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Effective Practising: a Research Perspective

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Effective Practising: a Research Perspective a u s t r a l i a n s os c i e t y f o r mm u s i c e d u c a t i oe n i n c o r p o r a t e d Effective practising: A research perspective Katie Zhukov The University of Queensland Abstract This paper reviews latest research findings on practising in an attempt to encourage studio music teachers to trial new approaches. Literature shows that expert performers begin learning an instrument at an early age, and sustain and increase their deliberate practice over at least 10 years. A certain amount of practice hours is needed to achieve professional level. Both formal and informal practice are important in the development of skills. Structured practice based on clear teacher instructions gives better results than unstructured practice. Technical work in practice should be directed to solving repertoire problems to initiate transfer of learning. Effective practising strategies include chunking, modelling, mental rehearsal, and hand reversal. Developing metacognitive skills in students will lead to greater self- regulation and effectiveness in practice. Selection of interesting repertoire is vital for maintaining students’ motivation. Parental support plays an important role in the early stages of learning, while in the teen years participation in extra- curricular musical activities has significant educational and motivational value. Research findings reviewed in this paper have implications for the teaching profession and deserve consideration and trial. Keywords: Instrumental practice, expert performance, parental influences, structured practice, practising strategies, self- regulation, motivation. Australian Journal of Music Education 2009:1, 3-12 Introduction four stages of practising were identified by Chaffin, Imreh, and Crawford (2002): the ‘big The question of practising has been a perennial picture’ overview of the work; technical practice topic of discussion between instrumental music that includes overcoming problems, achieving teachers and their students. Yet, despite the automation and memorisation; polishing the piece growing body of evidence on effective practising up for a performance; and finally maintenance many teachers tend to rely on their own experience of the piece. To implement these four stages in as a learner and their teaching observations and individual practice teachers could, for example, continue to issue the same advice to their students. include in lessons activities such as listening to a For example, the idea of ‘slow practice’ as a basic recording/ or teacher performance of the work prior remedy persists among teachers (Lehmann, Sloboda to learning to identify the basic character and locate & Woody, 2007). This paper reviews recent research the difficulties; drilling, repetitions and slow practice findings on practising in an attempt to encourage to overcome technical problems; considering music teachers to trial new approaches in their articulation and dynamics in developing the studios. interpretation and playing the piece through in preparation for a performance. What is practising? Hallam (1997a) defines musical practice as Lehmann and Gruber (2006) describe practice a multi-faceted activity. She suggests that an as a “systematic activity with predictable stages important dimension of learning to practice and activities” (p. 461). In learning a new piece concerns how well a student is able to develop Australian Journal of Music Education Zhukov technical skills, music interpretation, ability to play technical and expressive dimensions of their from memory and to overcome performance stress. playing (Sloboda & Davidson, 1996). These technical, cognitive and performance skills Existing research shows that most expert cannot be acquired by repetition alone. Therefore, musical performers started playing an instrument at it is important that teachers continue to offer a uniformly young age, between six and seven years practical advice on how to practise differently at old (Ericsson, Tesch-Romer, & Krampe, 1990). The various stages of learning. level of practice had to be sustained and increased In the last 15 years researchers have coined through adolescence and early adulthood to reach a number of terms to describe different types of the expert level. The increase in practice needs to practice: be gradual as a sudden large increase can lead to • deliberate practice focuses on achieving overuse injuries and a possible burnout (Ericsson, specific goals (Ericsson, 1997; Ericsson, 1996). DeCarbo (1990) supported this view in a Krampe & Tesch-Romer, 1993); study which interviewed nearly nine hundred • formal practice demonstrates deliberate effort music students in the State of Florida, USA, and (Sloboda, Davidson, Howe, & Moore, 1996); found that the most successful instrumentalists • informal practice constitutes enjoyable leisure begin their music studies in primary school, music-making (Sloboda, Davidson, Howe, & receiving individual tuition and participating in solo Moore, 1996); and ensemble competitions and performances. • structured practice involves a detailed regime Outstanding students start with small amounts of and sequence of practising (Rosenshine, practice, continually increasing their commitment Froehlich, & Fakhouri, 2002); over a number of years, while amateur students’ • unstructured practice involves freedom to practice often levels out around the age of ten practise in any order and with no particular (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993). goals (Barry, 1990, 1992); Quantity of practice Practising and expert performance Research suggests that an average of four hours The question of practice has received recent of practice per day over the period of ten years attention by researchers interested in expert is required to achieve the expert level (Ericsson, performance across many fields including music. 1996). Yet, this number varies depending on the Numerous similarities have been found in the instrument played. Jorgensen (1997) showed that personal development of experts in different pianists and violinists practised the most, followed domains, for example in sport, especially in the area by woodwind, brass and singers. This could be of practising required to achieve the level of expert explained by the physical demands associated performance (see Ericsson, 1997, for a review of with playing of particular instruments, for example literature). the exertion of the lungs and lips of brass players First, there is a need to clarify the difference prevents them from practising as long as string between ‘expert performance’ and ‘ordinary players. performance’. Ericsson (1996) defines expert As students’ expertise develops, the amount and performance as “consistently superior performance frequency of practice show comparative increase on a range of relevant tasks” (p. 4). In case of (Sloboda et al., 1996). This is linked with increasing musicians, this refers to exceptionally gifted, length of pieces, greater amounts of technical outstanding performers rather than the general work required by various examination bodies and mass of music students. Expert musicians students’ participation in extra-curricular music demonstrate superior performance in both activities. There is an explicit relationship between 2009, No. 1 Effective practising the quantity of practice and skill levels achieved them significantly to maintain these high levels (Jorgensen, 2002). Most studio teachers advise of practice. Sloboda and Davidson (1996) verified students to practise more to achieve better playing. these results in a study using detailed diaries to Particularly, in higher education instrumental music record events as they actually occurred. They found students are expected to practise regularly, the that over the entire learning period high achievers average being 20–25 hours per week (Jorgensen, amass twice as much formal practice as moderate 2004). Other time-management strategies for achievers, four times as much as underachievers productive practice need to include “setting aside and up to eight times as much as students who give blocks of time to practise, ensuring effective up lessons. At the same time high achievers also use of that practice time, organising the study participate in more informal practice. These two environment and committing oneself to completing studies highlight particular features that distinguish practice goals” (Nielsen, 2004, p. 246). high achieving young musicians from other young people: very high levels of formal practice and Quality of practice moderate levels of informal practice. McPherson (1999) also supports this view by suggesting that The quality of practice is also an essential element. both facets, formal and informal practice, “are Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Romer (1993) refuted essential ingredients for continuing success” (p. 153). the belief that simply a sufficient amount of practice The most important skill that can be taught by would lead to maximal performance. They have an instrumental music teacher is how to practise. coined the term ‘deliberate practice’, in which Even tertiary music students who spend many explicit instructions about the best method of hours every week practising alone still need to practising were given and supervised by the teacher be taught how to use this time constructively. who diagnosed errors and provided informative McPherson and Davidson (2002) stressed that it is feedback. For an exceptional performance ten years the role of the teachers to show students “how to of deliberate practice was an average. Deliberate
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