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EDUCATION and CHILD LABOUR in DEVELOPING COUNTRIES a Study on the Role of Non-Governmental Organisations in Bangladesh and Nepal

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EDUCATION and CHILD LABOUR in DEVELOPING COUNTRIES a Study on the Role of Non-Governmental Organisations in Bangladesh and Nepal View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Helsingin yliopiston digitaalinen arkisto Mojibur Rahman Doftori EDUCATION AND CHILD LABOUR IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES A Study on the Role of Non-Governmental Organisations in Bangladesh and Nepal Doctoral Dissertation To be presented for public examination by permission of the Faculty of Social Sciences in the University of Helsinki (Unioninkatu 35, U35 LS 1), on Friday November 12 2004 at 12 noon. Department of Social Policy, University of Helsinki Helsinki 2004 Mojibur Rahman Doftori EDUCATION AND CHILD LABOUR IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES A Study on the Role of Non-Governmental Organisations in Bangladesh and Nepal Department of Social Policy, University of Helsinki Helsinki 2004 2 Author's address: Mojibur Rahman Doftori C/O Professor Risto Eräsaari Department of Social Policy 00014-University of Helsinki Finland Supervisor: Risto Eräsaari, Professor of Social Policy Department of Social Policy University of Helsinki Reviewers: Tuomas Takala, Professor of Comparative Education Department of Education University of Tampere Farhad Hossain, Docent/Adjunct Professor Department of Management studies University of Tampere Opponent: Tuomas Takala, Professor of Comparative Education Department of Education University of Tampere Copyright: Mojibur Rahman Doftori Cover: Saikat Sarkar and Khondokar Aktaruzzaman (Tapos) Helsinki University Press, Finland ISBN 952-91-7854-9 (Paperback) ISBN 952-10-2138-1 (PDF) 3 DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my father Mr. Joynal Abedin and my mother Mrs. Rashida Akther 4 ABSTRACT Mojibur Rahman Doftori Education and Child Labour in Developing Countries: A Study on the Role of Non- Governmental Organisations in Bangladesh and Nepal Since the 1990s, there has been a remarkable rise of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) concerning the education of child labourers in many developing countries. NGOs follow a variety of approaches when meeting the educational needs of child labourers. Such approaches may complement or parallel public education system. NGO activities in the education sector take place in the backdrop of the state's failure to provide both relevant and quality education for disadvantaged children in many developing countries. The purpose of this study is to systematically examine the role of NGOs who address the issue of child labour in developing countries. For the purpose this study, Bangladesh and Nepal are the representative of countries affected by child labour. Qualitative research methods including semi-structured and structured interviews, observations, analyzing texts and documents were used when examining the role of NGOs in education of child labourers. Sociological theories of education such as functionalism, reproduction and resistance theories were used in order to shed light on educational deprivation and the educational potential of child workers. Functionalism and reproduction theories were useful for the study. I found resistance theory, particularly the work of Paulo Freire to be the most appropriate when attempting to explain the educational possibilities of child labourers. Actions of the NGOs concerning the education of child labourers are categorized into three broader educational strategies: protective, preventive and skill development strategies to get rid of endless empiricism on the work patterns of NGOs. The following questions were also employed: Do NGOs have the capacity to address needs and challenges faced by child labourers? Do NGO strategies fit with national education sector development? Can the lessons from NGO schools be used for reforming public schools? Findings from this study suggest that there is a strong potential towards the transformation of education according to policy lessons learnt from the role of NGOs. One of the general basic findings of this study is that poverty should not be a significant barrier towards the education of child labourers in developing countries. The child labour problem in agricultural societies could be resolved by merely rescheduling the students’ school hours of attendance and vacations. Rescheduling as such will permit children to carry out their family responsibilities while attending school. There should be specific public policies in place in order to address the "opportunity costs" of children when they are enrolled in school. The educational needs of rural children in general with particular attention given to girls should be a primary focus for schools in developing countries. This study reveals that the protective educational strategies followed by the work of NGOs are a realistic approach to fulfil the immediate needs of child workers. However, this strategy fails to link its education methods with mainstream public schools. Both preventive and the skill-development strategy are viable solutions regarding the problem of child labour and supporting national education sector development. Both are based on the idea that a context- oriented non-formal education and vocational skill training may work as strong forces to keep underprivileged children in school. 5 Even though preventive and skill development strategies provide realistic hopes for the education of child labourers, joint planning, training and sharing experience between NGOs and public schools does not exist. This study suggests that there is a need for the government to finance successful NGO schools. This may enhance educational opportunities for the children of economically and culturally disadvantaged households and support educational pluralism. NGO and public schools may complement each other and give children the opportunity to choose between them. It urges for a unified curriculum and a monitoring system for different providers of education. Finally, the study also urges for simultaneous efforts to decentralize and reform public schools in order to strengthen their capacity to become more flexible and efficient by following the best practices of NGOs. Key words: Education, Child Labour, Non-Governmental Organization (NGOs), Non-Formal Education, Education for All (EFA), Childhood, Gender, Bangladesh, Nepal, developing countries 6 TIIVISTELMÄ Mojibur Rahman Doftori Koulutus ja lapsityövoima kehitysmaissa: Tutkimus kansalaisjärjestöjen roolista Bangladeshissa ja Nepalissa 1990-luvun alusta lähtien on tapahtunut merkittävä organisoiminen Kansalaisjärjestöjen lapsityöläisille tarkoitettujen koulutusohjelmien kasvuun. Kansalaisjärjestöillä on monenlaisia lähestymistapoja koulutukseen, joka voi myös täydentää julkista koulutusjärjestelmää. Kansalaisjärjestöjen toiminta koulutuksen alalla on seuraus valtion epäonnistuneesta yrityksestä tuottaa asianmukaista ja laadukasta peruskouluopetusta lapsille, jotka tulevat köyhistä ja kulttuurisesti vähäosaisista perheistä kehitysmaissa. Tämä tutkimus pyrkii tarkastelemaan systemaattisesti kansalaisjärjestöjen roolia lapsityövoiman torjumisessa kehitysmaissa. Tutkimuksessa Bangladesh ja Nepal edustavat maita, joissa lapsityövoima on käytössä. Tutkimuksen kolmea eri koulutusstrategiaa tarkastellaan kvalitatiivisten tutkimusmenetelmien kautta. Menetelmiin kuuluu mm. strukturoidut ja puolistrukturoidut haastattelut, havainnointi ja tekstinanalyysi. Sosiologisia kasvatusteorioita eli funktionalistiset teoriat, reproduktio- ja vastarintateorioita on käytetty valaisemaan lapsityöläisten koulutusderivaatiota ja koulutuspotentiaalia. Tutkimusta tukevat parhaiten funktionalistiset ja reproduktioteoriat. Paulo Freiren vastarintateoriat sopivat parhaiten selittämään vaihtoehtoja joita on tarjolla lapsityöläisille kansalaisjärjestöjen vaihtoehtoisissa koulutusmalleissa. Kansalaisjärjestöjen toiminta lapsityövoiman saralla on luokiteltu kolmeen eri koulutusmalliin; suojaavaan, ehkäisevään ja taitojen kehittämisen strategiaan, joiden tavoite on poistaa liiallista empirian käyttöä kansalaisjärjestöjen työssä. Tutkimuksen peruskysymyksiä: Vastaavatko kansalaisjärjestöt lapsityöläisten koulutustarpeisiin ja haasteisiin? Sopivatko kansalaisjärjestöjen strategiat yhteen kansallisen koulutussektorin kehityksen kanssa? Voiko kansalaisjärjestöjen oppeja käyttää valtiollisten koulujen uudistamiseen? Tutkimus osoittaa, että koulutusta voi muokata ja muuttaa oppimalla kansalaisjärjestöjen roolista koulutuspolitiikan työstämisessä. Tutkimuksen yksi yleinen havainto on se, että köyhyys ja vaikeudet estävät merkittävästi lapsityöläisten koulutusmahdollisuuksia kehitysmaissa. Maatalousyhteiskunnissa on tärkeätä, että koulutuksen ajankohta ja vuosilomat ovat järjestetty siten, että lapset pystyvät toteuttamaan velvollisuuksiaan maataloudessa kouluvuoden aikana. Erityisiä linjauksia pitäisi luoda perheiden tulon menetyksiin lapsen koulunkäynnin aikana. Koulutuspolitiikan pitäisi ensisijaisesti keskittyä vähäosaisten lasten tarpeisiin kehitysmaissa. Tutkimus paljastaa, että suojaavat koulutusstrategiat joita kansalaisjärjestöt käyttävät, palvelevat lapsityöläisten välittömiä koulutus- ja muita tarpeita. Tämä strategia kärsii kuitenkin puuttuvista yhteyksistä valtion peruskouluihin. Ennalta ehkäisevät taitojenkehittämisstrategiat ovat toimivia ratkaisuja lapsityövoimaongelmaan ja tukevat kansallisen koulutussektorin kehitystä. Nämä perustuvat siihen edellytykseen, että kontekstisidonnainen epävirallinen koulutus maaseudulla ja ammatillinen koulutus saisivat vähäosaiset lapset pysymään koulussa. Ennaltaehkäisevät ja taitojenkehittämisen strategiat antavat realistista toivoa lapsityöläisten kouluttamiseen, mutta yhä puuttuu yhtenäistä suunnittelua,
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