January 29, 2016)

Popular musicians tend to break down songs by form (e.g., chorus, bridge, verse) and chord progressions, while classical musicians tend to call out rehearsal letters or measure numbers (Green, 2002). Communicating between these two worlds was something that TLP members had to overcome (Koops et al., 2014). In addition to verbal communication, TLP relies on older students handing down knowledge to younger members (Koops et. al., 2014). This is analogous to Situated Learning Theory (discussed in Chapter 2), in which learning takes place peripherally as well as deliberately, such as

165 in apprenticeship models (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Communities that share common interests, promote a sense of belonging, motivating members to ultimately develop collective expertise about the music being performed (O’Neil, 2012; Westerlund, 2006).

As an illustration of this relationship, Lenny sat patiently, observing and taking notes while Shawn and Steve exchanged guitar riffs, slowing them down and giving advice to each other as they broke down the passage (field notes, Lenny, November 16, 2016).

Lenny counted off, and the ensemble joined in exactly at the spot that they had just reviewed. They had to stop again, and this time, Lenny jumped in and explained the syncopation of the accents throughout the passage that stymied Shawn. To aid in securing the cohesiveness of the ensemble, Lenny played only the accents on his toms while

Shawn and Steve played the riff. Lenny slowly clicked up his metronome until the ensemble met the desired metronome marking (field notes, Lenny, November 16, 2016).

The participants in this study were involved in communities of learners, musicians, that all shared a common interest. Because of this common goal, working together, helping each other acquire musical skills as well as discussing their outcomes as a unit, with equal respect for each other, as in a democracy. It was evident that each member was valuable and valued.

At times, conflicts between group members did occur. While preparing for their

90s concert at The House of Blues, John’s band paused to discuss the set list and provide feedback on their earlier performance, which I was able to capture in two field note entries. One of the pieces that required discussion was a piece by Adele that started out with a funky guitar riff. Taylor did not play it well during the run-through. Before anyone could give their notes on the song, Taylor jumps in and announces that the reason he

166 could not play the song was that he forgot his capo at home. John responded to this excuse with “Well, what if that happens at a concert, you need to be able to play the riff and be ready” (field notes, John, July 20, 2016). Taylor took the hint and started trying to play the passage without a capo. On the third attempt, Don started keeping time on the snare. John advised Taylor to relax his hand in order to facilitate the picking motion.

While Taylor was struggling to play the part, not one member of the band appeared frustrated or angry. Instead, they offered assistance, with Don supplying the metronome and John offering advice. Communication was an essential skill in the band’s musicking.

I watched while these equal musicians took great care to keep tempers low, choose their words carefully, and aided when necessary to help facilitate understanding when faced with a conflict. This event unfolded as a true example of democracy in action.

The ability to present one’s opinion and listen to another person’s perspective was never more important in TLP than when dealing with gear and technology. When the purchase of gear was required, the directors would research and discuss, but so would the musicians. Often times, the input the students gave was invaluable because of their proximity to technology and the gear in their lives (Theberge, 2001). Both parties had different needs and desires, but through compromise and learning to articulate one’s position, the best decisions for the group were made. Additionally, TLP was required to set up and tear down its own equipment. This enabled the members to learn the names of the gear, how each item functioned and assisted with sound production, and how to problem solve when sound issues arose. When TLP would perform in outside venues, their ability to converse with stage hands and technicians smoothed the way for an easier performance.

167

John, Lenny, and Jeff mentioned on several occasions dealing with gear and

technology. When discussing this topic, Jeff stated,

I gained incredible experience on the technical side of things like setting

up/striking an entire stage of equipment, and through that how to work

with tech crews at our shows. This was extremely valuable and has helped

tremendously when I play at venues nowadays (personal communication,

January 29, 2016).

John also found it was important to emphasize gear and equipment. When John first

started playing electric bass with this friends in high school, they would play and talk

gear with each other all of the time, but John felt that he received a professional

education about gear, maintaining and repairing it, and sound in general while a member

of TLP.

When comparing TLP’s environment with each participant’s current musicking, there were a number of overarching similarities. They included democratic rehearsal techniques, the use of technology, and performing music they select. The tone and method in which participants communicated musical ideas with each other was similar to

TLP, and was based on a democratic principle of everyone having a voice and having the right to state their opinion (Allsup, 2003; Green 2002; 2006). Additionally, the overall advancement of the groups depended on sharing knowledge and helping each other advance musically (O’Neill, 2012; Westerlund, 2006). In the case of technology, each participant used technology ranging from sound production and recordings equipment to music notation software. Again, the democratic principles of sharing information and collective problem solving are essential skills, as gear and technology are constantly

168

improving or changing, requiring users to be attentive and educated on advancements and

how they work (Theberge, 2001). Finally, music notation software was the platform in

which the participants were able to communicate their musical ideas, as well as write out

those that they had figured out by ear and shared that information with musicians who do

not possess the same skills (Stauffer, 2002). The participants also used printed music, generated on music notation software, to analyze music to ensure the accuracy of their aural acuteness. One point of transfer worth mentioning is a TLP expectation of rhythm section members that Lenny continues to use in his musicking. That expectation was the

use of a click (metronome) in all of his rehearsals and performances, as well as a

notebook, to keep notes about songs, compositions, and areas in need of future attention,

both personally and has a group.

The following are examples of how the participants’ current musicking has

resembled TLP learning environment. David has established social relationships within

his string quartet what benefit from his knowledge of music notation software, enabling

them to pick their own music. David has also benefited professionally as his ability to

salvage movie scores has provided him with connections and relationships that will

further his career. Rachel used her relationships to build a small chamber music business

where Rachel negotiates with different musicians and clients to perform weddings and

social events. The music that Rachel’s quartet performs is a combination of classical

standards and pop arrangements. Rachel’s ability to write arrangements using music

notation software permits her to accommodate clients’ requests and support the needs of

her quartet members. Additionally, Rachel has used her communication skills to build

relationships with her high school chamber music students. She has uncovered their

169

musical propensities and then has assisted them with their own arrangements of popular

and video game music.

Three participants regularly used sound amplification gear in their current

musicking John’s cover band performs over 150 shows a year at a wide variety of venues.

They have been able to supplement their musicking with personal stage hands and a

lightening rig. Likewise, Jeff’s six-member band performs Indie rock music at local venues and competes in city-wide music festivals requiring amplification gear. Jeff has a

recording studio in his house, where he enjoys recording himself, posting those

recordings on YouTube, and entering competitions through Grammy U. Finally, Lenny, a

member of three bands each requiring sound.

Differences between TLP’s learning environment and the participants’ current

musicking, which I observed and were noted by the participants themselves, included the

smaller number of musicians within each ensemble, the absence of a director, a lack of

personal stage hands, and the responsibility of paying for transportation and equipment

themselves. Although these differences exist, it appears that the participants left TLP

environment with tools to continue making music in a variety of settings. Because of the

skills acquired while in TLP, they were able to individually navigate the music industry

and create musicking scenarios that were personally satisfying.

Formal and Informal Experiences

Music educators have tended to categorize different musical skills into formal and

informal headings (Vitale, 2011). Formal music skills and experiences include, but are

not limited to: (a) reading music, (b) private lessons, (c) autocratic rehearsals, (d) in

school setting and (e) classical music (Green, 2002; Jaffurs, 2004; Small, 1999). Informal

170

music skills and experiences include, but are not limited to: (a) copying music by ear, (b)

improvising, composing, and arranging, (c) democratic rehearsals, and (d) selecting the

music you want to play and popular music (Green, 2002; Campbell, 1995; Jaffurs, 2004).

As Folkestad (2006) argued, however, the formal-informal dichotomy is a false one, as musicians actually slide from one to the other. Jaffurs (2004) asserted that musicians do

not pick one or the other, but instead have tendencies toward one of the other. For the

purposes of this study, the formal and informal aspects will be kept separately for the

purposes of discussing the skills that were observed and employed by the participants in

this study.

Formal learning experiences. When observing the participants in the field, I

witnessed each using formal aspects of music learning during their musicking. Rachel

and David had music notation in front of them all of the time, and played classical music

for quartet performances, which was usually associated with formal musicking (Green

2002; 2006; Small, 1999; Woody, 2007). Part of Rachel’s dissertation included negating

Nobuo Uematsu’s claim that he was inspired by Elton John when composing Final

Fantasy VI, when in fact, because of Rachel’s strong background in classical music, she

documented a number of classical melodies or classical bass lines when examining the

game’s music. Using musical notation was a tremendous asset when identifying those

classical attributes. Jeff referred to sheet music after he would learn songs by ear, in order

to confirm what his ear heard. While John and Lenny know how to read music, I neither

observed them using music notation nor heard them mentioning using it in their current

musicking.

171

Private lessons often are associated with formal music education. Jeff and John

both talked about periodically taking private lessons in order to improve their technical

abilities, which aligns with Green (2002). When registering for lessons, they did so with

classically trained musicians. The reason that they sought instruction was because they

had realized deficiencies in their playing, and their band colleagues were not able to

assist. They then resorted to what they knew from TLP, which was that all musicians

were required to take private lessons with professional when they were members. They

recalled that when struggling technically, oftentimes a private teacher could help them

dissect the problem and assist them in constructing a solution. Along with the desire to

improve technically, John wanted to improve his note reading skills and found that this

skilled improved with lessons.

David and Rachel teach private lessons. They model their teaching after the

formal lessons that they received in high school, with some additional informal skill-

building included. Both incorporate aural training through echoing and learning to play

popular songs by ear. The primary focus of the lessons that they teach, however, revolves

around formal music learning: note reading, classical music, etudes, and scales

David was the only participant who used an autocratic rehearsal style in my

presence. The quartet he directed was trying to prepare for a middle school presentation,

and time was limited. David led the rehearsal. The other members were all classically-

trained musicians, so they were comfortable following his lead. Director-led, teacher-

centered rehearsals were not observed with the other participants.

A final observed musical skill that often is associated with formal learning was warming up with scales or rudiments. An unexpected finding was that four of the five

172

participants warmed up with scales, or in the case of Lenny, with rudiments. Watching

and listening to them warm up with a routine was like watching an athlete stretch prior to for a game. Each participant appeared to have an understanding of how these formal skills build technique and awaken the musical ear. Even though their performances may lean toward the informal side of this dichotomy, this is evidence of how these participants traverse both categories.

Informal learning experiences. Apprenticeship or mentorship is the informal

equivalent of formal private lessons or classroom music education (Jaffurs, 2004; Mak,

2006). Lenny sought assistance in developing his technique, but instead of paying older

professionals for private lessons in a music store, Lenny consulted peers (Jaffurs, 2004).

He felt more comfortable working with peers, as he prefers to learn through watching,

listening, and modeling. Although these lessons are structured like formal lessons,

content leaned more toward the informal side of musicking.

Another type of mentoring that involves musicking, but not the act of playing,

was Rachel’s studies in musicology with her advisor and committee. Rachel works

closely with her dissertation advisor; however, she also has formed a strong mentorship

with Neil Lerner, a member of her committee, whose research interest includes

disabilities and video game music. ; David works closely with Scott Thomas, the

Academy-nominated film composer, each seeking advice from each other at times. David

shares his compositions with Scott, his mentor, for feedback, and Scott hired David as his

orchestrator on his most recent film. Although the two are colleagues, David seeks

Scott’s approval and guidance as much as possible. In contrast, Lenny was the only

participant who has not sought formal instruction or guidance from someone since

173 leaving college. He does frequent local jam nights to observe other drummers perform, which is exactly what he did while a member of TLP.

The informal skill that the participants relied on most was their ability to copy music by ear. Jeff, John, and Lenny learned all of their music by ear. Rachel relied on her ear to transcribe music for her quartet gigs, but found the skill most valuable in the field of musicology was transcribing a fixed score from video game music. Consequently, she has found a unique research technique in musicology.

Most musicologists work on music with a fixed score (or at least with

versions fixed in notation), so copying music by ear is something that they

have not really had to do…Media scholars who work on things without

fixed scores may or may not decide a transcription in necessary, as they

are more interested in how the music functions within that medium

(personal communication, February 21, 2017).

While communicating about this topic, Rachel asked if she could call me with a story. A noted, well-published Ludo musicologists, Dr. William Gibbons from Texas

Christian University, contacted Rachel for advice on how to isolate and transcribe a track on a video game. Rachel explained to Dr. Gibbons how to isolate the track and what programs to use. After a few moments, Rachel offered to do if for him, which she did quickly and sent it along. Rachel often has used transcriptions of video game music in her presentations at musicology conventions, and is becoming known as an expert in this area.

David’s ability to copy by ear also afforded him a niche in the movie industry.

David is known for recreating movie scores from the actual films so that the music can be

174 played alone or with a live orchestra while the audience watches the movie. Reworking movie music scores is a necessary step, because when the orchestra members play the movie music, their parts are often altered during the actual recording of the music with the movie, and the edits are not transferred to the score. Additionally, more music than necessary is played with the film, so the final product has been spliced and edited. David currently is working with the Academy to salvage as many scores as possible for public performance; one of his current projects includes the score from Matilda. This is an example of the dual nature of formal and informal musicking. The informal skill of copying music by ear is accentuated by then putting it into notation. Possessing and utilizing both skills, in this case, is documenting a piece of music history for all types of musicians and movie enthusiasts to enjoy.

Other informal music experiences that have proven useful for the five participants include composing, arranging, and improvising. Lenny and Jeff compose with their musicking colleagues and feature these compositions in their public performances and recordings. Likewise, David composes, but does so by himself and for recordings that will be synced with movies. Rachel and David arrange music for the purposes of accommodating musical requests that their clients make, for their friends, chamber ensembles, and students, but also as a means of personal entertainment. Each enjoys generating arrangements of music that they then play privately with friends. The participant who thrives on improvising is Jeff, who takes advantage of every opportunity given to him. Lenny also improvises regularly during jam nights at local blues and rock clubs. As discussed earlier, each participant has applied democratic principles to their group rehearsals (Allsup, 2002). Group members were seen as equals, and were expected

175 to communicate their ideas and suggestions no matter what instruments they played.

Finally, the participants selected all of the music they played and included popular music on a regular basis. Each participant was equipped to play music from all genres, because they had the skills to learn it by ear, or create a fixed part for themselves or for friends who do not possess the aural acuity to learn music without it. The combination of all of these skills equip them to musick in whatever setting presents itself or that they develop themselves.

Skills Missing from TLP Environment

When participants were asked what skills they believed were missing from

TLP that would have assisted them with their current musicking endeavors, their responses were constructive and informative. Rachel would have liked more workshops on arranging, as she has found that skill important to the string quartet business and her work as a Ludo musicologist. Rachel acknowledged that during her tenure in TLP, she was aware of other members writing arrangements, but she just did not take advantage of the opportunity. She also suggested that having alum come in to work with current TLP members might provide an excellent opportunity for those alumni to assert possible ways that current TLP can look forward to musicking after TLP. Jeff also made this same suggestion, adding that in high school, he thought that if he did not attend college for music, his musicking would end after high school. In hindsight, Jeff realized “there are a boatload of opportunities out there to musick” (personal communication, Jeff,

October 3, 2016). Furthermore, John is an alum who returns to Lakewood High

School to work and mentor the current TLP musicians. He also proposed

176 spending more in-depth time with gear. “I cannot stress the importance of figuring out a way to do more in-depth training with students…and organization of gear and respect [for] gear, because if you are running your own operations, it gets really expensive if you do not know how to take care of gear.” (Interview, John,

October 20, 2016).

Giving Back

The final theme of giving back represents the five participants exerting themselves to benefit younger musicians. During my interactions with the participants,

David revealed the most. The position that David holds with the youth orchestra was one that he created first as a volunteer, then slowly began receiving compensation. The position was born out of a passion for movie music and the realization that most young people do not even consider composing, let along composing for movies as a viable career choice. David generated a number of lesson plans focusing on the most current children’s novels, and currently visits inner city schools with a team of his friends who are composers and musicians. While at the school, David had given a presentation about music and how certain keys, rhythms, and dynamics evoke emotion. For example, on one occasion, David described how an ostinato of sixteenth notes might make something feel like running. He typically breaks classes into groups, assigning them a composer and a section of the book, and they begin imaging and creating what the music may sound like if it were played during this book passage. The children just give ideas and the composers turn those ideas into music. If the children think that passage is sad, the composer may write the passage in a minor key and at a slow tempo. The composers use music notation on their computer as they compose so that the children can see the song take shape and

177 listen to what they have already created and revise. After a few sessions, David takes all of the compositions, conducts a recital for the students, the teachers, and their parents that features the children’s music. All of this is done for free. Whenever David comes back to

Lakewood, he tries out new ideas with his Cleveland composer friends in the Lakewood elementary schools, just for fun.

In another example, Rachel, who teaches high school chamber music, teaches her students the in-class curriculum. However, she supplements that performance curriculum with experiences in helping the students to arrange the music that they choose, facilitating rehearsals rather than dictating them. She also supervises their planning of performances.

Their latest recital featured video game music presented at a local coffee house.

John, a Cleveland resident, volunteers to coach TLP rhythm sectionals every week. Furthermore, he attends every full group rehearsal and concert, helps mentor musicians outside of school, creates posters for TLP concerts, and advertises TLP concerts on social media. He is available to the current and former TLP students via e- mail and phone for any musical advice or suggestions. Once students graduate from TLP, he will add them to the list of substitute musicians at the talent agency in which he is employed. This substitute list is employed when the musicians need a sub or require additional musicians to satisfy a contract. John also helps TLP alumni meet like-minded musicians for future musicking opportunities.

Finally, David, Rachel, and John all have worked TLP summer ROCK ON camp for middle school students. They teach students songs by ear, explain how to read notation, assist in composing songs, and provide plenty of support when it is their time to improvise in front of thousands at the July 4th celebration. When asked in follow-up

178 questions what motivates them to keep giving back to TLP and to youth in general,

Rachel indicated that she sees herself in them, appreciates what was given to her, and wants to make certain that others have the same opportunities. David, also sees himself in the students that he works. Stating “I give back because of I see that kids feel insecure in a way I felt insecure about making decisions for themselves, creating their own realities, etc. I know music is a really positive way to establish those qualities in one’s self”

(personal communication, David, February 23, 2017). And finally, Jeff, who volunteers with TLP, said

I had a very difficult time detaching from the group, because the creative and

social environment was really where I thrived at the time, so I felt like a major

part of my life would be missing without LP. I couldn't handle the thought of not

knowing the names of the rhythm section players. Even though I am volunteering,

I feel a certain responsibility to the group. I feel like there is real value in

having different coaches who have different teaching styles and ways of observing

and communicating constructive criticism. I will reach a goal in a different way

than Beth or notice something different about a piece than she will. I feel that we

complement each other as a directorial team, and I feel as if I have something of

value to offer the students. Ultimately, it is their success that drives me. Nothing

makes me happier than hearing/seeing an LP alum just CRUSH it on their

instruments years after leaving LP. [Name of LP alum] is one that comes to mind,

I truly love watching his drumming videos on Facebook. It makes me smile and

sometimes get a little misty, I truly love these students and love watching them

grow as musicians and people. (personal communication, John, March 2, 2017)

179

Researchers such as Green (2002; 2006), Jaffurs (2004), and Mak (2006) have asserted that learning can take place in all types of settings, and that both formal and informal learning can occur simultaneously, the challenge for some music educators is how to do this in their current ensemble settings. Boespflug (1999) advocated for adding alternative ensembles to compliment band, orchestra, and choir that use popular music to the traditional music education program. His argument for doing so was so that it could enhance students’ aural skills, imagination, and give them the tools to participate in music making in the twentieth century (1999). TLP is an alternative ensemble that uses popular music as a vehicle for learning. In this study, what Boespflug proposed was confirmed. Alumni of TLP have been shown to possess enhanced aural skills, to use their imagination to create new opportunities in music (e.g., David, Rachel), and to have the requisite tools to participate in 21st-century musicking. TLP also incorporates collaborative rehearsal techniques often associated with garage bands (Abramo, 2009;

Allsup, 2004; Davis, 2005; Green 2008; Jaffurs, 2004, 2008). The participants in this study credit their experiences in TLP for providing them with the ability to listen for areas of where problems exist, communicate those concerns, and provide solutions to their musical colleagues. They create their high level of achievement to their ability to hear and fix musical problems. Additionally, since TLP reportedly is the first of its kind

(Constantine, 2010), it was created without any model to emulate, so its alumni are comfortable taking risks and forging new paths. While members of TLP, student musicians were encouraged to think critically, be creative, and take risks. Everyone involved in TLP was taking a risk in starting the group, so the directors emphasized the importance of feeling safe and supported when musicians elected to take risks. As a

180 result, TLP learning environment was a community, where directors, technicians, and musicians experienced failure, conflict, and disappointment in order to achieve success

(Petroski, 2006) as individuals and as a team.

Rachel referred to this as “struggling, struggling, and more struggling” (interview,

Rachel, September 29, 2016). David brushed past the negative times with his keyboard colleague who was extremely difficult to work with and sometimes bullied David when picking who would play which pieces. However, it was through conflict and angst that the community of TLP would grow for when success came all experienced pure joy through musicking.

Transferring these concepts might be possible as music educators consider ways in which to provide the time and guidance for students to discover music for themselves.

Success can come from failure, but, as expressed by the participants in this study, failure takes time and requires the energy to keep getting up; the key is not to quit for the payoff is worth the effort. Music educators can create learning environments that excite both teachers and the students. One way music instructors may consider using when creating such an environment might be to ask the students what kinds of music they enjoy listening to, would enjoy to playing on their instruments. One may also deem it worthy to ask students to describe what types of musical experiences they participate in outside of school. The information gathered may reveal a student or two that has experience in a particular genre of music, which could be utilized by the class. Upon collecting this data, the music teacher may uncover that some students have an interest in a type music in which they (the instructor) do not have any experience in teaching. Green (2002) reminds teachers that we cannot know everything and this might be an opportunity to invite an

181 outside clinician to come and assist. Learning together is an excellent way of building bonds and beginning the process of a democratic collaborative effort. Consider celebrating the efforts of each member as they reach outside of their comfort zone.

Praising the efforts of the individual will enhance the group. When ready, contemplate planning an “informance” (a performance that informs the audience of what you have been exploring) or performance. However, large or small the first performance is, the satisfaction of exploring and creating music together is worth the effort. The themes discussed in this cross-case analysis were not only musical themes, but life themes, as well. They were based on the rich data collected in this study and well worth the efforts of educators to consider fully.

Kratus (2007) and Williams (2011) asserted that music education has hit a fork in the road and that music education must do something to confront the issues of dropping enrollment as well as the lack of innovation with regard to large performing ensembles.

TLP has been shown to be one possible path, for music education to explore, as it appears that this type of ensembles teaches skills that can lead toward a lifelong pursuit of musical experiences. However, it is imperative to note all that TLP relies on a mixture of formal and informal learning experiences. For example, all of TLP string players also must be in orchestra. TLP elected to explore rock/popular music, but there are other viable genres for music educators and their students. These and other considerations will be outlined in the following chapter.

Summary

It appears that the participants’ experience in TLP was one that motivated them to continue musicking after high school. They have elected to musick through performing in

182 rock bands and Indie bands, composing film music, researching video game music, and giving back to younger musicians by empowering them to musick in ways that they enjoy. The learning environment of TLP was one that required the participants to develop a personal tool kit of formal and informal music learning skills. They are able to read music, retrieve assets that will assist them in developing technical skills, copy and transcribe music by ear, improvise, compose, generate arrangements from all genres of music, and utilize their well-trained ear to gather information and then rearticulate that knowledge to other musicians, regardless of the instrument they play. They have gained experience in learning how to deliver such knowledge in a constructive way that is productive and meaningful, not hurtful, judgmental, or combative. Additionally, TLP provided them with real-life experiences in using and regulating equipment, lighting, sound, and staging. This hands-on experience taught them the basics of electronic sound production. When faced with advancements in technology, they are able to understand the nuances and determine how to incorporate those advancements into their musicking.

The majority of the knowledge that was acquired in TLP was done so through interactions with directors, mentors, and fellow musicians. As a learning community,

TLP supports and advances each members toward their personal musical goals as well as the overall objectives of TLP.

183

CHAPTER SEVEN

ASSERTATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Assertions about the Quintain

As outlined in previous chapters, multiple case study is used to examine the

phenomenon of a quintain, or the characteristic that they had in common (Stake, 2006).

In this study, the quintain was the learning environment of “The Lakewood Project”

(TLP), a high school rock orchestra that produced a high number of alumni who

continued to make music after high school (Koops et al., 2014). A specific lens

associated with this study included examining the skills that alumni acquired during

membership in TLP and documenting the continuation of those skills in their musicking.

As a result to the cross-case analysis of this multiple case study, six assertions about the quintain become apparent:

(a) Learning to play by ear and having a well-trained ear aids musicians in

acclimating to a broad range of future musical opportunities.

(b) Providing students with a safe environment (constructivist setting/situated

learning) that encourages and even requires that they discuss, communicate, self-

analyze, and provide feedback with their fellow musicians (even those who play

different instruments), invokes a more mentally engaged musician who gains

confidence, knowledge, and motivation to continue making music.

bolsters one’s musical confidence and equips them to communicate their musical

ideas with others

184

(d) Exposing students to notation software and musical “gear” (e.g., sound, amps, and

lights) empowers them to create musical opportunities for performing in a variety

of settings.

(e) Including students in the planning and implementation of concerts, tours, clinics,

and camps enables them to perform in, find, create, and plan performances in any

type of setting, as well as include mentees in the process.

(f) Equipping students with the above skills enables them to continue musicking

alone and with others, for as long they wish.

Detailed explanations for these assertions are outlined below, along with data that supports their inclusion as essential considerations for music educators and researchers alike.

A Well-Trained Ear

Providing students with opportunities to train their ear has a number of benefits.

They can play music they hear without the aid of musical notation. John is a member of a cover band that learns all of their music by ear. Similarly, Jeff relies on his ear to learn all of the music for his band; however, Jeff also prefers to transcribe the music that he learns by ear for confirmation (when written music is available), as well as to aid him and his colleagues in their rehearsals. Students who desire musical notation or are playing with someone who requires it, are able to write down what they hear to accommodate this need. David and Rachel expand this skill by creating arrangements that contain more than one part. As a result, they are able to play almost anything they or their friends want to play. Trying out new arrangements has become a social activity for David, Rachel, and their friends.

185

When improvising, students develop an innate sense of when the chords are going

to change, hence assisting them in the creation of their improvisation. Jeff was able to

join The Wheeler Brothers band on stage, without any rehearsal, because he was familiar

with their music and was able to sense the chord changes and facilitate his performance

accordingly.

When Rachel first contemplated pursuing a career in music, it was on the piano.

Her switch to violin was because of the relationships she developed in ensembles and her

strong desire to music with others. Her well-trained ear enables her to detect mistakes in rehearsals and communicate those concerns to others. She is also able to pick on the stylistic differences between musical genres and adjust accordingly. Likewise, Lenny

uses his ear to compose and maintain a heavy performance schedule with three different

bands. The information required to perform is collected by his ears, and he keeps that

information in a notebook that includes musical notation as well as his own short-hand.

Empowering students with a well-trained ear can provide them with the confidence and the tools to musick in a variety of settings.

Prior to their acceptance into TLP, Jeff, David, and Rachel played their stringed

instruments in orchestra class, were taught how to read music, and relied heavily on

musical notation. When they became members of TLP, they continued to use musical

notation as a guide, but also learned how to play by ear. Lenny entered the traditional

band program in high school after a few years of singing in choir. He was able to keep up

with his band colleagues because he relied on his ear, and eventually, he did learn how to

read music in band. John was a member of a garage band prior to joining TLP. Although

Lenny and John mentioned a well-trained ear as a central component to their current

186 musicking, they also referred to how they used their ear prior to TLP. Jeff, David, and

Rachel (the string players) recalled using their ear prior to entering the music education system, and John and Lenny (the rhythm section players) described how their ear was used as a survival skill when they did enter school music ensembles.

Jeff and Rachel, both violinists, talked about their ability to figure things out by ear. Rachel first mentioned her ability to play by ear when she was either 4 or 5 years old, and remembers trying to figure out the music from the move Sound of Music on her

Fischer Price Xylophone. She recalls telling her parents that her xylophone did not have all of the notes that she needed. Eventually, her parents started her in piano lessons at the age of 8, and violin at the age of 10. It was not until TLP that Rachel felt her aural awareness begin to be challenged and developed. In hindsight, Rachel relied heavily on her aural acuity and has since introduced ear training methods into her private teaching, because she felt that aspect of her musical training was neglected until TLP. She now realizes how much her musicking depends on her aural ability.

Jeff also relied heavily on his ability to play by ear. He started violin lessons at the age of 9, although his teacher did not use the Suzuki method, but rather taught by rote. After a few years of rote lessons, Jeff stopped and only played in the school orchestra, which focused solely on music notation. When he resumed lessons, he could sight-read new music with his teacher but would then ask her to play it for him. He loved listening to a professional play the music that he was going to perform. Jeff’s philosophy was that “you have to hear it, to blend it and put that synergy with the notes. I do that a lot. I have to hear it, and then I look at sheet music to confirm what I think my ears are hearing” (interview, Jeff, August 20, 2016). Perhaps this was Jeff’s way of getting his

187

teacher to play the music for him so that he could use his strong ear in addition to reading

the music. Jeff admitted to behaving in the same manner in high school orchestra. He

would pretend to play, but was actually listening to the others musicians play his part;

when he felt comfortable, he would join them.

David mentioned his ability to memorize music quickly when he was young and

studying with his grandmother. He credited his proclivity for memorization to his ear.

Once in TLP, he realized that if one took the time to transcribe music from recordings to

music notation, it was a way of uncovering how those musicians composed. As a result of

this revelation, he started listening to film music and transcribing it in preparation for his

future dream of becoming a film composer. While transcribing others’ music, he

documented his favorite chord progressions in a journal, and he refers to this journal

daily.

Jeff relies on his ability to play by ear, but refers to music notation as a secondary

source in band rehearsals. Having the music notation allows Jeff to focus his fine-tuned ear on other members of the ensemble. He acknowledges TLP for his ability to hear different parts at the same time, how they relate to one another, and how to problem solve resolutions in rehearsal. “The way my ear was trained in TLP, the ability to hear different things from guitars, to drums, to strings all together, helps me uncover things in this smaller setting a lot more” (Interview, Jeff, August, 20, 2016).

Jeff, David, and Rachel attribute TLP with training their ears, but Lenny and John joined TLP possessing excellent listening skills already. They persisted in the secondary instrumental music setting by relying on their ears, as they were not able to read music at the time. While members of TLP (John) and band (Lenny), they learned how to read

188 music. Lenny learned how to read by interacting with the other percussionists in band and who were also in TLP. He would ask questions and look at the music while the other percussionists played. John learned how to read music by writing arrangements for TLP in a collaborative effort with other members. During these social interactions, TLP members who could already read music spoke and communicated in musical terms.

These interactions did not resemble those of a teacher to student, but a small group of musicians creating music together and discussing their ideas in their own words. Lenny and John were aware of their deficiencies in music notation and the meaning of musical terms; however, they listened intently, used their ears to make aural connections, and learned by doing (Allsup, 2003; Elliot, 1995; Gordon, 2012; Green, 2002:2006: 2008;

Harwood, 1998; Lave & Wenger, 1991; McLoughlin, & Luca, 2006).

Although all five participants entered TLP from a variety of beginnings, each emerged with the skill of playing by ear and reading music. Based on the descriptions of all five participants’ current musicking, TLP was an authentic musicking environment that developed their ability to play, arrange, composer, and improvise by ear, which is the primary tool used by all in their current musicking.

Based on the “mother tongue” method of Shinichi Suzuki, where principles of language acquisition were applied to the formation of musical knowledge, instead of language acquisition (Suzuki Associations of the Americas, 1998), most children possess the ability to learn music by ear. The conflict of when to transition from pure rote teaching to the introduction of musical notation continues to spark a healthy debate

(Glenn, 1999; Gordon, 2012; McPherson & Gabrielsson, 2002; Suzuki, 2013). However, it appears that many teachers feel as though they have to sacrifice one for the other. As

189

Woody (2012) stated, “teachers do not need to choose between preserving traditional

ensemble performance and giving way to a revolutionary ear-based curriculum” (p. 86).

As research has indicated, a key factor in music literacy is a well-developed ear (Gordon,

2012; McPherson & Gabrielsson, 2002; Mills & McPherson, 2006; Woody, 2012).

A Safe Environment

In a garage band, musicians come together to make music by choice. They rely on

each other to improve as individuals as well as a unit. TLP brings this line of thinking

into a secondary instrumental ensemble of 40-plus musicians. The key is creating a real-

life – yet safe – environment to which musicians can relate, where they share knowledge, support each other, and have a sense of ownership regarding the health and well-being of the group, as well as their other musicians. As outlined in Chapter 2, Situated Learning

Theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991) posits that learning occurs for individuals while participating in real-life activities, and that the acquisition of knowledge and skills is not intentional, but instead is acquired through legitimate peripheral participation.

Constructivists believe that individuals come to understand the world through their own lens, based on their own personal experiences and social interactions (Scott, 2006;

Wiggins, 2007). Creating an ensemble that welcomes musicians from all backgrounds and interests, encourages them to collaborate toward a common goal, yet also promotes and supports their individual expression, is a place where musicking can flourish.

TLP is an ensemble that acknowledges the musical expertise that its musicians have acquired either through formal means, informal means, or listening, and validates it.

The directors encourage student musicians to communicate their ideas and opinions when composing or rehearsing as a large ensemble, as the directors believe that the students do

190 have a unique perspective when it comes to current music, playing instruments like guitar, and how their electronic instruments work. TLP also depends on its senior members to share and teach younger members whenever possible. For example, TLP’s unique instrumentation necessitates music that cannot be purchased, so members must arrange, add, edit, and create parts for each song. Although arrangements from previous

TLP groups exist, those arrangements are altered continually by adding a personal flare of each TLP. Those modifications are written into the music, but their meaning must be communicated to a newer member by a senior member. The oral history of the TLP has been handed down (literally) in a binder, from string player to string player, for the past

15 years. Members of the rhythm section also pass on their history by making recordings of TLP arrangements and share those recording and notes with new members. In sectionals, one can often witness a senior member demonstrating a riff or playing along with (unplugged) a new member in rehearsal. This is also how original tunes are passed from year to year. However, even though much time is spent on members intentionally passing on knowledge, a lot of learning is done peripherally. Lenny describes once such example in his interview when talking about how he learned new drumming techniques, styles, and songs. “When I joined (TLP), we had guys like [name] and [name]. I literally would just sit on the edge of the stage and stare at them” (Interview, Lenny, November

30, 2016).

Learning took place within like sections, but also between sections. Jeff told several stories about “jamming” with members of the rhythm section in private practice sessions on TLP music, but also just for fun. He also opted to perform in small ensembles, when in TLP, in groups comprised of strings and rhythm section instruments.

191

On one occasion, one such group learned by ear and performed “Ants Marching” by The

Dave Mathews Band, and on another occasion, they composed an original song that was performed on a May concert. Rachel also conferred often with members of the rhythm section about TLP music, arranging songs like “Close to the Edge” by YES and jamming for fun. All of these examples were facilitated by the students. Although the school music directors encouraged interactions outside of school, it was the students’ responsibility to organize and implement. David would call his outside musicking sessions as food parties, where everyone would get an invitation and a BYOS (bring your own snack) request.

John and Steve referred to their gatherings as “sleep overs,” since most of the time these events would last through the night.

These type of student organized musicking outside of school aligns with

Vygotsky (1978), who suggests that students who have a common goal will use each other as resources for ideas, as well as determine the skills that each can provide within the collaborative effort. This type of collaboration has been observed by several music researchers in garage band settings (Abramo, 2009; Allsup, 2004; Davis, 2005; Green

2008; Jaffurs, 2004, 2008), and some have advocated for its inclusion into the instrumental classroom (Boespflug, 1999; Green, 2006). In our current school landscape, more music educators may be asked to think about ways in which to globalize their classroom. One way music teachers can do that is by including the disenfranchised population of outside musick makers and providing an environment for collaboration among musicians. Additional discussion points surrounding these notions are provided later in this chapter.

Arranging, Composing, and Improvising

192

Despite the strong emphasis on these three creative musical skills, evidence shows that arranging, composing, and improvising are the skills that music educators express the most concern about teaching (Byrne and Sheridan, 1998; MacDonald and Miell, 2000).

The teaching of musical creativity can be the most underutilized task in educational settings (Bryne, 2005). Perhaps one reason for this apprehension is because of the learning environment needed to foster those skills, and the genres of music that typically are used to teach them. In the current study, four of the five participants readily used these creative musical skills in the musicking.

Rachel and David thrive on arranging music. Rachel arranges music for her string quartet when they play at weddings, meetings, or at any other function that her clients request. Her ability to arrange clients’ music request is one of their major marketing tools. She also arranges for her chamber music classes. This allows the members to perform the music they want to perform. It also aids Rachel is providing her students with the best possible music for their education, despite their unique instrumentation.

Likewise, David arranges music for his students, school presentations, and client requests for weddings. He also does it for a means of entertainment at gatherings with his musician friends. Additionally, David continues to write arrangements for TLP, as a way of giving back to the ensemble. Taking a piece of music, examining it, and making decisions about who plays what part, is a good way to learn about the ranges of instruments when preparing to compose.

David values the experiences that he received in TLP when arranging for the ensemble as a pathway to composing. David enjoys the freedom of composing and considers it the least restrictive of the three creative musical skills. David’s mentor, Scott,

193 the Academy Nominated Film Composer, stated, “I do not think the impulse to compose is predicated on training” (interview, Scott, August 17, 2016). He believes that composing is inspired by experiences, as well as encouraged by others, in order to develop one’s own voice and put it on paper. The one training aspect of composing that

Scott believed was essential was the ability to use musical notation software, because composers must be able to clearly communicate their ideas to those who will perform it.

All musical ideas deserve to be heard and played. Scott communicated that the skill of composing is one that improves with practice and guidance from teachers, and that all composers are essentially the same, except for the fact that some get paid to do it, which can be true in many facets of the music profession. Like artists and writers, those who appreciate the art should be encouraged to express their ideas, if not solely for their enjoyment. Lenny and Jeff compose for their own personal enjoyment. Lenny has found a group of likeminded musicians to compose with and they recently released an E.P.

(extended play) album at their favorite watering hole. The venue was packed with energetic and supportive fans who dance feverishly to the nine original songs that

Lenny’s band performed that evening.

Of the four participants mentioned above, Jeff is the one who loves to improvise.

He does so alone with recordings, live on stage with his current band, and as a guest artist pulled from the audience with bands whose concerts he attends. To Jeff, improvising is like having a relaxed conversation with his best friend. This kind of thinking aligns with

Azzara (1993), who wrote that “[i]mprovisation is to music what speaking is to language”

(p. 330). Spontaneity is also another term often associated with improvisation (1993).

Jeff‘s musicking is at times controlled and measured, but he is also the most spontaneous

194 musician of the five participants in this multiple case study. Examples of this spontaneity include when Jeff paid the hired violinist to allow him [Jeff] to jam with the piano player as a birthday present to himself, and when he engineered a playing opportunity with The

Wheeler Brother’s stage manager and ended up playing with the band on several numbers. These are examples of true musical freedom.

Arranging, composing, and improvising are acknowledged in the 2014 Music

Standards as desired skills that student musicians should acquire

(http://www.nafme.org/core-music-standards/). TLP provides the requisite structure for students to demonstrate a high level of acquisition of these skills, as the ensemble is based upon student arrangements, their ability to improvisation, and provides a safe place to perform their compositions. David addressed this clearly in his interview.

I think having the freedom to do one of my compositions and getting it

applauded. I was allowed to do my own thing. No one told me to write a

piece. I did it of my own volition. I took a chance, and it was appreciated.

I think that happening again and again and again adds up to realizing that

there is an audience for you. Whatever you do, there is an audience for

you. The other side of that is having to do a TLP May concert. The May

concert was not the “David Show.” There are a lot of small ensembles.

You had your turn, and now the audience is going to applaud someone

else. A lot of the kids in TLP were not the types of kids I would have hung

out with in high school. It is a lot of different cliques of kids, and everyone

gets to throw their ideas on stage for a portion of the evening. I could not

help but respect it because I knew what I felt like. I felt the mechanism,

195

you know, of believing in myself as I was preparing whether it was

rehearsals with [name] or [name] for my trio or writing out the music and

thinking about, you know, what it is going to look like when people

applaud it. I know that that is going through [name’s] mind or whoever’s

mind when they are performing. I have been thinking about this for so

long. It is finally here (Interview, David, August 17, 2016).

Boespflug (1999) proposed that music educators consider creating alternative ensembles that use popular music to connect with their students and encourage them to compose, arrange, and improvise in that style. The reasons Boespflug proposed this idea was to address the concern of the shrinking “serious music” audience at the 1996

National Association of Schools of Music annual meeting. Boespflug (1999) believed that creations of such ensembles would help bridge the widening gap. Similarly, Kratus

(2007) referred to this gap as a “tipping point” in music education, and Williams (2011) believed “the elephant in the room” was the large ensemble: the primary vehicle of secondary music education since the early 1900s. Both Kratus and Williams acknowledged waning classical concert audiences, but also showed concern for dropping

enrollment in school music. Others have contended that if music educators would add

more diverse and relevant music-making opportunities and courses to complement

traditional ensembles, participation might increase (Allsup & Benedict, 2008; Isbell,

2007; Kratus, 2007; ONeill, 2012; Williams, 2011, Woody, 2007). Boespflug may have

welcomed the support of such notable researchers, but as he worked through his idea, he

did so in search of how it also would benefit the student as a musician, not just audience

size or music class size.

196

In working through his idea, Boespflug (1999) acknowledged that popular musicians rely heavily on their ability to play by ear when composing, arranging, and, improvising, and this has been supported by other researchers (Campbell, 1995; Davis,

2005; Green 2006; Jaffurs, 2004; Woody & Lehmann, 2010; Woody, 2012). He also acknowledged the perceptibility of popular musicians’ ears when replicating style, texture, blend, and color. This revelation led him to convey the importance of providing students with an authentic experience, either by providing them with the technology to assist in their creativity, or by creating an alternative ensemble that can replicate the original sounds of the styles utilizing (1999). An idea that may have been sparked by a concern over decreasing attendance at classical concerts appears to have lead Boespflug down a path toward developing a more complete musician. “The skills developed in the pop ensemble – refined aural skill, improvisation, arranging, and composition – are important elements of complete musicianship (p. 37).

Nearly 20 years after Boespflug’s (1999) initial call, Clouse (2016) wrote that the health of classical music, concert attendance, and symphony orchestras depends on whom you ask. Clouse asserted that there is still an interest in classical music (i.e., downloads from iTunes), but that orchestras and businesses must become more entrepreneurial and cater to the younger generation. One example Clouse presented was The Piano Guys, who take popular music and mash it with classical music, which is one approach that TLP practices, requiring the aural skills and creative musicianship to hear two pieces and combine them while respecting both. Another example Clouse cited was the live performance of film music while watching the film at the Hollywood Bowl, which happens to be the project the David is working on with Scott.

197

Finally, it is important to summarize the ways in which the five study participants have utilized arranging, composing, and improvising in their current musicking. David plans parties with friends where he creates arrangements based on the theme for an upcoming concert. At the time of our interview, the theme was Billy Joel. His friends meet, rehearse David’s arrangements, and then perform at a local establishment. In

Rachel’s chamber music class, she recalled she was assisting her groups with arranging video game music, and one of her students brought a surprise arrangement to school of a mash-up between “Blank Space” by Taylor Swift and “Canon in D”, as the student had recognized the chord progression and decided to create an arrangement for his or her chamber ensemble as she explored what she heard. Jeff generates daily recordings of him improvising and playing arrangements. As a result of this type of personal musicking,

Jeff was “all in” when given the chance to join one of his favorite bands on stage during a concert where he improvised his entire time on stage. Each case participant exuded joy and pride when recalling the above examples, while I, as a classically-trained string player, felt slightly nauseous as I tried to envision myself in their shoes. TLP is an example of the ensemble that Boespflug (1999) referred to in his work. In accordance with Boespflug, TLP students generate every single piece the ensemble plays, hence developing their skills in arranging, composing, and improvising. Although this takes time, the musical skills honed through the process can lend themselves to the lifelong musicking opportunities that await student musicians after high school (Boespflug, 1999;

Eady & Wilson, 2004; Green 2002; Isbell, 2007; 2015; Woody, 2012).

Public Musicking

198

According to Christopher Small (1999), “to music is to take part in any capacity

in a musical performance, and the meaning of musicking lies in the relationships that are

established between the participants by the performance” (p. 9). However, Woody (2012)

lamented that many student musicians might not have the opportunity to join community

orchestras or bands, but instead may find themselves faced with more vernacular

musicking opportunities after high school. If students can function within these

vernacular settings, that is fine, but what if they know how to create and plan their own

musicking opportunities? The five participants in this study all relished musicking in

public places. Jeff performed with Machine Gun Kelly on his tour, and had a recording

studio in his house, where he records himself regularly and posts these recordings online.

Similarly, John has performed for the World Series at The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame,

while David has performed at the Hollywood Bowl. Lenny has toured the East Coast with

his band, and Rachel picks local venues and does everything to prepare and put on

performances. John attributed TLP for his current ability to function in professional

settings. As John said, we had “real training in production as well as all of the

professionals that we were able to come in contact with as far as how to manage,

maintain and treat gear and stages and professionals at venue. How to be respectful, how

to do the right thing” (Interview, John October 20, 2016). Music instructors could

consider exposing students to the planning of concerts, traveling, and developing shows

within new venues as possible ways to instill an appreciation for these intricacies.

John mentioned performances at professional venues as a member of TLP, which included Cleveland’s The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, The House of Blues, and

Playhouse Square. While performing in these venues as high school students, they

199 interacted with professional stage hands, sound technicians, and lighting technicians.

Although under the supervision of directors at the time, they had to communicate their own personal needs and requirements for each performance. Students were able to function within this setting, because in weekly rehearsals they were required to set up, tear down, and manage all of their gear. They had to coil all cables, they would equalize

(EQ) the sounds used in the floor boards, EQ their monitors, and then trouble shoot any problems with other student musicians prior to seeking the aid of a director. They had authentic, hands-on experience with gear, sound, and lighting on their school stage, so when in a professional setting, there were no surprises.

The use of music technology within a secondary music classroom is a topic that researchers have explored. Burnard (2007) asked how teachers’ roles may change pedagogically with the inclusion of technology, how teachers can creatively enhance their classroom with use of music technology, and how teachers and students learn in these settings since currently students are often times more technologically savvy than teachers.

TLP tackled these questions by exposing students to bona fide musical settings and music production professionals. Most higher education institutions do not teach music educators how to use and repair amplifiers, run sound boards, hang theatre lighting, or program a lighting console. Green (2008) recognized that music educators cannot know everything; therefore, she advocated for hiring professionals. When teachers seek help, it should not be thought of as a sign of weakness or a lack of knowledge, but rather, efficient problem- solving in order to ensure the best possible environment for their students. These professionals can teach the students and the teacher how to use the technology and how to run it during shows. When students are comfortable using music technology, they are

200

capable of envisioning even more musicking opportunities within the real world (Woody,

2007).

In addition to knowing how to operate, care for, and maintain their gear, all five

participants had experience in choosing music appropriate for the audiences for whom they were performing, and in creating set lists that were seamless. As David offered, “We do concerts of Billy Joel [music], in venues [where] you can sign up to play. We are all professionals and we get our money elsewhere, but this is just for fun” (Interview, David,

August 17, 2016). Signing up to perform at a local venue provides David and his friends with an end goal, which they see as a project that they can work on together. They have to pick the music, arrange it, practice it, rehearse it, and finally develop a music order for the performance that is comfortable for the musicians, as well as the listener. While

John’s band was preparing for the performance at The House of Blues 90s music night they employed one of their standard practice techniques which is to run the set list without stopping. Doing this permits them to work on their sense of timing, stamina

(whether they can play and sing for that amount of time without becoming tired, and whether they can move from instrument to instrument seamlessly), and the musical flow of the show. Performing music that an audience wants to hear and maintaining audience interest were topics that were discussed regularly in TLP. For example, when TLP students were choosing music for their concerts, oftentimes the directors reminded the students of the make-up of their audience. As a result, they tended to include current pop songs with more traditional rock tunes by Rush, Led Zepplin, The Who, and Bon Jovi, in order to appeal to all ticket holders.

Enabling Musicians to Evolve with Music

201

The 2014 National Music Standards focus on creating, performing, responding, and connecting are all processes which will enable musicians to evolve with music.

Shuler (2011) suggested that in order to create musicians for life, music educators must include creating, performing, responding and connecting within every daily lesson, and as time passes, music teachers must transfer the responsibility of these processes to their students by providing them with musical experiences that foster the 4 Cs: collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creativity (Busch, 2005; Hargreaves, Marshall &

North, 2003; Nazareth, 1999; Shuler, 2011; www.p21.org). As students assume these responsibilities, teachers can begin to develop students with lifelong musical skills.

David, Jeff, John, Lenny, and Rachel all collaborate and communicate in their current musicking. David partners with Scott on projects; the youth orchestra board on inner city middle schools project; his music students from the charter school, and finally with this friends. Each collaborative project in which David participates requires him to communicate in different ways. With Scott, he is an assistant, but also someone with whom to process ideas. In the youth orchestra project, David is the leader. He communicates with the teachers in the schools and uses their ideas to create programs that he then implements, which has benefitted all stakeholders. As the teacher of music for a charter school, David creates lesson plans that facilitate student collaboration as well as teacher-student collaboration. Similarly, Rachel instructs her chamber music students to collaborate and communicate both verbally and through physical gestures while playing. In addition to working together while performing, she assists them in vocalizing what they hear and feel to each other during their rehearsals. The chamber music students also team up to work on arrangements.

202

Jeff, John, and Lenny collaborate with their band colleagues, and Rachel and

David with their string quartets. Rehearsing small ensembles without a designated leader can be challenging. Learning how to listen while playing, hearing one’s own mistakes as well as those made by others, and adopting the proper vocal tone to discuss and improve the group’s performance without hurting feelings is, as Jeff said, an “intricate dance.”

Developing these types of communication skills takes practice and critical thinking, which can help students grow in their musicianship.

All five participants demonstrated critical thinking skills throughout my observations. They did so as within their groups as well as individually. Each group relied on its members, taking the time, effort, and interest in thinking about their performances, uncovering problems and working together to solve them. Individually,

Rachel exemplified critical thinking during her evaluation of Final Fantasy VI. When listening to the music in this video game, she had a hunch that classical music elements did exist, despite the composer’s denial, but she needed to substantiate it. As most musicologists do when they wish to verify an assumption, they will turn to the fixed score for clues and evidence, but in this case, there was no fixed score. Video game music is complex, because it is comprised of multiple tracks running all at once and programmed to respond based on the actions of the player. Rachel’s desire to see a fixed score lead her to create a way of extracting tracks, changing their format, imputing the new files into free software, decoding the tracks aurally, and transcribing what she heard into musical notation. Rachel was giddy when she recalled the first time she had hard evidence of a

Baroque fugue figure on paper. Her method of extracting tracks and creating fixed scores is now being used by other musicologists. It appears that this participants not only

203

possess musical skills and knowledge, but also the ability to communicate, collaborate,

and think critically and creatively to pursue music in their own way.

Lifelong Musicking

Jones (2009) wrote an article advocating for music teachers to adopt and foster

particular characteristics in their musical environments, and included musical skills that

could help emphasize and promote lifelong musicking. Jones compiled tables from

research studies on amateur musicking and popular musicking, and claimed this was a

starting point to assist music teachers “add value to students’ lifewide and potential

lifelong musicking” (p. 211). Jones’ tables have a number of commonalities with the five

participants in this study and their experiences in TLP. These include the elements of

environment, skills, and settings.

Environment. Jones (2009) recommended that teachers create an environment that promotes ownership, student agency, relevance, personal expression, democratic interactions, and provides opportunities for experiential learning, self-instruction, and self-directedness. David referred to the “freedom” to create, explore, and receive appreciation for his musical ideas, while Jeff was thankful for the opportunity to perform and explore rock music in addition to classical music. John and Lenny credited TLP for giving them a place to learn “their way,” through human interaction with their peers, self- exploration, and observing. TLP relationships were one reason that Rachel pivoted toward the violin and away from the piano. Each participant benefitted individually from the environment, but also the group.

Skills. Jones (2009) promoted the development of technical skills, improvising ear training (e.g., sight-singing, sight-reading, analysis of popular music), playing by ear,

204 listening, arranging, fostering aural skills, and transcribing from recordings. Similarly, the participants in this study possessed a number – if not all – of the skills mentioned above. Taking private lessons to advance technique was something that all contributors explored at some point. All are capable of improvising, but Jeff jumped at any opportunity to do so. Ear training was a repetitive term used by every participant. Rachel believed that TLP developed her aural acuteness more than any other classical teacher or setting. Likewise, David used TLP (popular) music and film music to practice transcribing, arranging, and studying how composers think and analyze music. Learning music by ear was the first approach that Lenny, John, and Jeff took when presented with new music while in TLP, which they continue today. Each possesses the ability to analyze songs aurally and to anticipate where the songs will transition to as it progresses.

All five TLP alumni have relied extensively on their aural skills to musick.

Settings. When discussing settings, Jones (2009) cited Chuido (1997) who encouraged students and teachers to consider small ensembles, challenging music, and the use of popular music (Jones, 2009) and other genres that students are interested in exploring. David and Rachel continued to musick with classical, popular, and video game music. In contrast, Jeff, John, and Lenny have tipped more toward solely popular music.

Whatever the genre, they musick in small ensembles, and, when faced with challenges, seek guidance from a mentor. Performing the music they like with people they enjoy personalizes their musicking and nurtures their ability to continue for a lifetime.

Implications for Music Education

As President of NAfME, Scott Shuler (2011) wrote a series in the Music

Educators Journal entitled “Music Education For Life.” In this series, he discussed the

205 new national standards and how embracing these standards would promote music for life.

The new standards of performing, creating, responding and connecting are processes that can be developed through informal learning that occurs in popular music (Green 2002;

Mantie, 2013). Mantie explained that many researchers cite Green as someone who promotes the use of popular music in music education, but in fact, she is more interested in the development of the informal learning skills she has observed in popular music settings (2013). When music educators are asked to incorporate musical outcomes like composing, improvising, arranging, analysis, interpreting, including personal interests, historical context, and connecting music to one’s daily life, as well as adding in technology components, and it is understandable how some teachers can feel uncomfortable or overwhelmed. Mantie (2013) explained that this new discourse is not one with which most music educators are familiar, nor do they completely embrace it.

Mantie (2013) presented conflicting evidence regarding the popularity of popular music in music education. He cited Walker (2007) as claiming that popular music is found in most secondary schools around the world. Wang and Humphreys (2009), however, disputed this claim, stating that popular music “was insignificant in both presence and status in the preservice music teacher education programs (Mantie, 2013, p. 344). Jones

(2008) and Rodriguez (2004) discussed similar rationales, arguing that despite the call to embrace youth culture and popular music in the American music education system, it has yet to be developed. Perhaps there is a strong desire within the music education community to remain steadfast and loyal to the large ensembles of the early 1900s and the Western classical canon. Jorgenson (2003) warned music educators that in order “to ensure that classical traditions thrive, that esoteric musics out of the popular mainstream

206

are valued” (p. 139), artists should strive to guide public policy and perception. Earlier,

she had lamented, “How shall one prevent the loss of the best of tradition while at the

same time embracing change?” (Jorgensen, 2002, p. 38). The suggestion of change in anything brings debate, but change must start somewhere. A number of researchers have examined carefully the benefits of informal learning and the use of popular music, and in some cases, countries like the United Kingdom have adopted its use in their music education system (Mantie, 2013). However, when attempting change, one might need to take risks, as Boespflug (1999) suggested, and see if the experiment works. TLP is exactly that, a 15-year experiment that worked. Based on the findings of the current study, several compelling implications for music teaching and learning can be drawn. The following represent some fundamental considerations for music teachers as they strive to extend the boundaries of what a music education might entail.

Potential Role of Situated Learning Theory within a Secondary Ensemble

Situated Learning Theory, developed by Lave and Wenger (1991), was based on

the benefits of an historic form of learning: “apprenticeship.” They examined and

maintained the idea of apprenticeship within the realm of education and developed the

concept of “Situated Learning Theory: (SLT) Legitimate Peripheral Participation.” Lave

and Wenger made connections between “learners as apprentices, about teachers and

computers as masters and about cognitive apprenticeship, apprenticeship learning, and

even life as apprenticeship” (p. 29). Learners were members of a community whose

learning began peripherally, a concept they called legitimate peripheral participation

(LLP).

207

In the case of TLP, peripherality is achieved when members move through

different positions of power and responsibility, and, hence, grow in involvement. The act

of intentional instruction (i.e., execution of a pre-planned lesson) does not exist in a

traditional sense; instead, activities undertaken by the learning community (TLP), which

typically includes a “master,” aim to promote understanding. In TLP, the person who

may be the “master” is constantly changing. For example, the “master” of an arrangement

of music is the person who wrote the arrangement, not the teacher in the room. Another

example might be the senior electric guitarist who teaches a younger player the guitar

part for a classical piece of music by rote, which the senior guitar player created when

s/he was a sophomore. In the case of TLP, information is transmitted from one member

to another intentionally or indirectly.

TLP relies on SLT, as time does not allow for all of the knowledge to be handed down by one person (the teacher). Members are constantly exchanging knowledge when setting up or using equipment, learning new music, thinking through arrangements or compositions, solving bowing problems in order to achieve the desired sound, adjusting fingerings to facilitate ease of performing, and determining who should lead transitions or tempo changes. Because student musicians have been empowered to seek information as well as provide information to others, the ensemble is able to learn quickly, effectively, and efficiently.

Perhaps music educators could envision how students within their musical ensembles could be empowered to assist or instruct others with the acquisition of knowledge. Teachers could require musicians to seek answers to questions from their section leaders before asking the teacher. Sectional leaders could be required to make

208

sure that every member of their section is kept up to date on decisions made during

rehearsals that are missed or even required to double check that members’ music is

marked appropriately with the director’s musical instructions. Once permission is given

to the students to seek information from other students, they could do so intentionally and

unintentionally, as they may learn to search for understanding by observing, asking, or

replicating their colleagues approach.

However, in order for music educators to take full advantage of SLT, they must acknowledge that their students already possess useful musical knowledge and sometimes are even the masters in the room. For example, a teacher may be a violinist but not fully

understand the best fingering to use on string bass in order to play a passage seamlessly.

A student may be the master in the room on string bass because s/he has been studying

the intricacies of the string bass to a greater degree than the music teacher. Music

educators are encouraged to develop a growth mindset in order for SLT to be a successful

outgrowth of their teaching.

Developing a Growth Mindset

Possessing a growth mindset is one way the five participants have successfully created musicking opportunities for themselves after high school. This growth mindset was nurtured in TLP as the most important characteristic of its members and its teachers.

Like Green (2002) posited, music teachers cannot be expected to know everything, but hopefully they have not lost their love of learning. One way that teachers can ignite or reignite their love of learning is by developing a growth mindset of their own.

Developing a growth mindset can start by letting go and empowering students to use the musical skills they acquired in elementary school and middle school in new and creative

209 ways can start with the teacher. Carol Dweck, a psychologist from Stanford University, coined the term “growth mindset.” She wrote,

In a growth mindset, people believe that their most basic abilities can be

developed through dedication and hard work – brains and talent are just

the starting point. This view creates a love of learning and a resilience that

is essential for great accomplishments

(http://mindsetonline.com/whatisit/about/). The opposite of a growth

mindset is a “fixed mindset.”

In contrast, a “fixed mindset,” according to Dweck, assumes that one’s character, intelligence, and creative ability are static givens that people cannot change in any meaningful way. Success is the affirmation of that inherent intelligence, an assessment of how those givens measure up against an equally fixed standard. Striving for success and avoiding failure at all costs can become a way of maintaining the sense of being smart or skilled (retrieved from https://www.brainpickings.org/2014/01/29/carol-dweck-mindset/ on February 17, 2017).

Most music teachers are classically trained and may find that, Dweck’s definition of a “fixed mindset” resonates with them. Most musicians are trying to achieve success based on the fixed standards of their professors, orchestra directors, adjudicated event judges, and other performers. Some music teachers’ fear failing, disappointing a mentor or being ridiculed by other musicians and directors. In some settings, the success of a music teacher is based on their large group ratings, solo and ensemble ratings, and the number of students in all-state, regionals, and honor ensembles. If music teachers can adopt a growth mindset, the end goal changes from large group ratings to growth. Growth

210 is not something that is done to us (Dewey, 2004). It is a process, a journey that can be taken with student musicians. By inviting students to join the journey of growth, hard work, and dedication all members are contributing. Imagine being surrounded by students who think, problem solve, create, communicate, and collaborate. Remember Green

(2002), music teachers cannot be expected to know everything, nor can they be expected to be the expert on every instrument. Creating a learning environment that challenges every member to stretch, explore, risk-take, and reflect. As a community of learners

(musicians), create music in a real-life way, and with real life solutions, which possesses tangible connections to Lave and Wenger’s (1991) situated learning theory. It is hard but teachers are resilient, for the joy of learning as a community; overcoming obstacles together and enjoying the performance. If music students develop a growth mindset: one of taking risks, challenging oneself, being creative and collaborating: building their musical brain, instead of a fixed mindset that relies on others to fix and correct, perhaps they will continue to make music for life.

Environment

An environment focused on growth instead of solely on right and wrong, coupled with teachers who are learners themselves, fosters collaboration, creativity, and risk- taking. Dewey (2004) advocates for democracy in education for two reasons.

The first signifies not only more numerous and more varied points of

shared common interest, but greater reliance upon the recognition of mutual

interests as a factor in social control. The second means not only freer interaction

between social groups (once isolated so far as intention could keep up a

separation) but change in social habit—its continuous readjustment through

211

meeting the new situations produced by varied intercourse. And these two traits

are precisely what characterize the democratically constituted society (p.91)

Focusing on the mutual interests of the musical ensemble and placing a value on each musicians is one way teachers can create an environment that is productive, safe, and emulates real- life musicking as demonstrated by the participants in this study.

Democratic collaboration. Students who enter the music classroom already have some experience in music, whether at home, in the car, in another school, or on their own.

Music teachers also have extensive music experiences and are encouraged to embrace their students’ understandings of music as a way of looking at music making in classrooms. Teachers can seek student input when making musical decisions and attempt to incorporate their suggestions into practice. Subsequent discussions that highlight the results of those ideas can be a way to model for students the collaborative nature of musical performance. If teachers or students are convinced that something should be played differently, then those reasons should be justified, using language that is appropriate to the medium (e.g., rock terminology, classical terminology, pop terminology). Teachers can provide historical contexts, or recordings as examples of justifying ones position. Teachers and students can carefully examination of the technical abilities of the group and the teachers can demonstrate how those abilities may impact musical decisions. By being positive and welcoming input, even if it is not utilized, teachers can make each student feel as though their participation and existence in the group is essential to its success (Jones, 2009). When attempting this type of change, be patient with yourself and your students. This will be new for many. Some will sit quietly, some with become overly assertive, and others may need to be convinced.

212

The five participants in this study worked hard, played well, and maintained high standards, and at the end of almost every project, event, concert, or composition, the one phrase consistently heard was “that was fun.” Just because the process is fun, does not mean the end product will be subpar. More likely, the opposite is true. The more fun the students have, the more likely they are to engage in the process mentally and musically.

Use of popular music. Woody (2007) asserts that in an attempt to make the music classroom more relevant to today’s students, many music teachers have incorporated popular music. Woody supported the efforts of this inclusion, but questions the method in which has be done (2007). What is missing for, according to Woody

(2007), is authenticity. The five participants in this study used popular music (movie music, video game music, and popular music) in their musicking. In doing so, opportunities are created for students to learn things by ear, create arrangements based on original recordings and incorporate instruments typically associated with popular music.

This provides disenfranchised musicians the opportunity for entry in the academic side of musicking and their presence makes the environment more relevant and true to the original composition.

Teachers may solicit suggestions for concert themes and the music to be played on the concert, reserving the right to have the final say, as educators understand the technical abilities of the groups’ musicians and what is possible and what may be a bit of a reach. There are two possible entry points for teachers to choose from when incorporating a musical genre, other than classical and in this example popular music.

Teachers can purchase an orchestra, band, or choral arrangement of a popular song use the sheet music as a source. After teaching the arrangement, challenge the students to

213 uncover the differences between an original recording and the written arrangement by listening and analyzing. Once the differences are uncovered and agreed upon, parts can be edited. Doing this avoid what Cutietta (1991) and Isbell (2007) called bait-and-switch, as sometimes students felt cheated because the arrangements did not sound like the songs do on the radio. Asking the students to listen to the original and compare the purchased arrangement is a wonderful way to challenge their ears and their ability to deconstruct the musical composition.

The other entry point that teachers may elect to use it starting from scratch, with only the recording. Assigning small groups of students to uncover different aspects of the song and then bringing their discoveries back to the large group and when pasted together is the start of an arrangement can be very satisfying. One does not have to arrange a complete chart, it can be as simple as the melody and bass line from the chorus, and if desirable grow from there.

This is usually when your disenfranchised musicians will shine, as this is how they musick at home. Inviting them to bring in their guitars, electric basses, and drum sets only closes the gap between the sound of the arrangement and the original, which ultimately is what the students are seeking. An authentic sounding version of their favorite songs played by them on the instruments of their choice.

Popular music was used as the example in this case as it was the genre of music used most often by the participants in this study. But these examples can be applied to all types of music.

Voluntary Risks in Safe Spaces

214

The development of a safe space is an essential element in a classroom for students to feel comfortable taking risks like communicating their opinions or collaborating with others (Hunter, 2008) As students exercise their ability to musically communicate with you and their colleagues and learn how to collaborate and problem solve, their overall musical confidence likely will increase. TLP alumni in this study spoke often about their musical confidence. They conveyed that they learned confidence by trying and succeeding and sometimes failing. Encouraging students to take on challenges, or voluntary risks is essential to the growth of the ensemble, but must be done with as much support as possible. One way of supporting them is by simply praising their efforts. Help them think critically through obstacles by offering leading questions. Be sure that their colleagues acknowledge the risks being taken by their fellow students and show appreciation and support for their efforts. One practical example might be to include adding a small ensemble component to the spring concert. Students could select their own members, their own music, and their own rehearsal structure. Students who are comfortable writing or arranging could create their own music, which could be performed by one of the ensembles. Furthermore, multiple genres could be explored, as long as repertoire length is considered. Additionally, students could experiment with and design their staging and lighting to enhance their performance

Skills

The primary music skills that the five TLP alumni in this study used were improvising, composing, and arranging. One possible application of developing the basics of improvisation can be done during a daily warm-up. Whether in a scale or through echoing, simply asking the students to vary the rhythm is a form of

215 improvisation. Many of the ideas below have been picked up from workshops, conventions, and clinicians that were hired to come in and work with TLP, but have been adapted to work in a variety of settings.

Teaching improvisation. One entry point for improvisation might be to introduce it along with a metronome or a drum machine. Teachers can create rhythmic games that encourage student creativity and reinforce the importance of playing in time. Teachers gradually can add pitches. Another possible entry point is through the use of words.

Instead of echoing rhythms or pitches, teachers may want to use words, sounds, and sentences. This variation may enable some students who are nervous playing a more familiar context to explore. As the students abilities improve, teachers may consider add a real life component by designing simple chords progressions on Garageband or

Audacity to support the students’ efforts. So far the class/group is improvising all at the same time. The goal here is building confidence. If students are improvising comfortably, then it is imperative to build confidence and a sense of community by instilling various forms of performance etiquette, such as claps or shuffling feet to show affirmation to their peers.

Another way of expanding their improvisational skills is by giving students chord charts. Teachers can use any popular song or even classical ones. The bass line for

Pachelbel’s Canon in D has been used by a number of musicians, therefore, so can teachers. Here is the bass line for Pachelbel’s Canon in D, as well as the chord chart.

Figure 7.1. Pachelbel’s Canon in D Bass line

216

Roman No. Chord Scale degree numeral

1 D major tonic I

2 A major dominant V

3 B minor submediant vi

mediant/ F♯ minor/ iii/ 4 first inversion I6 D major of tonic

5 G major subdominant IV

6 D major tonic I

7 G major subdominant IV

8 A major dominant V

Figure 7.2. Pachelbel’s Canon in D Chord Progression

Teachers may choose to put this bassline in Garageband or Audacity as supportive tool to advanced improvisation. If students are comfortably improvising over the bassline, teacher might consider showing them the chord stacks that fill out the bass line.

Students can play the bass line with Garageband or Audacity and then advance to the 3rd and the 5th chord tone. Ask them to experiment and trust their ear. Some students may instinctively start filling in the passing tones as they move from chord stack to chord

217 stack. Doing so is yet another step in filling the students’ improvisational tool kit. It might not be advisable (or perhaps appropriate) to give them all of the theoretical technical jargon until they ask or take music theory. This initial stage is simply to allow students the opportunity to explore without undue restrictions.

Empower students to compose. Music teachers may remember their music theory courses from college and recall all of the rules that had to be adhered to, but empowering students to compose does not require them to understand those rules. When children first start speaking they do so based on the information they have personally gathered from listening to other talk-what Suzuki refers to as “The Mother Tongue”

(Suzuki Associations of the Americas, 1998). When starting composition teachers can set simple parameters. An example of such guidelines would be to ask students to:

• select one key signature and one time signature

• verify that every member of the ensemble at some point plays the melody,

harmony, and the bass line

• limit the composition to two minutes in length

• create their own notation

• provide a title for the song

Teacher can assign groups or let students pick their own. Providing students with a set amount of time to compose prompts them to get to work, as sometimes simply getting started is the hardest part. Teachers can give support to the creative process by stopping by and checking in. Encourage students to perform what they have for you or even talk through their thought process with you can be therapeutic, as doing so provides students with one more opportunity to navigate any obstacles. As the close of time approaches,

218 teachers may want to invite the students to make a video recording of their composition, which can then be played for the class. Showing these videos provides students another opportunity to take a safe risk (as they are not performing it live) and to build confidence and a sense of community by again reinforcing appropriate forms of performance etiquette to show appreciation for their peers and their work.

Teachers may elect to require students to use music notation software to document their composition efforts. As Scott, the Academy Award nominated composer explained, it is not always about training, it is about breaking the barrier of getting your ideas out of your head and onto paper so others can play their ideas (interview, Scott,

August 17, 2016).

Learning how to arrange. The opportunity to arrange music allows older students in an ensemble to be empowered and develop ownership in the group by being encouraged to mentor the younger students. Teachers can allow younger students to provide input as songs are chosen for a concert and then receive guidance from their mentors as which songs might work as arrangements for the ensemble. Students approach the task in teams consisting of both experienced and inexperienced musicians and work on the arrangement together. Music instructors may want to consider giving soft deadlines as well as access to music notation software provided by the school, such as

NoteFlight, to keep the project moving. Students who especially enjoy arranging music might consider purchasing their own software, usually Finale or Sibelius. A practical way for teachers to ensure success is to provide the teams with a basic arranging formula when starting. For example Upper range instruments play the melody, medium range instruments play the harmony and lower range instruments as assigned the bass line TLP

219 is structured so that older students are encouraged to mentor younger students. When the songs are picked for the concert after receiving input from the students, the students start arranging the music. They are paired up into teams, those with experience and those without. They work on the arrangement together. Teams are given a timeline and access to music notation software. The school supplies NoteFlight. Some students who enjoy arranging purchase their own software, usually Finale, or Sibelius. TLP arranging teams use two simple formulas that are handout in the beginning. Write the string parts as units, meaning electric first violins and acoustic first violins play the same part and so on. The second formula is the electric quartet is one ensemble and the acoustic quintet is another.

Most arrangers chose the first formula. Sometimes TLP alumni are hired to generate arrangements or give current TLP arranging teams’ advice on their arrangements. This formula can serve as a guide for students to follow and eliminate some of the guessing about who plays what, which may interrupt the teams flow.

When a rough draft is complete, parts can be distributed and a group can sight read the piece. Teachers may elect to give suggestions at this juncture, or encourage the musicians who played the piece to provide advice. A third option might be ask students who are listening to this first performance to write down suggestions and submit them for consideration. The revisions continue and approach completion, teachers may want to consider bringing in a hired quintet to perform each arrangement for the class. This would offer yet another opinion to be considered for revisions. The community is working together and seeking ways of problem solving which build confidence, trust, and investment. Depending on the accessibility of the arrangements, teachers may elect to include one or two of them on a concert.

220

Planning Concerts

When planning concerts, teachers make a number of decisions even before the students see their first piece of music. Perhaps teachers might consider including their students in the process. Students can provide input when choosing themes, music, and guest artists. As the performance grows closer, decisions need to be made about the order in which the pieces will be played, if that was not taken into consideration when selecting the repertoire. This presents an excellent opportunity to teachers to share the mental process that they engage in when developing the program order. Teachers can either share their thoughts, encourage students to create sample programs and include their rationale, or create the set list as a community. If the programs contains solos or opportunities for improvisation, teachers may consider sharing how those decisions are made or involving the students in those decisions by creating a blind audition day, which emulates real life professional orchestra auditions. Performers are randomly assigned a

221 number and perform out of sight. The community takes notes and then votes. Teachers should consider reserving the right to reverse a community vote based on their expertise.

A third options if there is a small number of musicians interested in performing the solos, the teacher may invite those pupils to engage in a negotiation with the teacher present.

Allowing the students to negotiate provides them with an opportunity to justify why they should play something other than simple “because I want to.”

If the genre of music being performed might be enhanced by an alternative stage set-up or lighting, this is yet another opportunity for students to engage in the planning and implementation process. This encourages the students to consider the perspective of the audience when making these types of decisions in addition to the needs of the music.

A final aspect of concert preparation is considering the apparel that the group will wear.

The group may seek uniformity; uniformity with a hint if individuality, or individuality based on a common theme like a color or the theme of the concert. When teachers encourage students to contribute to these decisions, the students begin to see the aspects of a performance and gain an understanding of the decisions that the instructors have made in the past.

In addition to assisting with the planning of concerts, teachers may want to consider passing the responsibility or setting up and tear down to the students. This is also another avenue that lends itself to upperclassmen leadership. As the community works together to prepare the venue for their performance, they can share knowledge about equipment, or information about performance requirements. For example, cellists require more room on stage than violinists because of the placement of their bow.

Teachers may choose to enlist the help of everyone or assign small groups

222 responsibilities. Either way, the group gets another chance to practice their democratic collaborative skills.

When an ensemble performs at professional venues and with professionals, the directors must acquiesce to the professional technician on site. This is perhaps another opportunity for students to learn professional protocol and expectations. Teachers may consider exposing their students to some of these protocols prior to entering the venue.

For example the Teamsters unload trucks and the IATSE (International Alliance of

Theatre Stage Employees) move, set-up, tear down all equipment while on the stage. The

IATSE members then deliver the equipment to the Teamsters to be reloaded on the truck

(personal instruments are handled by their owners). Knowing this protocol helps the students understand the professional roles of venue employees. When nonprofessionals or students enter a professional facility and demonstrate respect for the protocols that venue relies on, those professionals may be much more willing to teach students and answer students questions, which is a wonderful opportunity for them to grow. In other words, you must give respect in order to receive respect and when you gain the respect of others, they will go out of their way to help you be successful. The five participants in this study found this mantra to be true in each venue in which they performed in an ensemble and have benefitted greatly from this knowledge.

223

CHAPTER EIGHT

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Summary

Musicking (Small, 1999) for life (lifelong musicking) is a topic that many music education researchers have investigated. Some examples of how researchers have examined lifelong musicking include why students stop playing (Bishop, 2015; Casey,

1994; Delano & Royse, 1987; Mantie & Tucker, 2008; Sweart, 2007); why adults start playing (Busch, 2005; Coffman, 2002a Flowers and Murphy, 2001; Mantie, 2002;

Thorton, 2010); using popular music to keep students interested (Bowman, 2004; Green,

2006; Humphreys, 2004; Small, 2011; Woody, 2007); creating partnerships between school music programs and community music programs so that students have places to keep playing (Bessenyei, 2002; Busch, 2005; Coffman, 2002c; Myers, 2007); and high school music students participation in music beyond the school day (Campbell, 1995;

Campbell & Beegle, 2007; Constantine, 2011; Green, 2006, Kuntz, 2011), to name a few.

Researchers such as Kratus (2007), Williams, (2011), and Mantie and Talbot (2015) have raised questions about the current practices of music education, teacher preparation, large group ensembles, and the musical relevance of today’s music education system. The authors posited that change will not occur if the profession does not talk about it (2015).

One obstacle to talking about change appears to be hindered by educators who may be more comfortable teaching the way they have and might not want things to change

(Allsup & Benedict, 2008). As Jorgenson (2002) offered, some educators might be fearful of losing a piece of history (classical music) or contact with something that is meaningful to them (traditions). Alternatively, there also may be educators who believe

224

that change can be a good thing, but have no idea what that change would look like

(2002). If lifelong musicking is a primary mission of music education (Shuler, 2011),

perhaps looking at multiple hybrid ensembles that produce lifelong music makers would

be one way of starting such a conversation. The Lakewood Project (TLP), a high school

rock orchestra, is one such hybrid ensemble (Koops et al, 2014) that may provide, in part,

multifaceted aspects of music teaching and learning that could help inform future

directions in music education.

The purpose of this multiple case study was to examine five alumni of TLP and

their current musicking habits. The five participants were selected from respondents to a

demographic survey that was sent to all TLP alumni. There was a 49% responses rate,

and of those that responded, over 90% still musick in some form, which is higher than the

71% reported by Koops et al. (2014). It is possible that the reason for the rise in reported

musickers may be because of how the concept of lifelong music making was framed in

the current study. Specifically, TLP alumni were asked to consider Small’s (1999)

concept of musicking and how it related to their current lives, which is a different angle than Koops et al., who endeavored to determine if participants still played their instrument. Because Small’s definition includes activities like singing, dancing, and listening, which were not included in Koops et al., this may have helped to increase the response rate in the current study. Following an analysis of the returned surveys, five

TLP alumni were selected as case study participants.

Though my research, I attempted to answer the following research questions:

1. In what ways, if any, did alumni’s experiences in TLP influence their motivation

and ability to continue making music after high school?

225

2. In what ways, if any, did the learning environment of TLP emulate or differ from

their current musicking environments?

3. What formal and informal music experiences in high school impacted TLP alumni

participation in music after high school?

4. What skills and content were missing from TLP experiences that would have been

helpful to alumni’s current musical endeavors?

In order to answer these questions, I spent 2-3 days with each participant, collecting data across the United States. I chose these participants to maximize variation (Flyvbjerg,

2006; Miles & Huberman 1994), seeking a variety of locations, ages, instruments, and types of musicking. I observed each participant in rehearsals, conducted in-depth interviews, and, if a performance was available, I attended said performance.

I collected data via the use of traditional ethnographic techniques as recommended by Hatch (2002), including in-field observations of context, participant observations in the field, participant interviews, and collection of artifacts. Artifacts included materials such as promotional posters, CDs, performance contracts, evidence of marketing (e.g., websites, business cards), rehearsal schedules, programs, and photographs of recording studios and performing venues (Creswell, 2013). Furthermore, I engaged in all three forms of Hatch’s data collection protocol (e.g., interviews, observations, collection of artifacts), as well as follow-up protocol: (a) participant interviews, (b) with the potential of conducting colleague interviews, (c) rehearsal observations, (d) performance observations, (e) collection and analysis of artifacts, and

(f) follow-up phone interviews. I recorded all interviews on an Olympus WS 853 digital voice recorder and took pictures of the surroundings with an iPhone 6, in order to help

226 generate a rich description for future readers. I maintained hand-written notes in a notebook and then transferred them to an Acer Aspire E 15 laptop computer, so that I had multiple copies of data.

Participant interviews as well as observations served as the primary data sources for this study. I used the interviews to develop an understanding of the skills and knowledge required for the participants’ current musical settings as well as their perceptions of how TLP may have impacted the development of those skills. I constructed participant interviews with the guidance of Seidman’s (2006) three-part phenomenological interview model that combines general life history with a detailed examination of the participant’s current music career, as well as the meaning and value the participant attributed to his or her current and past experiences. While I used the same structure with each participant in order to establish consistency, the interviews themselves were semi-structured in nature, which allowed for spontaneity and flexibility during interviews (Creswell, 2013). I also added supplemental, spontaneous questions garnered from the topics that participants raised during the interviews, and also followed- up with phone conversations or e-mails in order to ask further questions or seek clarification. A complete list of participant interview questions can be found in Appendix

The role of the observer can take many forms such as “participant, nonparticipant, or middle ground position” (Creswell, 2013, p. 172). The mechanics of observing included taking field notes, recording accurate quotes, determining when and if a shift in observer/participant role is necessary, learning how to take in as much information as possible without becoming overwhelmed, and providing extra measures to ensure

227

accuracy of reporting such as recordings, photos, videos, and reflections prior to entry in

to the field and immediately after (Creswell, 2013; Patton, 2015).

Collection of data and analysis were concurrent. Data collected by audio as well

as field notes, and were transcribed and formatted for analysis by using

HyperRESEARCH software. Once assembled, I read through and analyzed each case.

Using Maxwell’s (2005) recommendations, data was analyzed by first reading through

the transcripts, making notes, reflecting, developing and assigning codes, and utilizing

connecting strategies. I identified prominent themes and used important quotes and

experiences to shape each case.

After finishing individual case studies, I embarked on a cross-case analysis by re- reading all five cases and searching for meaning as prescribed by Stake (2006) and Miles and Huberman (1995). Through this process, overarching themes were generated from the research questions and the cross-case analysis. These themes included musical motivation, comparisons between TLP environment and current musicking environments, formal music experiences, informal music experiences, and giving back. Based on the cross-case analysis, I was able to make several assertions about the quintain.

Conclusions

In this study, I examined the musicking of five TLP alumni, who were beyond college and played either classical stringed instruments or garage band instruments.

During the cross-case analysis, I uncovered that having a well-trained ear; arranging, composing, and improvising; and possessing the ability to communicate and collaborate with musicians from all genres were prevalent in participants’ current musicking.

228

Another aspect worth mentioning is that each participant had, in one way or another, created his or her own niche in music.

Musicking after high school is possible in a variety of ways in addition to community orchestras, bands, and choirs. If music educators research and investigate the multitude of musicking opportunities that are available to those who wish to continue musicking, it may help shed light on the types of skills and experiences that can be taught in our secondary school music programs.

As a result of a comprehensive cross-case analysis and a statement of assertions about the quintain (Stake, 2006), I have established certain implications for music education. Implications for music educators include: (a) developing a “growth mindset”

(Dweck, 2015) that focuses on working hard, striving for excellence, and exercising one’s musical brain by experimenting together (teachers and students) by sharing ideas, problem solving together, and respecting the musical knowledge that students bring to the classroom; (b) developing a learning environment that is invokes the democratic principles of sharing and discussing; (c) using popular music as well as other musical genres; (d) creating a safe environment where students take voluntary risks to improve as individuals as well as a group; (e) teaching students how to improvise; (f) providing opportunities for students to compose, (g) encouraging students to arrange the music they like for the instrument or voices in their classroom; (h) providing opportunities for students to plan concerts and have experiences with technology and gear; and (i) creating an environment of giving back to younger students via mentoring, performances, and summer camps.

229

Transferable aspects of TLP include all of the items listed above. Having electric instruments is not what creates a learning environment that is collaborative, safe, adventurous, and fun. It is the development of a mindset where teachers are not the only experts in the room and not the only ones generating ideas and solutions. It is a mindset of a community that is making music together and celebrating individual and group successes.

Suggestions for Future Research

This research was inspired by Koops et al. (2014), who first examined TLP alumni reflections. Suggestions for future research include investigating if the implementation of the democratic collaboration and skills suggested in the implications section were applied regularly in a purely classical setting, would the percentage of students who continue musicking be the same, and what would their musicking look like?

Other topics might include examining the ultimate goals of secondary instrumental music educators; exploring the lifewide skills and goals that secondary instrumental music educators wish to impart on their students; exploring the possible differences and quality of one’s ear development between contextually-based ear training instruction (i.e., TLP) and conservatory or school of music ear training that occurs in a classroom setting (i.e., music theory); and ascertaining how teacher preparation programs might respond to – or help students prepare for or achieve – these lifewide goals.

Other considerations might be to focus on adult populations that continue to musick. Ethnographic or narrative studies could be conducted in which researchers explore the unique characteristics of adult groups, and could span formal, informal, and blended contexts. Ascertaining the contexts that have yet to be uncovered will be a prime

230

consideration. From a quantitative perspective, adult musicians could respond to survey

prompts that address how their secondary music program (or out-of-school music participation) may have assisted them in continuing respondents’ current musicking, as well as the skills they continue to use and how they acquired them. Also, future research may consider exploring the ways that school music teachers, university faculty members, and preservice music teachers, in other words, those steeped in formal learning, to become more comfortable making the leap to practicing and planning for blended contexts. This may help to reinforce the notion of a sliding continuum of musicianship between formal and informal learning. One additional research question might be to explore what other secondary, hybrid models exist across the country (like TLP, but any genre, not necessarily rock), and to examine how their practices might intersect or differ.

The Lakewood Project is a unique learning environment that combines formal

music learning with informal music learning. The environment and the skills taught have

empowered its alumni to musick beyond high school and college. Alumni have been

shown to be passionate about music, to thrive on musicking, to be willing take musical

risks, to know how to use the skills they have in order to acquire new ones, and to have

the confidence to participate in and create all types of musicking. All of these skills echo

the celebrated yet seemingly elusive statements made at the Tanglewood Symposium and

in Vision 2020, which promote music education environments that embrace all genres of

music, encourage students to explore and create, incorporate technology, and address

individual students’ personal needs, goals, and potentials. By providing students with

opportunities to engage actively in the entire music making experience, and affording

231 them access to a multitude of teachers, mentors, and peers, students could develop the ability and freedom to imagine their lives continuously filled with music. Play on!

232

Appendix A

INITIAL LETTER REQUEST FOR PARTICIPATION May 29, 2016 Dear My name is Elizabeth Hankins and I am doctoral student in music education at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. I specialize in string and orchestral music education. I am currently in the dissertation phase of my degree program and have chosen to study the lifelong music making of alumni of “The Lakewood Project”. As an alum of “The Lakewood Project”, you are aware of the uniqueness of this musical education setting. The purpose of my study is to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between participation in an alternative school music programs and lifelong music making. “The Lakewood Project” utilizes formal and informal music learning techniques as well as relies on the apprenticeship model to achieve longevity. I hope to uncover what musical skills and knowledge were obtained through membership in “The Lakewood Project” that are relevant the current musical lives of its alumni. Identifying these skills and the knowledge obtained may help further the lifelong music making missions of the music education profession. I obtained your contact information from Stephanie Reed, former Lakewood Project member and coordinator of “The Lakewood Project” reunions. I am sending all Lakewood Project Alumni an initial demographic survey in order to collect data about your current musical interests. I am requesting that you take a few minutes to complete this survey. As you move through the survey, you will encounter a question asking if you might be willing to be consider as a subject for a case study. Participation in this manner would include the following: 1) authorization for me to come and observe you within your current musical settings for 2-3 days and, 2) an in-depth interview with you regarding your current musical interests and how they were impacted by your participation in “The Lakewood Project”. Data will be collected within the musical settings of the participant and with interviews scheduled at the convenience of the participant. I would be happy to discuss further details of this research study with you, including specific dates, via phone call, e-mail, or written letter at your earliest convenience. My contact information is seen below. I appreciate your consideration of participation in my work. I believe the music education community has much to learn from you and “The Lakewood Project” environment- I hope you will assist me in starting this much-needed dialogue. Sincerely,

Elizabeth A. Hankins, ABD Doctoral Student in Music Education, Case Western Reserve University 12963 Emerson Ave Lakewood, Ohio 44107 216-534-4121 [email protected]

233

Appendix B

INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT A Collective Case Study of Alumni from “The Lakewood Project” And Their Current Musical Activities

You are being asked to participate in a research study about the current musical activities of alumni of The Lakewood Project. You were selected as a possible participant because you indicated on your survey your willingness to be contacted, the characteristics of your current musical activities, and because of your previous membership in The Lakewood Project. Please read this form and ask any questions that you may have before agreeing to be in the research.

Elizabeth A. Hankins and Dr. Nathan Kruse at Case Western Reserve University are conducting this study.

Purpose The purpose of this research is to gain a deeper understanding of the musical activities that alumni of The Lakewood Project (TLP) engage in after high school. Research question include determining: (a) In what ways, if any, did alumni’s experiences in TLP influence their motivation and ability to continue making music after high school? (b) In what ways, if any, did the learning environment of TLP emulate or differ from music making environments outside of school? (c) What formal and informal music experiences in high school impacted TLP alumni participation in music after high school? (d) What skills and content were missing from TLP experiences that would have been helpful to alumni’s current musical endeavors?

Procedures If you agree to be a participant in this research, we would ask you to do the following things: (a) Review the information in this form and decide whether you would like to participate. (b) Allow the researcher, Elizabeth A. Hankins to take notes, and audio/videotape record observations of rehearsals, performances, and interviews for a 2-3 day time period. (c) Allow photographs to be taken of you, your colleagues, and musical venues. (d) Participate in a 1 hour, one-on-one interview with the researcher. This interview will be audio recorded and transcribed. (e) Review the transcription of your interview and make any desired changes.

234

You can choose to stop participating for any reason at any time. However, if you decide to stop participating in the study, we encourage you to tell the researchers. You may be asked if you are willing to complete some study termination activities.

Foreseeable Risks and Discomforts There are no known risks, harms or discomforts associated with this study beyond those encountered in normal daily life. Some of the activities we will ask you to complete might make you feel uncomfortable. You may refuse to answer any of the questions, take a break, or stop your participation in this study at any time.

Anticipated Benefits You will not directly benefit from participation in this study.

However, by gaining a clearer understanding of the knowledge and skills used by practicing lifelong musicians and the connection to an alternative secondary music education setting, music educators may be able to design and implement emergent curriculum that allow future adults to continue making music beyond high school.

Compensation There will be no costs to you for study participation. You will not be compensated for your participation in this research study.

Alternative(s) to Participation You have the option to not participate.

Voluntary Nature of the Study Your participation is voluntary. If you choose not to participate, it will not affect your current or future relations with the Case Western Reserve University or The Lakewood Project. There is no penalty or loss of benefits for not participating or for discontinuing your participation.

You are free to withdraw from this study at any time. If you decide to withdraw from this study you should notify the research team immediately. The research team may also end your participation in this study if you do not follow instructions, miss scheduled visits, or if your safety or welfare are at risk.

If you elect to withdraw or are withdrawn from this research study, the researchers will discuss with you what they intend to do with your study data. Researchers may choose to analyze the study data already collected or they may choose to exclude your data from the analysis of study data and destroy it, as per your request.

235

Confidentiality The records of this research will be kept confidential. Any time information is collected, there is a potential risk for loss of confidentiality. Every effort will be made to keep your information confidential; however, this cannot be guaranteed.

In any sort of report we might publish, we will not include any information that will make it possible to identify a participant. Research records will be kept in a locked file and access will be limited to the researchers, the University review board responsible for protecting human participants, and regulatory agencies.

Subject Identifiable Data –

Some information that identifies you will be removed from the study data. For example, discussion with include the instrument(s) you play.

Some information that identifies you will be removed and replaced with a code. A list linking the code and your identifiable information will be kept separate from the research data. Personal identifiers will be retained by the researcher in a locked cabinet for the purposes of validation of the study.

All information that identifies you will be kept with the research data. Personal identifiers will retained by the researcher in a locked cabinet for the purposes of validation of the study.

Data Storage Research data will be maintained in a secure location at the home of Elizabeth Hankins. Only authorized individuals will have access to it.

Research data will be stored electronically in an encrypted file that is password protected.

The audio/video recordings that can identify you will be: • Stored in a secure location • Transcribed and erased at the end of the study • Retained with the other research data for 2 years and then destroyed.

Data Retention –

The researchers intend to keep the research data: • Until analysis of the information is completed; • Until the research is published and/or presented; • For approximately 10 years

Contacts and Questions The researchers conducting this study are Elizabeth Hankins and Dr. Nathan Kruse. You may ask any questions you have now. If you have any additional questions, concerns or

236 complaints about the study, you may contact Elizabeth at [email protected] or (216) 534- 4121 or Dr. Kruse at [email protected] or (216) 368-0675.

If the researchers cannot be reached, or if you would like to talk to someone other than the researcher(s) about; (1) questions, concerns or complaints regarding this study, (2) research participant rights, (3) research-related injuries, or (4) other human subjects issues, please contact Case Western Reserve University’s Institutional Review Board at (216) 368-4514 or write: Case Western Reserve University; Institutional Review Board; 10900 Euclid Ave.; Cleveland, OH 44106-7230.

You will be given a copy of this form for your records. Statement of Consent Your signature below certifies the following: • You are at least 18 years of age • Permission to Record • Audio and/or video recording is an integral part of the study and that if the participants do not wish to be recorded, they should not participate in the study. • You have read (or been read) the information provided above. • You have received answers to all of your questions and have been told who to call if you have any more questions. • You have freely decided to participate in this research. • You understand that you are not giving up any of your legal rights.

Printed Name of Participant

Date: Signature of Participant:

Date: ______Signature of Person Obtaining Consent:

237

Appendix C

Semi-Structured Interview Questions 1) Tell me about your musical history before The Lakewood Project (TLP)? a. Any musicians in your family? b. When did you start music study? c. In school or outside of school?

2) What type of musical training (e.g. attended college for music, continued to take private lessons) have you had since you graduated from TLP?

3) Tell me about your musical endeavors since you graduated from TLP? a. Do you play alone or with others? b. Describe how you prepare for concerts? c. Where do you perform?

4) Describe any similarities between TLP and how you are making music now?

5) How did you learn those skills?

6) Did you have a mentor in TLP? a. Who was it? b. Describe that relationship c. Does that relationship continue today?

7) When you were in TLP, you were required to take private lessons. Tell me about your private teacher?

8) What skills did you learn in your private lessons that you connect to your music making today?

9) What skills did you learn from your experiences in TLP that you use in your music making today?

10) Other than music skills, what knowledge or behaviors do you use today that you acquired while in TLP?

11) How would you describe TLP learning environment?

238

Appendix D

Lakewood Project Alum Survey

Q1 INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT: A Collective Case Study of Alumni from “The Lakewood Project” And Their Current Musical Activities. You are being asked to participate in a research study about the current musical activities of alumni of The Lakewood Project. You were selected as a possible participant because of your previous membership in The Lakewood Project. Elizabeth A. Hankins and Dr. Nathan Kruse at Case Western Reserve University are conducting this study. Purpose: The purpose of this research is to gain a deeper understanding of the musical activities that alumni of The Lakewood Project (TLP) engage in after high school. Research question include determining: (a) In what ways, if any, did alumni’s experiences in TLP influence their motivation and ability to continue making music after high school? (b) In what ways, if any, did the learning environment of TLP emulate or differ from music making environments outside of school? (c) What formal and informal music experiences in high school impacted TLP alumni participation in music after high school? (d) What skills and content were missing from TLP experiences that would have been helpful to alumni’s current musical endeavors? Procedures: If you agree to be a participant in this research, we would ask you to do the following things: (a) Review the information in this form and decide whether you would like to participate in my demographic study now with the option of being interviewed later on. If you decide to participate in the survey, check yes to waive signed consent.

 Yes (1)  No (2) If No Is Selected, Then Skip To End of Survey

Q2 What is your gender?

 Male (1)  Female (2)  Transgender (3)  Other (4)

Q3 How would you best describe your race or ethnicity?

Q4 How old are you?

 17-20 (1)  21-25 (2)  26-30 (3)  31 or above (4)

239

Q5 What is your marital status?

 Single (1)  Married (2)  Divorced (3)

Q6 Do you have any children?

 yes (1)  no (2)

Q7 If yes, how many children do you have? (check all that apply)

 1 (1)  2-4 (2)  more than 4 (3)

Q8 If yes, what are the ages of your children? (Check all that apply)

 under the age of 1 (1)  between 1-4 years old (2)  age 5 or older (3)

Q9 Your level of education (check all that apply)

 High School Diploma (1)  Enrolled in undergraduate school (2)  College graduate (3)  Enrolled in graduate school (4)  Master's Degree (5)  PhD (6)

Q10 Undergraduate Major (if applicable)

Q11 Graduate School Major (if applicable)

Q12 If musicking (the verb of music) is "to take part, in any capacity, in a musical performance.... to perform, to listen, to provide material for performance (composing), to prepare for a performance (practicing or rehearsing), or to take part in any activity that can affect the nature

240

of that style of human encounter which is a musical performance” (Small, 1999, p.12), what, if any, kind of musicking are you currently engaged in? (Please describe)

Q13 Do you profit financially from your musicking?

 Yes, primary source of income (1)  Yes, secondary source of income (2)  no (3)

Q14 What instrument(s) do you play? (please list all)

Q15 Do your children engage in musicking? (if applicable)(Please describe)

Q16 Would you be interested in being contacted about your current musical activities?

 Yes, please provide e-mail information below (1)  No (2)

Q17 I am interested in being contacted about my current musical activities. Here is my e-mail address.

241

Appendix E

242

Appendix F

Archived 1994 Music Standards

1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.

2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.

3. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments.

4. Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines.

5. Reading and notating music.

6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music.

7. Evaluating music and music performances.

8. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the arts.

9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture.

For current 2014 Music Standards, visit www.nafme.org/standards. http://www.nafme.org/wp-content/files/2014/06/Archived-1994-Music-Standards.pdf (Retrieved March 7, 2017)

243

Appendix G

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

http://www.nafme.org/wp-content/files/2014/11/2014-Music-Standards-Ensemble- Strand.pdf (Retrieved on March, 7, 2017)

251

References

Abramo, J. (2010). Guitar class and the popular music ensemble. In A. C. Clemens (Ed.),

Alternative Approaches to Music Education: Case Studies from the Field (pp. 15-

28). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Abril, C. (2010). Opening spaces in the instrumental classroom. In A. C. Clemens (Ed.),

Alternative Approaches to Music Education: Case Studies from the Field (pp.3-

14).Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Allsup, R. E. (2003). Mutual learning and democratic action in instrumental music

education. Journal of Research in Music Education, 51(1), 24-37.

doi:10.2307/3345646

Allsup, R. E. (2004). Of concert bands and garage bands: Creating democracy through

popular music. In C.X. Rodriguez (Ed.), Bridging the gap: Popular music and

music education. (pp. 205-223). Reston, VA: MENC.

Allsup, R. E. (2007). Democracy and one hundred years of music education. Music

Educators Journal, 93(5), 52-56. doi:10.1177/002743210709300517

Allsup, R. E. & Benedict, C. (2008). The problems of band: An inquiry into the future of

instrumental music education. Philosophy of Music Education Review, 16(2), 156-

173.

Arasi, M. (2006). Adult reflections on a high school choral music program: Perceptions of

meaning and lifelong influence. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Georgia State

University, Atlanta, GA. Retrieved from:

http://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=msit_diss

252

Argote, L., & Ingram, P. (2000). Knowledge transfer: A basis for competitive advantage

in firms. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 82(1), 150-169.

doi:10.1006/obhd.2000.2893

Azzara, C. (1993). Audiation-based improvisation techniques and elementary

instrumental students’ music achievement. Journal of Research in Music

Education, 41(4), 328-342.

Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3345508

Barrett, J. R. (2007). The researcher as instrument: Learning to conduct qualitative

research through analyzing and interpreting a choral rehearsal. Music Education

Research, 9(3), 417-433. doi:10.1080/14613800701587795

Barrett, J. R. (2014). Case study in music education. In C. M. Conway (Ed.), The Oxford

handbook of qualitative research in American music education (pp.113-132).

New York, NY. Oxford Publishing.

Batt-Rawden, K.,& DeNora, T. (2005). Music and informal learning in everyday

life. Music Education Research, 7(3), 289-304. doi: 10.1080/14613800500324507

Beitler, N. & Thornton, L. (2010). Enhancing the instrumental music program with

creativity.In A. C. Clemens (Ed.), Alternative approaches to music education: Case

studies from the field (pp. 161-176). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield

Education.

Bell, C. L. (2000). An examination of adult amateur community chorus and choral

conductor rehearsal behavior, with implications for music education. (Unpublished

doctoral dissertation). Columbia University Teachers College, New York, NY.

Bishop, J. S. (2015). When the rehearsals stop: The reality of music making after high

253

school orchestra (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest UMI: 3708357

Bessenyei, I. A Memorandum on Lifelong Learning (n.d.) Formal, non-formal and

informal learning. Retrieved on May 5 from

http ://diakvallalkozas.ktk.nyme.hu/definition.htm

Boal-Palheiros, G. M., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2001). Listening to music at home and at

school. British Journal of Music Education, 18(2), 103-118.

doi:10.1017/S0265051701000213

Boespflug, G. (1999). Popular music and the instrumental ensemble: Music educators can

make use of student-composed music in popular styles to teach musicianship and

skill in the use of recording technology. Music Educators Journal, 85(6), 33-37.

Boespflug, G. (2004). The pop music ensemble in music education. In C. X. Rodriquez

(Ed.), Bridging the gap: Popular music and music education (pp. 190-204).

Reston, VA. MENC.

Booth, W. (1999). For the Love of It: Amateuring and its Rivals, Chicago, IL: University

of Chicago Press.

Boswell, J. (1992). Human potential and lifelong learning. Music Educators Journal,

79(4), 38. doi: 10.2307/3398529

Bowles, C. L. (1988). An assessment of self-expressed music education interests and

music experiences by adult music audiences: Implications for music education.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Texas at Austin

Bowles, C. L. (2010). Teachers of adult music learners: An assessment of characteristics

and instructional practices, preparation, and needs. Update: Applications of

Research in Music Education, 28(2), 50-59. doi:10.1177/8755123310361762

254

Bowen, C. K. (1995). Adult community bands in the southeastern United States: An

investigation of current activity and background profiles of the participants.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.

Bowman, W. D. (2004). “Pop” goes……? Taking popular music seriously. In C. X.

Rodriquez (Ed.), Bridging the gap: Popular music and music education (pp. 29-

49). Reston, VA. MENC.

Bowman, W. D. (2005). Why musical performance? Views praxial to performative. In D.

J. Elliott (Ed.), Praxial music education, (pp. 142-164). New York, NY: Oxford

University Press.

Bresler, L., & Stake, R. E. (2006). Qualitative research methodology in music education.

In R. Colwell (Ed.), MENC handbook of research methodologies (pp. 270-311).

New York: Oxford University Press.

Brittin, R. V. (1991). The effect of overtly categorizing music on preference for popular

music styles. Journal of Research in Music Education, 39(2), 143-151. doi:

10.2307/3344694

Byrne, C. (2005). Pedagogical communication in the music classroom, In D. E. Miell, R.

A. R. MacDonald and D. J. Hargreaves (Eds.), Musical communication, pp. 301-

321. Oxford:Oxford University.

Byrne, C. and Sheridan, M. (1998). Music: A source of deep imaginative satisfaction?

British Journal of Music Education, 15(3), 295-301.

Burnard, P. (2007). Reframing creativity and technology: promoting pedagogic change in

music education. Journal of Music Technology and Education, 1(1), 196-206.

Burnard, P., & Younker, B. A. (2008). Investigating children’s musical interactions

255

within the activities systems of group composing and arranging: An application of

Engeström's Activity Theory. International Journal of Educational

Research, 47(1), 60-74.

Busch, M. R. (2005). Predictors of lifelong learning in music: A survey of individuals

participating in performing ensembles at community colleges in Illinois

(Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest UMI: 3182229.

Campbell, P. S. (1991). Lessons from the world: A cross-cultural guide to music teaching

and learning. New York, NY: Schirmer.

Campbell, P. S. (1995). Of garage bands and song-getting: The musical development of

young rock musicians, Research Studies in Music Education, no. 4, 12-20.

Campbell, P. S., Connell, C., & Beegle, A. (2007). Adolescents expressed meaning of

music inside and outside of school. Journal of Research in Music Education,

55(3), 220-236.doi:10.1177/002242940705500304

Carter, W. L. (2000). In response to Judith A. Jellison’s “How can all people continue to

be involved in meaningful music participation?” In Madsen, C. K. (Ed.).

(2000). Vision 2020: The Housewright symposium on the future of music

education. MENC the National Association for Music. (pp. 140-156). Reston,

VA. MENC.

Casey, P. F. (1994). A status study of nonselective concert bands at selected colleges and

Universities. (Doctoral dissertation). The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.

Dissertation Abstracts International, A 54/08, p. 2936.

Cavitt, M. E. (2005). Factors influencing participation in community bands. Journal of

Band Research, 41(1), 42-57.

256

Chiodo, P. (1997). The development of lifelong commitment: A qualitative study of adult

instrumental music participation (adult learners). (Unpublished doctoral

dissertation). State University of New York at Buffalo.

Chisholm, L., & Hurrelmann, K. (1995). Adolescence in modern Europe: Pluralized

transition patterns and their implications for personal and social risks. Journal of

Adolescence, 18, 129-158. doi:10.1006/jado.1995.1010

Choate, R. A., Fowler, C. B., Brown, C. E., & Wersen, L. G. (1967). The Tanglewood

symposium: music in American society. Music Educators Journal, 54(3), 49-80.

Clothier, R. I. (1967). Factors influencing freshmen with high school band experience to

elect or not to elect band membership at five liberal arts colleges in Iowa.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Colorado State College, Fort Collins, CO.

Clouse, C. M. (2016). Revitalizing classical music interest and concert attendance: Why

today’s youth are deterred from classical music and why symphony orchestras and

businesses need to get involved. Senior Honors Projects. Paper 143. Retrieved from

http://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1235&context=honors20

1019 on February 26, 2017.

Coffin, J. (2005). Why did we join? Why have we stayed? Membership in a women’s

barbershop chorus: A narrative inquiry into leadership, learning, and the

development of voice through singing. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).

University of Prince Edward Island, Charolettetown, PE. Canada.

Coffman, D. (2002a). Banding together: New horizons in lifelong music making. Journal

of Aging and Identity, 7(2), 133–143. doi:10.1023/A:1015491202347

Coffman, D. (2002b). Music and quality of life in older adults. Psychomusicology: A

257

Journal of Research in Music Cognition, 18, 76-88. doi:/10.1037/h0094050

Coffman, D. (2002c). Adult education. In R. Colwell & C. Richardson (Eds.) The new

handbook of research in music teaching and learning (pp.199-209). New York:

Oxford University Press.

Coffman, D. (2009). Learning from our elders: Survey of new horizons international music

association band and orchestra directors. International Journal of Community

Music, 2 (2 & 3), 227-240. doi:10.1386/ijcm.2.2&3.227/1

Coffman, D., & Levy, K. (1997). Senior adult bands: Music’s new horizon. Music

Educators Journal, 84(3), 17-22. doi:10.2307/3399051

Conkling, S. W. (2007). The possibilities of situated learning for teacher preparation: The

professional development partnership. Music Educators Journal, 93 (3), 44-48.

doi:10.1177/002743210709300319

Connolly, K. & Reilly, R. C. (2007). Emergent issues when researching trauma: A

confessional Tale. Qualitative Research, 13(4), 522-540.

doi:10.1177/1077800406297678

Constantine, M. C. (2010). The Lakewood Project: Rockin’ out with informal learning. In

A. C. Clemens (Ed.), Alternative approaches to music education: Case studies from

the field (pp. 57-66). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Constantine, M. C. (2011). The high school musical experiences of college students.

(Published Dissertation). Case Western Reserve University. UMI Number:

3497590

Cope, P., Cuthbertson, P., & Stoddart, B. (2000). Situated learning in the practice

placement. Journal of advanced nursing, 31(4), 850-856.

258

doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.2000.01343.x

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among

five approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the

Research process. London, England: Sage.

Cutietta, R. A. (1991). Popular music an ongoing challenge. Music Educators

Journal. 77(8), 26-29.

Dabback, W. (2007). Toward a model of adult music learning as a socially embedded

phenomenon. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Rochester,

Rochester, NY.

Darrough, G. (1992). Making choral music with older adults: Older adults come from

rich music traditions. Music Educators Journal, 79(4), 27 doi:10.2307/3398526

Davidson, J. (2002). Developing the ability to perform. In J. Rink (Ed), Musical

performance: A guide to understanding, (pp. 89-101) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.

Davis, S. G. (2005). ‘‘That thing you do!’’: Compositional processes of a rock band.

International Journal of Education and the Arts, 6(16). Retrieved from

http://www.ijea.org/v6n16/ on June 25, 2016

Davis, S. G., & Blair, D. V. (2011). Popular music in American teacher education: A

glimpse into a secondary methods course. International Journal of Music

Education, 29(2), 124-140. doi:10.1177/0255761410396962

Delano, A., & Royse, D. (1987). Factors influencing the decision of college freshmen to

259

participate or not to participate in Kent State University music ensembles.

Contributions to Music Education, 14, 9-18. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/24127384

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Ed). (2000). Handbook of qualitative research

(2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Dewey, J. (1997). Experience and education. New York, NY: Kappa Delta Pi

Dewey, J. (2004). Democracy and education. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, INC.

Driscoll, J. (2009). If I play my sax my parents are nice to me: opportunity and

motivation in musical instrument and singing tuition. Music Education

Research, 11(1), 37-55.

Duckworth, W. (2013). A creative approach to music fundamentals. Boston, MA:

Schirmer Cengage Learning.

Dunbar-Hall, P., & Wemyss, K. (2000). The effects of the study of popular music on

music education. International Journal of Music Education, (1), 23-34.

doi:10.1177/025576140003600104

Dweck, C. (2015). Carol Dweck revisits the “Growth Mindset.” Education Week, 35(5),

20-4.

Eady, I., & Wilson, J. D. (2004). The influence of music on core learning, Education,

125(2), 243.

Elliot, D. J. (1995). Music Matters: A New Philosophy in Music Education. New York:

Oxford University Press.

Elpus, K., & Abril, C. (2011). High school music ensemble students in the United States:

A demographic profile. Journal of Research in Music Education, 59(2), 128-145.

260

doi:10.1177/0022429411405207

Ernst, R. (2001). Music for life. Music Educators Journal, 88(1), 47–51.

doi:10.2307/3399777

Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (1995). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes.

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Faivre-Ransom, J. (2001). An investigation of factors that influence adult participation in

music ensembles based on various behavioral theories: A case study of the

Norfolk Chorale. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Shenandoah Conservatory,

Winchester, VA.

Fixed Mindset - (https://www.brainpickings.org/2014/01/29/carol-dweck-mindset/)

retrieved on February 17, 2017

Flowers, P., & Murphy, J. (2001). Talking about music: Interviews with older adults

about their music education, preferences, activities, and reflections. Update:

Applications of Research in Music Education, 20, 26-32.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative

Inquiry, 12(2), 219-245. doi:10.1177/1077800405284363

Folkestad, G. (2006). Formal and informal learning situations or practices vs formal and

informal ways of learning. British Journal of Music Education, 23(02), 135-145.

doi:10.1017/S0265051706006887

Fox, S. (1997). Situated learning theory versus traditional cognitive learning theory: Why

management education should not ignore management learning. Systems Practice,

10(6), (727-747). doi:10.1007/BF02557922

Gardner, R. (2010). Rock and roll high school: A genre comes of age in the curriculum.

261

In A. C. Clemens (Ed.), Alternative approaches to music education: Case studies from

the field (pp. 83-94). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Geringer, J. M., & Guerra, A. M. S. (2002). Preferences of 5th-grade children in Mexico

and the United States for school and non-school music excerpts. Bulletin of the

Council for Research in Music Education, 12-17. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/40319134 on June 25, 2016

Glenn, K.A. (1999). Rote vs. note: The relationship of working memory capacity to

perform and continuation in beginning strings classes (Doctoral dissertation),

University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado. Dissertation Abstract

International, 60/40, 1010. (University Microfilms No. 9927738)

Gordon, E. (2012). Learning sequences in music: Skill, content, and patterns: A music

learning theory. Chicago, Ill. GIA Publications.

Green, L. (2002). How popular musicians learn: A way ahead for music education.

London: Ashgate.

Green, L. (2004). What can music educators learn from popular musicians? In C. X.

Rodriguez (Ed.), Bridging the gap: Popular music and music education (pp.225

240). Reston, VA: MENC.

Green, L. (2006). Popular music education in and for itself, and for ‘other’ music:

Current research in the classroom. International Journal of Music Education,

24(2), 101-118.doi:10.1177/0255761406065471

Green, L. (2008). Music, informal learning and the school: A new classroom pedagogy.

London: Ashgate.

Green, L. (2008). Group cooperation, inclusion and disaffected pupils: Some responses to

262

informal learning in the music classroom. Present at the RIME Conference 2007,

Exeter, UK. Music Education Research, 10, 177-192.

doi:10.1080/14613800802079049

Greer, R. D., Dorow, L. G., & Randall, A. (1974). Music listening preferences of

elementary school children. Journal of Research in Music Education, 22(4), 284-

291. doi:10.2307/3344766

Griffith, M. J. (2006). Personality traits and musical interests of adult learners in an

instrumental music program. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of

Oklahoma, Norman, OK.

Growth Mindset- (http://mindsetonline.com/whatisit/about/) retrieved on February 17,

2107.

Hallam, S. (2002). Musical motivation: Towards a model synthesizing the

research. Music Education Research, 4(2), 225-244.

Hallam, S. (2009). Motivation to learn. In S. Hallam, I. Cross and M. Thaut (Eds.) The

Oxford handbook of music psychology, (pp. 285-294) (2nd ed.). Oxford University

Press, New York.

Hamilton, E. (2011). Entrepreneurial learning in family business: A situated learning

perspective. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 18(1), 8-26.

doi:/101108/14626001111106406

Hamlen, K. R., & Shuell, T. J. (2006). The effect of familiarity and audiovisual stimuli

on preference for classical music. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music

Education, 168(1), 21-34. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40319458

June, 20, 2016

263

Hargreaves, D. J., & North, A. C. (1999). The functions of music in everyday life:

Redefining the social in music psychology. Psychology of Music, 27(1), 71-83.

doi:10.1177/0305735699271007

Hargreaves, D. J., & North, A. C. (2001). Musical development and learning: The

international perspective. London, England: Continuum.

Hargreaves, D. J., Marshall, N. A., & North, A. C. (2003). Music education in the

twenty-first century: a psychological perspective. British Journal of Music

Education, 20(2), 147. doi:10.1017/S0265051703005357

Harwood, E. (1998). Music learning in context: A playground tale. Research Studies in

Music Education, 11(1), 52-60. doi:10.1177/1321103X9801100106

Hatch, J. A. (2002). Doing qualitative research in education settings. Albany, NY: State

University of New York Press.

Heintzelman, T. D. (1988). Adult concert band participation in the United States.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Indiana University, Bloomington, IN.

Hinckley, J. (2000). Music matters: Music for a lifetime. Teaching Music, 7(5), 10-11.

Holmquist, S. (1995). A study of community choir members’ school experiences.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Oregon, Eugene, OR.

Hope, S. (2004, November). Creating a positive future for P–12 music education. Paper

presented at the National Association of Schools of Music Annual Meeting, San

Diego: CA.

Horowitz, J. (2005). Classical music in America: A history of its rise and fall. New York:

W.W. Norton & Company.

Hosler, N. M. (1992). The brass band movement in North America: A survey of brass

264

bands in the United States and Canada. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Ohio

State University, Columbus, OH.

Humphreys, J. T. (2004). Popular music in the American schools: What history tells us

about the present and the future. In C. X. Rodriguez (Ed.), Bridging the gap:

Popular music and music education (pp.91-105). Reston, VA.

Hunter, M. A. (2008). Cultivating the art of safe space. Research in Drama Education, 13(1), 521. Isbell, D. (2007). Popular music and the public school music curriculum. Update:

Applications of Research in Music Education, 26, 53-62.

doi:10.1177/87551233070260010106

Isbell, D. (2015). My music and school music: Informal and formal music making. In S.

L.Burton and A. H. Snell, II (Eds.), Engaging in musical practices: A source for

instrumental music (pp.237-256). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield

Publishing.

Jaffurs, S. E. (2004). The impact of informal music learning practices in the classroom, or

how I learned how to teach from a garage band. International Journal of Music

Education, 22(3), 189-200. doi:10.1177/0255761404047401

Jellison, J. (2000). How can all people continue to be involved in meaningful music

education? In C. K. Madsen (Ed.), Vision 2020: The Housewright symposium on

the future of music education (pp. 109–137). Reston, VA: MENC (The National

Association for Music Education).

Jones, P. M. (2008). Preparing music teachers for change: Broadening instrument class

offerings to foster lifewide and lifelong musicing. Visions of Research in Music

Education, 12, 1-15.

265

Jones, P. M. (2009). Lifewide as well as lifelong: broadening primary and secondary

school music education's service to students' musical needs. International Journal

of Community Music, 2(2-3), 2. doi:10.1386/ijcm.2.2-3.201_1

Jorgensen, H. (2000). Student learning in higher instrumental education: Who is

responsible?British Journal of Music Education, 17(1), 67-77.

Jorgensen, E. (2002). The aims of music education: A preliminary excursion. Journal of

Aesthetic Education, 36(1), 31-49.

Jorgensen, E. (2003). Western classical music and general education. Philosophy of

Music Education Review, 11, 130-140. doi:10.1353/pme.2003.0012

Juntunen, M. L., Karlsen, S., Kuoppamäki, A., Laes, T., & Muhonen, S. (2014).

Envisioning imaginary spaces for musicking: equipping students for leaping into

the unexplored. Music Education Research, 16(3), 251-266. doi:

10.1080/14613808.2014.899333

Karlsen, S. (2010). Boom town music education and the need for authenticity- informal

learning put into practice in Swedish post-compulsory music education. British

Journal of Music Education, 27(1), 35-46. doi:10.1017/S0265051709990180

Kim, H. (2006). Violin scale books from the late nineteenth century to the present

focusing on Sevcik, Flesch, Galamian and Sassmannshaus. (Unpublished doctoral

dissertation), University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH.

Kirk, D., & Kinchin, G., (2003). Situated learning as a theoretical framework for sport

education. European Physical Education Review 9(3), 221-235.

doi:10.1177/1356336X030093002

Koops, L. H., Hankins, E. A., Scalise, D., & Schatt, M. D. (2014). Rock orchestra alumni

266

reflections on the impact of participation in The Lakewood Project. Research

Studies in Music Education, 36, 147-164. doi:10.1177/1321103X14537432

Kramer, L. (2007). Why classical music still matters. University of California Press,

Berkley and Los Angeles, CA.

Kratus, J. (2007). Centennial Series: Music education at the tipping point. Music

Educators Journal, 94(2), 42-48. doi: 10.1177/002743210709400209

Kruse, N. B. (2009). “An elusive bird”: Perceptions of music learning among Canadian

and American adults. International Journal of Community Music, 2(2-3), 215

225. doi: 10.1386/ijcm.2.2&3.215/1

Larson, P. S. (1983). An exploratory study of lifelong musical interest and activity: Case

studies of twelve retired adults. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Temple

University, Philadelphia, PA.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.

New York: Cambridge University Press.

Lebler, D. (2007). Student-as-master? Reflections on a learning innovation in popular

music pedagogy. International Journal of Music Education, 25(3), 205-221. doi:

10.1177/0255761407083575

LeBlanc, A. (1981). Effects of style, tempo and performing medium on children’s music

preference. Journal of Research in Music Education, 29, 143-156. doi:

10.2307/3345023

Lebler, D. (2008). Popular music pedagogy: Peer learning in practice. Music Education

Research, 10(2), 193-213. doi:10.1080/14613800802079056

Leonhard, C. (1999). A challenge for change in music education. Music Educators

267

Journal, 86(3), 40-43. doi:10.2307/3399559

Linehan, C., & McCarthy, J. (2000). Positioning in practice: Understanding participation

in the social world. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 30(4), 435-453.

doi:10.1111/1468-5914.00139

Liperote, K. A. (2006). Audiation for beginning instrumentalists: Listen, speak, read,

write. Music Educators Journal, 93(1), 46-53. doi:10.1177/002743210609300123

Louth, P. (2006). Lifelong learning and the informally trained jazz artist. International

Journal of Community Music, 1-27. Retrieved

from http://www.intellectbooks.co.uk/MediaManager/Archive/IJCM/Volume%20

D/08%20Louth.pdf February 20, 2016.

Mak, P. (2006). Learning music in formal, non-formal and informal contexts.

In European forum for music education and training (EFMET): Project research.

Disponible en:

pdf>.[Consulta: octubre de 2009]. Retrieved from

https://www.hanze.nl/assets/kc-kunst--samenleving/lifelong-learning-

inmusic/Documents/Public/learningmusicinformalnonformalandinformalcontexts

mak.pdf on March 5, 2017.

Mantie, R., & Tucker, L. (2008). Closing the gap: Does music-making have to stop upon

graduation?. International Journal of Community Music, 1(2), 217-227.

doi:10.1386/ijcm.1.2.217/1

Mantie, R. (2012). A study of community band participants: Implications for music

education. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, (191), 21-43.

doi:10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.191.0021

268

Mantie, R. (2013). A comparison of “popular music pedagogy” discourses. Journal of

Research in Music Education, 61(3), 334-352.

Marin, M. M., & Bhattacharya, J. (2013). Getting into the musical zone: trait emotional

intelligence and amount of practice predict flow in pianists. Frontiers in

Psychology, 4 (853), 1-14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00853

Mark, M. L. (1995). Music education and the national standards: A historical review. The

Quarterly 6 (2), 34-43. Retrieved from

http://www.usr.rider.edu/~vrme/v16n1/volume6/

visions/summer5.pdf on February 26, 2016.

Mark. M. L. & Gary, C. L. (2007). A history of American music education. Blue Ridge

Summit, PA; Rowman and Littlefield Education,

Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, K. E. (2001). Informal and incidental learning. New directions

for adult and continuing education, 2001(89), 25-34. doi:10.1002/ace.5

Martin, P. J. (1983). A status study of community bands in the United States.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.

Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McClarty, J. L. (1968). An investigation to determine the reasons former high school

band members elect to participate or not to participate in band upon entering the

University of Montana. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) University of

Montana, Missoula, MO.

McCullough, E. C. (1981). An assessment of the musical needs and preferences of

269

individuals 65 and over. (Unpublished dissertation). University of Arizona,

Tuscon, AZ.

McDavid, J. B. (1999). A study of factors influencing nonparticipation in collegiate band

programs among first-year students in the Pacific-10 Athletic Conference.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.

MacDonald, R. A. R. and Miell, D. (2000). Creativity and music education: The impact

of social variables, International Journal of Music Education 36: 58-68.

McLoughlin, C., & Luca, J. (2006). Applying Situated Learning Theory to the Creation

Learning Environments to Enhance Socialisation and Self-Regulation. In T.

Herrington, & J. Herrington (Eds.), Authentic Learning Environments in Higher

Education (pp. 194-213). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

doi:10.4018/978-1-59140-594-8.ch015

McPhail, G. J. (2013). Developing student autonomy in the one-to-one music lessons.

International Journal of Music Education, 47(1), 33-45. doi:

10.1177/0255761413486407

McPherson, G. E., & McCormick, J. (1999). Motivational and self-regulated learning

components of musical practice. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music

Education, 98-102.

McPherson, G. E., & Gabrielsson, A. (2002). From sound to sign. In R. Parncutt & G. E.

McPherson (Eds.), The science and psychology of music performance: Creative

strategies for teaching and learning (pp. 99-115). New York, NY: Oxford

University Press.

Meizel, K. (2011) Idolized: Music, media and identity in American Idol. Bloomington,

270

IN:Indiana University Press.

Mjøs O. J. (2012) Music, social media and global mobility. New York: Routledge.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded

sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mills, J. & McPherson, G. E. (2006) Musical literacy. In G. E. McPherson (Ed.), The

child as musician: A handbook of musical development (pp. 177-191). Oxford,

UK: Oxford University Press.

Milton, G. K. (1982). The effects of selected factors on the choice of freshmen

instrumentalists in small colleges to participate to or not to participate in the

college concert band. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The Ohio State

University, Columbus, OH.

Morrison, S. J. (2001). The school ensemble a culture of our own: School ensembles are

not just classes or performance groups, but guardians of their own specific

culture, a culture that informs and enriches the lives of their members. Music

Educators Journal, 88(2), 24-28. doi:10.2307/3399738

Mountford, R. D. (1977). Significant predictors of college band participation by college

freshmen with high school band experience. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).

The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.

Myers, D. E. (2007). Freeing music education from schooling: Toward a lifespan

perspective on music learning and teaching. International Journal of Community

Music, 1(1), 49-61.

Myers, D. E. (2008). Lifespan engagement and the question of relevance: Challenges for

271

music education research in the twenty-first century. Music Education

Research, 10(1), 1-14. doi: 10.1080/14613800701871330

National Standards Core Music Standards. Retrieved from http://www.nafme.org/core

music standards/ on February, 26, 2017. National Music Standards 1994.

Retrieved from http://www.nafme.org/wp-content/files/2014/06/Archived-1994-

Music-Standards.pdf on March 5, 2017.

National Standards Comparison: 1994 versus 2014. Retrieved from

http://www.nafme.org/wpcontent/files/2014/11/StandardsComparison_REVISE

2.pdf on February 28, 2016.

Nielsen, K. (1996). Apprenticeship and music. Paper given at NFPF-kongressen,

Lillehammer, Norway, 7±10 March 1996.

Nazareth, T. C. (1999). A coherent framework for lifelong music education. General

Music Today, 12(2), 17-19.doi: 10.1177/104837139901200206

North, A., Hargreaves, D. J., & O’Neill, S. (2000). The importance of music to

adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(2), 255-272. doi:

10.1348/000709900158083

O’Neill, S. A. (2012). Becoming a music learner: Towards a theory of transformative

music engagement. In G. E. McPherson and G. F. Welch (Ed), The Oxford

handbook of music education, 1 (pp.163-186). New York, NY: Oxford University

Press.

Olseng, I., & Burley, J. (1987). The second chance. International Journal of Music

Education, 9, 27-30. doi:10.1177/104837139901200206

Partti, H., & Karlsen, S. (2010). Reconceptualising musical learning: New media, identity

272

and community in music education. Music Education Research, 12(4), 369-382.

doi:10.1080/14613808.2010.519381

Partnership for 21st Century Skills retrieved on February 27, 2017 from

http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/A-Guide-to-Four-Cs.pdf

Patterson, F. C. (1985). Motivational factors contributing to participation in community

bands of the Montachusett region of North Central Massachusetts. (Unpublished

doctoral dissertation). University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT.

Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (4th ed.). Thousand

Oaks,CA: Sage.

Peshkin, A. (1988). In search of subjectivity: One’s own. Educational Researcher, 29(9),

5-9.

Pitts, S. E. (2008). Extra-curricular music in UK schools: Investigating the aims,

experiences and impact of adolescent musical participation. International Journal

of Education & the Arts, 9(10), 1-19.

Pitts, S. (2016). Valuing musical participation. Routledge. New York, NY.

Platt, J. (1992). “Case study” in American methodological thought. Current Sociology,

40(1), 17-48. doi:10.1177/001139292040001004

Quay, J. (2003). Experience and participation: Relating theories of learning. The Journal

of Experiential Education, 26(2), 105-116. doi:10.1177/105382590302600208

Regelski, T. A. (2007), Amateuring in music and its rivals. Action, Criticism & Theory

for Music Education, 6(3), p. 22-50.

Reimer, B. (2003). A Philosophy of Music Education: Advancing the Vision (3rd ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

273

Reimer, B. (2004). Preface. In C. X. Rodriquez (Ed.), Bridging the gap popular music

and music education (pp. vii-ix). Reston, VA. MENC.

Reimer, B. (2014). Reflections on music educators journal in its centennial year. Music

EducatorJournal, 100(3), 27-32. doi:10.1177/0027432113517905

Resnick, L. B. (1987). The 1987 presidential address: Learning in school and

out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-54. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1175725

Rodriquez, C. X. (2004). Popular music in music education: Toward a new conception of

musiciality. In C. X. Rodriquez (Ed.), Bridging the gap popular music and music

education (pp.13-27). Reston, VA. MENC.

Rohwer, D. (2009). Perceived instructional needs of middle school and senior citizen

band members. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 18(2), 62. doi:

10.1177/1057083708330864

Roulston, K. (2014). Conducting and analyzing individual interviews. In C. M. Conway

(Ed.), The Oxford handbook of qualitative research in American music education

(pp. 250-270). New York: Oxford.

Royse, D. M. (1990). Significant predictors of concert band membership continuation or

discontinuation by non-music major students at three selected universities.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Kent State University, Kent, OH.

Scalise, D. C. (2015). The effects of learning practices on motivation and engagement

among high school instrumentalists. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Case Western

Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.

Schell, J., and Black, R. (1997). Situated learning: an inductive case study of a

274

collaborative learning experience. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34(4),

5-28. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JITE/v34n4/html/schell.html

Schmidt, M. (2014). Collecting and analyzing observation of music teaching and learning

data. In C. M. Conway (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of qualitative research in

American music education (pp. 227-249). New York: Oxford.

Schippers, H., & Campbell, P. S. (2012). Cultural diversity: Beyond “songs from every

land.” In G. E. McPherson & G. F. Welch (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of music

education (pp. 87-104). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Scott, S. (2006). A constructivist view of music education: Perspectives for deep

learning. General Music Today, 19(2), 17-21.

doi:10.1177/10483713060190020105

Seidman, I. (2006). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in

education and the social sciences (3rd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.

Seifried, S. (2006). Exploring the outcomes of rock and popular music instruction in high

school guitar class: A case study. International Journal of Music Education, 24,

168-177. doi:10.1177/0255761406065478

Shuler, S. C. (2011). Music education for life: The three artistic processes—paths to

lifelong 21st-century skills through music. Music Educators Journal, 97(4), 9-13.

Shuler, S. C. (2011). The three artistic processes: Paths to lifelong 21st-century skills

through music. Music Educators Journal, 97(4), 9-13. doi:

10.1177/0027432111409828

Silber, B. (2015). A decade of arts engagement: Findings the survey of public

275

participation in the arts, 2002-2012. National Endowment of the Arts.

Washington, D.C.

Sloboda, J., & Davidson, J. (1996). The young performing musician. In I. Deliége & J.

Sloboda (Eds.), Musical beginnings: Origins and development of musical

competence (pp. 171-190). New York: Oxford.

Small, C. (1995). Musicking: A ritual in social space. A lecture at the University of

Melbourne June 6. Retrieved from http://jlarrystockton.com/Stocktoj/small.pdf on

March 26, 2017.

Small, C. (1999). Musicking—the meanings of performing and listening. A

lecture. Music education research, 1(1), 9-22.

Small, C. (2011). Music, society, education. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Pres.

Smilde, R. (2008). Lifelong learners in music: Research into musicians’ biographical

learning.International Journal of Community Music 1(2), p. 243-252. doi:

10.1386/ijcm.1.2.243/1

Spencer, W. (1996). An attitude assessment of amateur musicians in community bands.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of North Texas, Denton, TX.

Soldz, S. & Andersen, L. L. (2012). Expanding subjectivities: introduction to the special

issue on new directions in psychodynamic research. Journal of Research Practice,

8(20), p.1-8. http://jrp.icaap.org/index.php/jrp/article/view/337/275

Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple case study analysis. New York: The Guilford Press.

Stewart, C. (1991). Who takes music? Investigating access to high school music as a

function of social and school factors (Doctoral Dissertation). Available from

276

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (AAT 9208660).

Stewart, M. J. (2007). A study of first-year students within The Ohio State University and

the factors influencing nonparticipation in band programs at the collegiate level.

(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.

Suzuki Association of the Americas (1998). About. Retrieved from

https://suzukiassociation.org/about/suzuki-method/ retrieved on April 30, 2016.

Suzuki, S. (2013). Nurtured by Love (Rev. ed.) Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music Publishing.

Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. (2007). Curriculum development: Theory into practice (4th

ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Tarrant, M., North, A., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2001). Social categorization, self-esteem,

and the estimated musical preferences of male adolescents. Journal of Social

Psychology, 141, 565-581. doi:10.1080/00224540109600572

Templton, D. (2005, November). A cadre of rock orchestra players is changing the face

of string playing. Strings Magazine, 133 (4), 1-4. Retrieved from

http://www.woodviolins.com/images/strings_nov05.pdf on March 5, 2017.

Thaller, G. P. (1999). The community contributions, recruitment, and retention practices

of select adult community bands in eastern Massachusetts. (Unpublished doctoral

dissertation). University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH.

Thornton, D. (2010). Adult music engagement: Perspectives from three musically

engaged cases. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Pennsylvania State

University, University Park, PA.

Tobias, E. S. (2012). Hybrid spaces and hyphenated musicians: secondary students'

277

musical engagement in a songwriting and technology course. Music Education

Research, 14(3), 329-346. doi:10.1080/14613808.2012.685459

Tobias, E. S. (2015). Participatory and digital cultures in practice: Perspectives and

possibilities in a graduate music course. International Journal of Community

Music, 8(1), p.7-26. doi: 10.1386/ijcm.8.1.7_1.

Tommis, Y., & Fazey, D. M. (1999). The acquisition of the pitch element of music

literacy skills by 3-4-year-old pre-school children: A comparison of two

methods. Psychology of Music, 27(2), 230-244.

Toynbee, J. (2000). Making popular music: Musicians, creativity and institutions.

London, England: Arnold.

Turton, A., & Durrant, C. (2002). A study of adults’ attitudes, perceptions and reflections

on their singing experience in secondary school: Some implications for music

education. British Journal of Music Education, 19(1), 31-48.

doi:10.1017/S0265051702000128

VanWeelden, K. (2014). Preservice music teachers’ recognition of western art music

found in popular culture. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 24(1), 65-75.

doi:10.1177/10570837134975788

VanWeelden, K. (2012). Classical music as popular music: Adolescents’ recognition of

Western art music. Update: Application of Research in Music Education, 31(1),

14-24.doi:10.1177/8755123312457883

Vincent, P. (1997). A study of community choruses in Kentucky and implications for music educators. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Kentucky, Lexington,

KY.

278

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological

processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wang, J. C., & Humphreys, J. T. (2009). Multicultural and popular music content in an

American music teacher education program. International Journal of Music

Education, 27, 19-36. doi:10.1177/0255761408099062

Walker, R. (1981). Teaching basic musical concepts and their staff notations through

cross modal matching symbols. Psychology of Music, 9(1), 31-38.

Weber, W. (1977). Mass culture and the reshaping of European musical taste, 1770

1870. International review of the aesthetics and sociology of music, 5-22. doi:

10.2307/836535

Westerlund, H. (2006). Garage rock bands: A future model for developing musical

expertise? International Journal of Music Education, 24(2), 119-125.

doi:10.1177/0255761406065472

Wiggins, J. (2007). Authentic practice and process in music teacher education. Music

Educators Journal, 93, 36-42. doi:10.1177/002743210709300318

Wilhjelm, C. C., Jr. (1998). A case study of the Ridgewood Concert Band, a New Jersey

community band dedicated to lifelong learning. (Unpublished doctoral

dissertation). Columbia University Teachers College. New York, New York.

Williams, D. A. (2011). The elephant in the room. Music Educator’s Journal, 98(1), 51

57.doi:10.1177/0027432111415538

Wise, S., Greenwood, J., & Davis, N. (2011). Teachers' use of digital technology in

secondary music education: illustrations of changing classrooms. British Journal

of Music Education, 28(02), 117-134.

279

Wright, R. & Kanellopoulos, P. (2010). Informal music learning, improvisation and

teacher education. British Journal of Music Education, 27(1), 71-87. doi:

10.1017/S0265051709990210

Woody, R. H. (2007). Popular music in school: Remixing the issues. Music Educators

Journal, 93(4), 32-37. doi:10.1177/002743210709300415

Woody, R. H. (2012). Playing by ear: foundation or frill? Music Educators

Journal, 99(2), 82-88. doi:10.1177/0027432112459199

Woody, R. H., & Lehmann, A. C. (2010). Student musicians’ ear-playing ability as a

function of vernacular music experiences. Journal of Research in Music

Education, 58(2), 101-115.doi:10.1177/0022429410370785

Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Los Angeles, CA:

Sage.

280