Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 ongoing politicalprojects. am tryingtobetrue to Wolpe’sinsistencethattheoreticalwork be directedto exemplary theorist,but alsotodemonstratetheircontemporaryrelevance. HeretooI I willexaminehistexts notfortheirownsake,andonlytoholdup Wolpeasan more seriouslythantheauthorsthemselves– so Iwilltrytoreturnthecompliment. his texts,onscholarlyoeuvre.Justashetook thetextsofothersseriously–often its present,past,andfuture. the spacetodevelopanewresearchprogramforstudyofSouthAfrica, wrote hismostimportantanalysesofSouthAfrica.Beinginexilegavehim Gramsci wrotehis DOI: 10.1080/0305624042000327813 ISSN 0305-6244 Print/1740-1720Online/04/040657-19 Wolpe theman inauguration oftheGovernmentNational Unity?Othershavepaidtributeto now toassessthefateofhisvisionforanew SouthAfrica–tenyearsafterthe report forgovernment.Itisdauntingtorevisit hislegacy,butwhatbettertimethan killed himonhis70thbirthdayashewasputting togetherwhatwouldbehislast government knewnolimits.Indeed,itmight be saidthatitwashisdedication not alwaysappreciated,hisloyaltytothe movementandthentotheANC reconstructing SouthAfricantertiaryeducation.Althoughhiscriticalfacultieswere to continuetheworkhehadbeguninEngland,elaboratingaframeworkfor resource-poor UniversityofWesternCape.TherehesetupanEducationPolicyUnit take upapositionatoneoftheprivilegedhistorically-whiteuniversitiesbut Wolpe returnedtoSouthAfricain1991,for5longyearsbeforehedied.Hedidnot flew inthefaceofSouthAfrica’srichtraditionssocialhistory. structure forthesocialscientistandagencyparty–adivisionoflabourthat any givenhistoricalconjuncture.Heresurelywasaconvenientdivisionoflabour– consciousness –structuralconditionsthatalsodefinethestrategicpossibilitiesof sociologist determinesthestructuralconditionsthatliebehindandgiveriseto analysis ofconsciousnesstobethemonopolypoliticalorganswhile Removed fromhispublicsWolpemadeavirtueoutofnecessity,proclaimingthe his Writings fromexilehavealonganddistinguishedpedigree.Trotskywrote © ROAPEPublicationsLtd.,2004 Review ofAfricanPoliticalEconomyNo.102:657-675 wrote his Harold Wolpe Theory &PracticeintheLifeof From LiberationtoReconstruction: Revolution Betrayed Revolution Revolution of Capitalism of History of the Russian Revolution Russian the of History Capital ; Luxemburgwrote 2 inZurichandhadtoescapeFinlandwrite –hislifeandinfluenceIwillpaytribute to himbydwellingon whileexiledinLondonwhichisalsowhereHaroldWolpe Prison Notebooks Prison inNorway;Leninwrote The Accumulation of Capital of Accumulation The undertheeyeoffascistjailguards.Marx whileinexileTurkeyand Imperialism: The Highest Stage Highest The Imperialism: Michael Burawoy inSwitzerland,and State and State The 1 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 statement inthelightofhisownworkandlife. concluding partofthepaper.Inshort,myintentistoreviseWolpe’s1985praxis interpreter ratherthanlegislator–avisionthatIwilltrytoelaborateinthe his lifeWolpewasgropingtowardanalternativevisionoftheintellectualas liberation struggleandnationalreconstruction.Iwillarguethatinthelastyearsof me thebasisforassessinghisthirdproposition–politicalequivalenceof ‘theoretical practice,’firstinEnglandandthenbackSouthAfrica.Thiswillgive reconstruction. IshallexaminethefirsttwopropositionsinrelationtoWolpe’sown the equivalentpositionofpoliticallycommittedintellectualsunderliberationand (2) thatthestudyofsocialconsciousnessshouldbelefttopoliticalorgans,and(3) research shouldtakeasitspointofdeparturethepriorityliberationmovement, intellectuals andpolitics,interrogatinghisthreepropositions:(1)thatsocial I willsetoutonthisjourneyfromWolpe’s1985statementoftherelationbetween ReviewofAfricanPoliticalEconomy 658 from hisexperiencein Mozambique withFrelimo: has tobetranscended. In theirplacehesubstitutesthefollowingprinciple, derived simple oppositionof intellectual-as-instrument andintellectual-as-autonomous researcher tomakenonsenseofanyclaims autonomy.AndsoWolpearguesthe science, whetherrecognizedornot,impose themselvesontheprioritiesof political goals.Wolpe,bycontrast,claimsthat politicsbothwithinandoutside actual prioritiesemergefromthelogicof researchprocessitselfratherthan variant thatrecognizesthepoliticalrelevance ofresearchbutclaimingthatthe politically neutral,or,asitissaid,valuefree. Thelatterhasamoresophisticated defends theunqualifiedautonomyofintellectual work,heldtobeethicallyand is asunacceptablethesecondposition,which isareactiontothefirst,and ideological function.Theintellectualbecomesa servantorinstrumentofpower.This materials forandjustificationsofalreadydefinedpolicies,reducingresearchtoan misconceived intwomutuallyopposedways.Inthefirstintellectualprovides Wolpe beginsbysayingthattherelationofintellectualstopoliticshasbeen Principle I:StartingwiththePrioritiesofLiberationMovement the intellectualandpoliticalworkofRuthFirst. The 1985praxisstatementwasoriginallygivenatamemorialconferencetocelebrate I: Theory&Practice,1985 with hispraxisstatementof1985.Letmediscusseachitsthreeprinciplesinturn. easily misunderstoodanditsbrilliancecouldgetlost.Nowhereisthistruerthan there wasnospaceforreconciliation.Asaresulttheoriginalityofhisworkcouldbe perspective. Hislogicofargumentationputhisadversariesonthedefensive,since ‘breaking’ withthemwasanecessaryconditionforarrivingatthecorrect antithesis! Therewerenoredeemingvirtuestothesisandantithesis,sothat Wolpe presentedthefinalsynthesisasanunequivocalrejectionofboththesisand akin toHegel’sthesis-antithesis-synthesis,withtheoneimportantdifference– with athirdpositionthattranscendedthedifficultiesbesetfirsttwo.Itwas respect tosomefundamentalissue.Hewouldthen,likeaneagle,soarabovethefray dialectically opposedalternatives,lettingeachrevealthelimitationofotherwith followed apatternthatwasthehallmarkofWolpe’swritings,namelytoplayofftwo something sincealmosteverythinghewrotewascontroversial.Itsrhetoricalstyle statement wasprobablyWolpe’smostcontroversialstatement,andthatissaying 3 Briefthoughitwas,the1985praxis Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 viable strategiesandthecalculationofpossibilities.’ structure oftheperiodandconjuncture’ inordertohelp‘theformulationof liberation movementaspointofdeparture,the roleofresearchistoestablish‘the This firstprincipleledhimtothesecondprinciple.Intakingprioritiesof Principle II:LeavingConsciousnesstotheMovementOrganizations sides. framework ofliberation,andlikeAlthusserattracteddetractorsenemiesonall Althusser Wolpewantedtocreateaspaceforindependenttheorizingwithinthe era ofpost-Stalinistthaw,newsocialmovements,andEurocommunism.Like (relative!) autonomyfortheintellectualsinFrenchCommunistPartyduring notion of‘theoreticalpractice’,whichwasAlthusser’sattempttorescuesome separation ofscienceandpolitics.Itwasapositionthatveryinfluencedbythe traditional andorganicintellectuals,yetcuriouslycompatiblewithWeber’s interesting position,verydifferent,forexample,fromGramsci’sdistinctionbetween He hadoffendedeveryone,itseemed,wheninpracticeheputforwardavery strategy. the conclusionsWolpereached,especiallywhenthosequestionedtheir movement, andparticularlytheSACPANC,werenottoohappywithsomeof a servantofpower–partyfunctionary.Ontheotherhand,liberation Both thesecriticismsfoldedWolpebackintohis‘ideologicalfunction’,labelinghim liberation movement,andopposedtheirdefinitionbyeithertheANCorSACP. denaturing ofscience,whileothersemphasizedthepluralitygoalswithin some, adoptingtheprioritiesofliberationmovementwasprostitutionand One doesnothavetolookfardiscoverthesourceofcontroversy!Obviously,for led toquestionmanyofitsclaimsandassumptions. Thus, startingfromtheliberationmovement’sgoalofwinningstatepower,hewas classes orclassfractionswithapotentialinterestinratherthanagainstapartheid. examined theclasscompositionofracialgroupsandidentifiedthoseAfrican the SACP’sassumptionofaunifiedAfricanoppositiontoapartheid,Wolpe African stateandtoquestiontheSACP’scharacterizationoffascism.Startingfrom colonialism. ThesamepointofdepartureledhimtoexaminethenatureSouth as weshallsee,questioningtheSouthAfricanCommunistParty’stheoryofinternal power’, leadingWolpetoexaminetherelationbetweenracismandcapitalismand, The priorityfromwhichhisSouthAfricanresearchembarksis‘winningstate second principle. of consciousnessshould belefttotheorgansofliberationmovement. Thisishis More controversially,he goesontoarguethatthethenfashionableacademic study light onthemeaningandpossibilitieswithin the present. rather, ashewillshowinhisownresearch,the endorsementofhistorythatsheds conjuncture. Thiswasemphaticallynotadismissal ofhistoricalworktoutcourtbut studies ofSouthAfricaappearedtobeaimless history,unrelatedtothepresent ‘analysis uponwhichstrategiesareorshould bebased.’ replacing generalhistorieswithof thatdemonstrablycontributetoan conclusions butasstartingpointsforinvestigation. research. But,andthisisthefundamentalpointwhichcannotbeoveremphasized,notas In thissense,theprioritiesdefinedatpoliticallevelbecamealsoofsocial rmLbrto oRcntuto:Ter rciei h ieo aodWle 659 From LiberationtoReconstruction:Theory&PracticeintheLifeofHaroldWolpe 4 5 ForWolpethismeans 6 ToWolpe,toomany Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 tions andgovernments’ conditions’ thatunderlie‘themyriadindividualactsofpersons,parties,organiza- Here, then,isthedivisionoflabour,scientistanalyzes‘concretestructural ReviewofAfricanPoliticalEconomy 660 men becomeconsciousofconflictsandfightthemout. be determinedwiththeprecisionofscienceandideologicalformsthroughwhich where hedistinguishesbetweenthetransformationofeconomicstructuresthatcan organization triestoshapeconsciousness.OneisremindedofMarx’s1859Preface example, iftheorganizations areinexileorunderground,can theyshape political organisation always haveprivilegedinsightintoconsciousness? For knowledge ofconsciousness ‘derivesdirectlyfrompoliticalorganisation’? Doesthe Still, wecannotleavethis matterwithoutaskingwhyandunderwhat conditions that hedoesexaminelivedexperienceasthe foundation ofconsciousness. Although Wolpenevermakesthisdistinction I thinkitispresentinhiswritingsand could becompatiblewithaconsciousnessthat supportsliberationorapartheid. bourgeoisie’s experienceofitsclassposition may beracialisedbutthatexperience that growsoutoflivedexperiencebutisnotdetermined byit.Thus,theAfricanpetit and ontheotherhand‘consciousness’,which is themoremalleable‘commonsense’ which istherefractoryeffectofparticipation ineconomicandpoliticalstructures, For nowitmighthelptodistinguishbetween ontheonehand,‘livedexperience’, Whether thatisasustainablepositionsomething weshallhavecausetoexamine. At thesametimeitishardtofindananalysisofconsciousnessinanyhiswritings. of reform. liberation movementthatitsimultaneouslyrecognizethelimitsandpossibilities openings, newpossibilitiesforcontestationthattheycreated.Heproposedtothe trade unions,orthecreationofBantustans–Wolpealwaysfocusedonnew whether itbethepouringofcorporateresourcesintoeducation,registration For example,whereotherswoulddismissthereformsofapartheidascosmetic– to thefirst.Inallhiswritingshetriesteaseoutstructurallimitsofpossibility. As weshallseeWolpeisnolesstruetothissecondmethodologicalprincipleashe makes politicalsense,whichrequiresamoreautonomous‘theoreticalpractice.’ involvement obstructsitsgraspofthetotalitysocialrelationsandthuswhat organizing givesitinsightintoconsciousnessbutbythesametokenitspolitical he isfirmlyopposedtogivingthepartyamonopolyofknowledge.Itscommitment which istotransformratherthansimplyunderstandtheworld.Onotherhand, reduce ittotheinteractionofstructureandagency.Thislosessightcentralgoal knowledge ofstructureandconsciousness,whostandoutsidehistoryinorderto more interestingly,heisalsodistancinghimselffromthosewhowouldmonopolize to consciousness(withoutrecognizingitsunderlyingstructuraldeterminants),but, of expertise.Soheiscriticizing‘interpreters’whowouldreducethesocialformation monopolized eitherbythescientistorparty,butthateachhasitsownsphere While Wolpedoesnotspellthisout,heissayingthatsocialanalysisshouldbe trade unions,socialmovementsdoornotrealizethosepossibilities. possibilities ofsocialtransformationbythestudyconditions,whereasparties, history butnotunderconditionsoftheirownchoosing.’Scientistsmapoutthe his analysisoftheFrenchpoliticalconjuncturebetween1848and1852,‘Menmake between organisationandmassesisthefundamentalconditionforsuccessfulstruggle. individuals isapoliticalnotanacademicresearchfunction.Itdependsabovealluponthelinks In myviewtheacquisitionofknowledge‘consciousness’andpropensitytostruggle 8 andthatsetthelimitsofpossible,whilepolitical 9 Or,asMarxfamouslysaidin 7 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 sociologist or‘interpreter’, thoughmanyothershad. part oforinadditionto theirscientificwork.Wolpenevertookonthis roleaspublic role. Theytooshould foster, elaborateandengagewithpopularconsciousness as but intellectualshadan importantcontributiontomakeinanindependent public formation andinvestigationofconsciousness could notbelefttotheANCorSACP Although Wolpenevertookthenextstep,itfollowed directlyfromthefirst–that regime. Insteadoftakingnationalpriorities as givenhebegantoquestionthem. question hisinvolvementinpolicyresearchand toextendhisrolecriticofthenew 1985 principles.Inthelightofhisexperience in theNewSouthAfrica,hebeganto Toward theendofhislife,however,Wolpebegan tohavesecondthoughtsabouthis official programs. and development,shorttermlongtransformation, thatwereleftobscurein tion ofhighereducation,exploringproblems, suchasthetensionbetweenequity did. Education PolicyUnitattheUniversityofWesternCapethatisexactlywhathe reconstruction agenda.FromwhatIcangleanofWolpe’sexperienceatthe a newhegemony.Theintellectualtakesaspointofdeparturepartyprioritiesor while inthelatterparty-in-powersetsreconstructionagendaandorganizes former theparty-in-oppositiondefinesprioritiesandorganizesconsciousness contexts. Destroyingtheoldregimeisequivalenttobuildinganewone–in Wolpe seeshistwoprinciplesasguidingtherelationofpoliticstoresearchinall focused onthestructuralconditionsfortheirrealization. one inwhichtheintellectualtookprioritiesofpartyaspointdepartureand the liberationstruggle,relationtoFrelimoasrulingpartyofMozambiquewas First in1982–fromresearchfortheNationalLiberationMovement.Nolessthan Studies –untiltheSouthAfricanpoliceterrorizedresearchersandkilledRuth situation inMozambiquewhereheworkedforatimeatMaputo’sCentreAfrican between politicsandresearch,Wolpedoesnotdistinguishthepostcolonial world ofapartheidandthepost-apartheid.Inexaminingrelation relation betweenintellectualsandpolitics–ofliberationreconstruction,the it ismoreimplicitthanexplicit.Ittheequivalence–frompointofview Finally, wecometothethirdproposition,whichisnotactuallyaprinciplebecause Principle III:TheEquivalenceofLiberation&Reconstruction tion. South Africaand,inparticular,ofthelimitsandpossibilitiesregimetransforma- need tosuspendjudgmentandexaminehowfaritadvancedtheunderstandingof liberation movementandhisreadingofMarxismthroughFrenchstructuralism.We Africa in1991.Itwasadeeplyheldconvictionthatcamefromhisinvolvementthe his beinginexilesincehestucktothesameprinciplewhenreturnedSouth conditions attheexpenseofconsciousness.Idonotbelieveitwasonlyafunction astoundingly truetohisownmethodologicalprincipleoffocusingonstructural As IsaidoneofthevirtuesWolpe’swritingsistheirconsistency.He guide politicalorganization? there nospaceforthescientificanalysisofformationconsciousnessthatmight understanding ofconsciousness!Andfinally,thereistheGramscianquestion: to lead?Itraisesthequestion,which,ifany,politicalorganizationshavean consciousness, cantheyevenknowabouttheconsciousnessofpeopleclaim 11 Withconsummatededicationheappliednationalprioritiestothereconstruc- rmLbrto oRcntuto:Ter rciei h ieo aodWle 661 From LiberationtoReconstruction:Theory&PracticeintheLifeofHaroldWolpe 10 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 labour system, etc.)wouldbemodified toallowAfricans totakeoverpositions either theracialorder (with itscolourbars,limitededucationforblacks, migrant political regime.Anew mechanismforproducingcheaplabourhad tobefound: rise tointensifiedclass strugglesinthe1940s,andcreatingadeep crisisforthe ment, especiallyaffecting workersintheexpandingmanufacturing sector,giving the reproductiveroleofreserves.Ruralimpoverishment ledtourbanimpoverish- pressure, soilerosion,andtheconcentrationof landownershipbegantoundermine Segregation prevailed,Wolpeclaims,from1870 tothe1930swhereuponpopulation areas ontheother. the onehandandbymakingitdifficultforAfrican tosettlepermanentlyinurban between townandcountry,byprotectingthe reserves fromwhiteexpropriationon state’s functionwastomaintainthecirculatory flowofAfricanmigrantlabour indeed provideasubsistenceexistence.Thiswas theperiodof which Africanswereherdedinaccordancewith the1913NativeLandAct–did children, elderly,disabled,womensolongasthereserves–13%oflandareainto what wasnecessarytomaintainasingleworker.Thewagedidnothavesupport mining capital,couldpaytheirworkersawagethatcorrespondedtolittlemorethan the landsubsidizedreproductionoflabourpower,sothatcapitalists,especially The Africanredistributivemodeofproduction,basedonkinship,cattleandtilling analysis ofSouthAfrica. to beWolpe’smostsignificantcontributionthetheoryofracismaswell it couldbeusedtodescribethespecificityofSouthAfricanracialorder.Itproved production. Hebroughttolifethisratherarcaneconceptualizationbyshowinghow understanding ofSouthAfrica. South Africa:FromSegregationtoApartheid’,whichhelpedtransformour We beginwithWolpe’sclassicpaper,‘CapitalismandCheapLabour-Powerin II: Liberation:ModesofProduction,theState&ClassAnalysis praxis statementforcontemporarySouthAfricainthefinalpart. attempt inthenexttwopartsofthispaper,beforeassessingrelevance1985 interrogation ofhiswork,firstinexileandthenSouthAfrica.ThisiswhatI Reconstructing Wolpe’svisionfortoday’sworldrequires,asafirststep,thecareful class, soWolpeleftuswithtantalizinghintsastowherehistheorizingwasheading. Just asMarxleftthisworldhewasabouttoembarkonhisall-importanttheoryof ReviewofAfricanPoliticalEconomy 662 and freelabour, dwelt neitherontheracialdivisionoflabournordistinctionbetweenforced here againhelocateshimselfagainsttwoopposedalternatives:hiseconomicturn segregation butreflectedthetransformationofunderlyingeconomicorder.But and capitalism,insistingthatapartheidwasnotsimplythedeepeningof Wolpe developsamorecontingentunderstandingoftherelationbetweenracism capitalism downwithit. against apartheid,andeitherimmediatelyorinasecondstage,bringSouthAfrican political prioritytotheNationalLiberationstrugglethatwouldmobilizeAfricans superstructure fetteringthespontaneousdevelopmentofcapitalism.Thisgave over black–trumpallothers.TheSACPdefinedSouthAfricaasanarchaiccolonial similar way,namelyasasocietyinwhichracialdivisions–thedominationofwhite plural societyheldtogetherbycoercion.ParadoxicallybothassessSouthAfricaina model andthemoreconventionalsociologicalliteraturethatsawSouthAfricaasa hand theliteratureofSouthAfricanCommunistPartywithitsinternalcolonial 15 butonthearticulationofcapitalistandpre-capitalistmodes 14 13 Herehetakesissuewithtwoliteratures:ontheone Segregation 12 whenthe Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 four –influencedbyoneoftheiconsMarxiststructuralism,NicosPoulantzas. This wasthepointofdepartureforagroupyoungMarxists–knownasgang comprehended andenforceditscommoninterests? individual competingcapitalistssprungacoordinatedrulingclassthatmagically unified capitalistclass.Butthatassumedawaytheproblem.Howwasitoutof the SouthAfricastatewasregardedasaspeciesoffascismcreatedbyandfor class. AndindeedsuchcrudeviewswereoftenfoundintheSACPliteraturewherein response ofMarxismhasalwaysbeenthatthestateisaninstrumentcapitalist this animalactingofitsownaccordoratthebehestamaster?Thekneejerk power? Howwasitthatunderstoodwhattodoandhadthecapacityit?Was always managedtocreatetheconditionsforreproductionofcheaplabour function! Buthowwasitthatthestatesoeffectivelyandseeminglymiraculously labour. Itdidwhatithadtodo–maintaincheaplabourpowerbecausethatwasits state. Intheoriginalformulation,statewasamerereflectionofneedforcheap on themechanismsofreproductioncheaplabourturnedhisattentionto cannot explorehere.RatherIwillfollowthelogicofWolpe’sownwritings.Focusing for anewresearchprogramintothestudyofSouthAfrica,extentwhichI ‘Capitalism andCheapLabour-PowerinSouthAfrica’becameafoundationstone as theywereofficiallycalled,Bantustans–satrapiesforasmallAfricanelite. regulated urbanresidence,andturnedthereservesintodependenthomelands,or, elaborate politicalandideologicaledificethatoutlawedAfricanorganizations, not throughthereproductionofpre-capitalistmodesproductionbutan latter solution– Afrikaner farmers–wouldshoreuptheracialorderwithintensifiedrepression.The monopolized bythewhitelabouraristocracyorlatter-combiningwith will ofitsown! being aninstrumentof the hegemonicfractionitsuddenlybecomesa subjectwitha given upforonethatstresses theautonomyorpotentialof the state.From are introducedagainst the willofminingcapital,theninstrumentalist positionis in oppositiontothesupposedly reigningfractionofcapital,e.g.when colourbars indeed theforcebehindlegislation.Alternatively, whenthestatedoessomething the instrumentofminingcapitalwithoutever showingthatminingcapitalwas fraction ofcapitalthatbenefits,sayminingcapital, andconcludesthatthestateis tend toworkbackfromsomegivenpolicy,say passlawsandinfluxcontrol,tothe is nottautologicalittoooftenlapsesintoitsopposite. Thatistosayinstrumentalists The troublewiththeinstrumentalistviewof state,Wolpeargued,isthatwhenit instrument ofsomehegemonicfraction. assumed preciselywhathadtobedemonstrated, namelythatthestatewasindeedan identifying thehegemonicfractionbypolicies thestatepursuedPoulantzians hegemonic fractionthatwieldedthestateingeneralinterestofcapitalism.In major advancetobreakupthedominantclassintoitsdifferentfractions,stillitwas and second,forperpetuatingan‘instrumentalist’viewofthestate. to task,first,forneglectingthefundamentalcontradictionbetweencapitalandlabour the dominantclass.WhilenotdiscountingthisapproachaltogetherWolpetookthem succession ofdifferentpowerblocs,handingtheinitiativeforchangetoforceswithin a seriesofessaysandbooksthePoulantziansperiodizedSouthAfricacapitalismas which onefraction–thehegemoniccomestorepresentinterestsofall.In capital, etc.inthecaseofSouthAfrica)thatbecomeorganizedintoa‘powerbloc’ of classfractions(miningcapital,manufacturinglandowners,merchant argued, followingPoulantzas,thatthedominantclassincapitalistsocietyismadeup rmLbrto oRcntuto:Ter rciei h ieo aodWle 663 From LiberationtoReconstruction:Theory&PracticeintheLifeofHaroldWolpe Apartheid –wonthedayandcheapAfricanlabourwasperpetuated 17 Althoughitwasa 16 They Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 capital intensivityofindustry calledforskilledblackstomoveintopositions vacated restructures therelation betweenclassandrace.Theconcentration and increasing Thus, intheanalysisof thethirdperiodWolpefocusesonway theeconomy class formation production, thenthethird contribution,towhichwecome creating newpoliticalpossibilitiesasitsustains (ornot)thatarticulationofmodes the ApartheidState This isallveryabstractbutWolpetriestomakeitconcreteinhisbook, effects. an externalobjecttobeconquered,butashavingaspecificstructurewith in civilsociety.Wolperefocusesthedebateontonatureofstate,viewednotas not onlyinternalstrugglesonitsownterrainbutalsoinfluencesexternal subject norobjectbutaterrainofstruggle.Thestructurethestate,therefore,shapes comes awaywithhispreferredtheory:thestateisa much contestation.ThetwoopposedperspectivescanceleachotheroutandWolpe contradictory apparatusesbetweenwhich,withinandoverwhichthereis suffer fromtheassumptionthatstateisaunifiedorganwhereasitmadeupof tives: thestateasanobject(instrument)andsubject(autonomy).Both Here then,onceagain,Wolpeconstructsadebatebetweentwoopposedperspec- ReviewofAfricanPoliticalEconomy 664 second contributionwastoforegroundthe changing that underlayapartheid,is,the To recapitulate:ifWolpe’sfirstcontributionwas toidentifytheeconomicstructure democratic movementwhichwasalsobeingfueled bychangesintheeconomy. reforms wereafacade,Wolpeinsistedthat theyopenedspacesforthemass autonomy forBantustans,tricamerallegislature. Whilemanymaintainedthatthese reforms –recognitionoftradeunions,representative bodiesinurbanareas,greater as tothemilitaryandsecurityforces.Alongwithmilitarizationcameaseriesof substantially stronger:thegovernmentarrogatedgreaterpowerbothtoitselfaswell Certainly, asWolpeclaims,thestateisnotweaker.Ifanythingithasbecome communities andschools.Howarewetoexplainthesenewdevelopments? 1973 withtheDurbanstrikes,andBlackConsciousnessMovementin The thirdperiod,whichWolpecallsthe‘riseofinsurrectionarystruggles’,beginsin virtually allpossibilitiesofreform. with declarationsofemergency,enhancingitspolicepowersandclosingdown movements wentundergroundandturnedtoarmedstruggle.Thestateresponded destroyed, organizationswerebannedandactivistsimprisoned.Theliberation the ruleoflaw,andextra-parliamentarypoliticalterrainwassystematically The secondperiod,from1960to1973,sawtheabandonmentofevenpretence nevertheless continuedtoexpand,culminatingintheSharpevillemassacreof1960. Even thoughspacesforpoliticalactionwereincreasinglyrestricted,massstruggles became increasinglysubordinatedtotheexecutivethroughparliamentaryedicts. In thefirstperiod,1948-1960,judiciary,althoughnominallyindependent, state andtheireffectsonpatternsofstruggle. seeks todistinguishthreeperiods ity betweensegregationandapartheidonthebasisofeconomicchange,sonowhe society andtheworkplace.JustasWolpe’searlierworkhighlighteddiscontinu- judiciary, thelegislature,executive,andmilitary,aswelloutsidestateincivil limits onstrugglesbothitsownterrain,especiallywithinandamongthe , viewedasthecombined effectofeconomicandpoliticalstructures. . 18 Itsmajorthesisisthatthestatecreatesopportunitiesandsets within theeraofapartheid (re)articulation ofmodesproduction formofstate contradictory unity onthebasisofforms now, washisanalysisof thatisalways Race, Classand , andifhis , neither Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 Africa ascolonialismof aspecialtype,thesuperimpositionofanadvanced white Wolpe startsoutwith the analysisofSACPandANC,their viewofSouth lies hismistakenconclusion? Letusgooverhisargument. compromise theirsupposed interestsandenteranegotiatedsettlement? Wherein How wasitthatfouryearslaterbothgovernment andoppositionwerepreparedto reforms, therefore,wouldbetoolimitedtoacceptable. unlikely becauseitsmilitaryweaknesswouldlimitbargainingpowerandthe From thesideofliberationmovementanegotiatedsettlementseemedequally apartheid regimetoconcedemajorityrulewouldbetantamountpoliticalsuicide. and Britain,fromlarge-scalecapitalfor‘constructiveengagement’,the compromise? Thistooseemedunlikely.AlthoughtherewaspressurefromtheUS internationally. Amilitarysolutionwasoutofthequestion.Sowhatanegotiated only withinitsownterritorybutalsointheSouthernAfricanregionasawholeand parliamentary terrainasithaddoneinthe1960s–facedgreateroppositionnot of power,anorganiccrisis.Thestatenolongerhadthecapacitytodestroyextra- thereby openupnewpoliticalspaces.SouthAfricasoonfacedanunstablebalance contain opposition,theeffectwasopposite,namelytogalvanizestrugglesand intensified, sothestateadoptedadualstrategyofrepressionandreform.Intendedto then. Asthesocialforcesaroundapartheidwererefashioned,andpopularstruggles finishing So howdidWolpeseethefutureofSouthAfricainFebruary1987,whenhewas increased insiders’ werebettereducatedandhaddeeperrootsinthecity,whichthereforemeant by outwardlymobilewhites.Ascomparedtothemigrantworkers,these‘urban time economicchangesreconfigured administrative apparatuses. a growinginterestinapartheid’sracialsegregationofconsumermarketsand petit bourgeoisieinthecitiesandbureaucraticofBantustans-alsohad bourgeoisie’ intheBantustans.Wolpewarned,however,thattheseclasses–black bourgeoisie, growinginthetowns,andconsolidationofablack‘bureaucratic and thewhitepetitbourgeoisiealsowaned.Theyweredisplacedbyablack capital’s oppositiontoapartheidstiffened,supportforfromwhiteworkers not onlyproducemorebutalsoconsumeonabiggerscale!Atthesametimethatas larger fractionsofcapitaldependedonawiderandmorestablelabourforcethatwould edented growthinmanufacturingandservicesectorsovertookmining,sothatever- organisations ofthepeople. the workingclassandfullinvolvementofdemocratic tradeunionsandthemass direction dependspre-eminentlyonthedevelopmentof structures of‘peoples’power’basedon unable toundertake.Itisimplicitthatthetransformation ofSouthAfricansocietyinthis health andsoforthinfavouroftheblackpeople,which evenareformedcapitalismwouldbe redistribution and(c)themassiveofresources ineducation,welfare,housing, finance; (b)therapidremovalofextremeinequalities inaccesstolandthroughitsradical a degreeofcontroloverthemajoreconomicresources inagriculture,industry,miningand of SouthAfricaneconomy,inordertoensurethatanon-racialdemocraticregimecanexercise (a) thedismantlingofgiantcorporationswhichnowexercisedecisivepoweroverallsectors Freedom Charter.Whatisinvolved, together withsomedegreeofredistributiontheeconomicresourcesasoutlinedin the establishmentofaunitarydemocraticpoliticalsystembasedononepersonvote, What iscommontomassdemocraticoppositionthedemandfordismantlingofapartheidand rmLbrto oRcntuto:Ter rciei h ieo aodWle 665 From LiberationtoReconstruction:Theory&PracticeintheLifeofHaroldWolpe Race, ClassandtheApartheidState class capacity ofthemostunambiguousopponentsapartheid.Atsame 20 (emphasisadded.) 19 as aminimum class interests ? Thisishowheassessedtheconjuncture , overandabovethepoliticaldemandsis: withinthewhitesociety.Unprec- 21 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 even thoughtheleadershipwasunderground,inexileorprison? the basisoflivedexperienceclass,couldbeshapedbyANCandSACP, liberation movement?Ordidheindeedbelievethattheconsciousness,emergingon to divergentinterests?Wasitthathesimplywishedpreservetheunityof Why didWolperemainwithaunitedfrontstrategy,whenhisanalysiswaspointing ground tozero. road weretakenthen,accordingtoFanon,hopesforasocialistwouldbe vied witheachotherwithinthedecolonizationstruggle.Ifnationalbourgeois Frantz Fanonsaw:twoverydifferent,opposedprojectsthatexistedsidebyside, be thefirststageandsocialistrevolutionsecondstage.Hedidn’tseewhat term andlongtermsinterestssothattheNationalDemocraticRevolutionwould project fromthenationalbourgeoisproject.Atmosthesawthisasaclashofshort his classconvictions,however,andcouldnotimagineseparatingthesocialist leading todivergentvisionsofapost-apartheidorder.Hedidnothavethecourage within eachracethattransformedtheirinterestsintheapartheidordernecessarily primacy ofracialdivisions,focusingthesubterraneanshiftsinclassalignments culminating in society overanexploitedanddominatedblacksociety.Throughaseriesofarticles ReviewofAfricanPoliticalEconomy 666 classes. lived experienceheldbytheparticipants,whetherofdominantorsubordinate but itneverthelessfacesitsownbarrierswhenstopsshortoftheexamination Wolpe hasamplydemonstratedthatonecangetquitefarwithstructuralanalysis, own, justasitisnowarrantforleavinginthehandsofliberationmovement. sedimentations ofearlierstruggles.Thisisnoargumentforstudyingideologyonits including butnotexclusivelythoseoftheliberationmovement,aswellby class consciousnessareshapedbyavarietyoforganizationsincivilsociety, it simplyamatterofreadingideologyofffromclassposition.Classinterestsand conditions thatsetlimitsonsubjectivepossibilities.Theyneedtobestudied!Noris classes aswellthoseofthesubordinatearethemselvesobjective point ofdeparture,Wolpemusthaverecognizedthattheideologydominant internal divisions?Asatheoreticianwhotakestheprioritiesofmovementas leadership asaproductoftheirstructuralcircumstances,andtheneedtodeny the unityclaimsoforgansmassmobilization?Ordidhesee of resources,andmuch lesstothesocialisttransformationofproperty relations. divisions randeepbut neither sidepaidmuchattentiontotheradical redistribution militancy clashedwith the morecautioustradeunionismofshops stewards.The the township.Migrant workers organizedthemselvesintostrikecommittees whose migrant workerswholivedinhostelsandthe more urbanizedworkerswholivedin also foundthattheworkingclasswasitself dividedintotwoopposedgroups: and toremoveracismfromrelationsbetween workers andmanagement.VonHoldt apartheid workplaceregime,strugglestoimprove wagesandworkingconditions, struggles herecountsareunequivocallyagainst theracialdespotismof ethnography ofworkeroppositiontoapartheid atHighveldSteel. of socialistconsciousness.TakeKarlvon Holdt’s, In studiesoflivedexperiencethathavebeenundertaken thereisnotmuchevidence apartheid toassessitslikelytrajectoryinpost-apartheid SouthAfrica. is nonethelessimportanttounderstandtheideologicalcontentofopposition would haveanticipatedtheclandestinemovetowardanegotiatedtransition.Butit conjuncture anditismorethanlikelythatnoamountofstudieslivedexperience 23 TobefairtoWolpe,consciousnesscanchangequiterapidlywiththe Race, ClassandtheApartheidState heinterrogatesthisviewofthe Transition fromBelow 22 Didhebelieve 24 First,the , an Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 also opposed theMarxistviewthat educationmerelyreflects andreproduces the corporations whopoured moneyintothereformofeducation.On otherhand,he will solveSouthAfrica’s problems–aviewheldbywell-meaning liberals andby autonomy. Thatis,heopposed thepositionthatholdseducationtobe apanaceathat view ofeducationassubject withfullautonomyandeducationas object withno parallel tothestancehetookwithrespecttheories ofthestate–rejectingboth within education.Onceagain,hetakesastance betweentwoopposedpositions, With hiseyeonthefutureWolpefocused possibilitiescreatedbythestruggles groundwork fortheuprisinghadbeenlaidlong before. uprising was,ofcourse,theimpositioninstruction inAfrikaanslanguage,butthe and oppositionalideologycoulddevelop.The precipitatingfactorintheSoweto closed downandschoolsweretheonlyarena leftwithinwhichpoliticaldiscussion – Wolpesimplysaidthatallotherarenasofextra-parliamentary strugglehadbeen been fermentationonalessdramaticscalefor numberofyearsalloverSouthAfrica function provedveryeffective.Inexplainingtherebellioninschools–andtherehad expanding needforskilledworkers.Neithertheideologicalnortraining of theAfricanpopulationandatsametimeprovideforindustry’sever of secondaryeducationinthe1960s,designedtowinoverpoliticallylargesections documented thedevelopmentofBantueducation,inparticularrapidexpansion to produceadeepeningclassapartheidincontemporarySouthAfrica. merged withclassdivisionswithinracialgroups–soacutelyanalyzedbyWolpe The limitedsocialistconsciousnessoftheANCandAfricanworkingclasshas and peasantquestiontoasecondaryconcern. have hadmoreappealtoadispossessedpeasantry.ButtheANCrelegatedland 1976. to understandthecontextandconsequencesofSowetoSchoolUprising education forapost-apartheidSouthAfrica.Papersbegantoappearin1988,trying Western Cape.Fromthebeginningitwasacollaborativeproject,focusedon South Africa(RESA) Already in1985Wolpehadbeguntoworkonaprojectcalled Research onEducationinSouthAfrica expedition wastakinghim. his parallelworkonSouthAfricaneducationtodiscoverwherethetheoretical and thebalanceofclassforcesaresuggestivebutunelaborated.Weneedtoturn ends upasawalkinthefoothills.Wolpe’sclaimsaboutperiodisationofstate theory. Itisanextensivepreparationforamajormountaineeringexpeditionthat arguments whosesignificancemightbelostonanyonenotsteepedinMarxist Race, ClassandtheApartheidState III: Reconstruction:EducationforaNewSouthAfrica apartheid. class consciousnessasacollectiveidentitydefinedbythecommonenemy– drawing attentiontotheconvergenceofcommunityandlabourstruggles,portrays Seidman’s comparisonofworkers’movementsinBrazilandSouthAfrica,while demands werelimitedtoderacializationandmajorityrule.Similarly,Gay how muchtheyhadtolose.Militantthoughmayhavebeen,theirpolitical population, yetstillitismorethanlikelyworkingclassradicalismwastamedby They maynotbeFanon’smost‘pampered’and‘privileged’sectionofthecolonized 26 OfthecausesofuprisingWolpehadanumberideas.First,he rmLbrto oRcntuto:Ter rciei h ieo aodWle 667 From LiberationtoReconstruction:Theory&PracticeintheLifeofHaroldWolpe 25 ItdidnotextendtothedemandsofFreedomCharter,whichmight thatwouldlaterturnintotheresearchhedidatUniversityof isnotaneasyread.Itaseriesofratherdense Research onEducationin Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 society. personnel wouldtakeprecedenceovereducation’sroleinthetransformationof transition wasloomingWolpefearedthatservicingtheeconomywithskilled corporations whichwereconcernedonlywithupgradingskills.Asthenegotiated People’s educationwasverydifferentfromtheproposalsofgovernmentand itself, totheliberationmovement. for theendofapartheidbutcouldbeginnowbyconnecting,notsubordinating with thecapacitytorealizetheirpotential.People’seducationdidnothavewait competitive individualismwithcollectiveorganization,thatwouldequippeople of apartheidandallitsoppressionsinequalities,thatwouldcounter schooling thatwouldeliminateignoranceandilliteracy,cultivateanunderstanding both boycottandreformhedefendstheongoingstrugglefor‘people’seducation’–a and itsrelationtotheexistingorderiscontingentonbalanceofforces.Against education later!’Wolpe,bycontrastarguedthatisacontradictoryterrain to thisviewschoolsshouldbeboycottedunderthemantra‘liberationfirst, the strugglesineducationtothoseofliberationmovementasawhole.According inequalities ofclassandracialorders–aviewheldbythosewhowouldsubordinate ReviewofAfricanPoliticalEconomy 668 the state. undertook oncehereturned toSouthAfrica–researchthatwouldbeon theterrainof outside thestate,and in thatsensewereverydifferentfromthepolicy workhe important formyargumenthereisthatthese writingsatRESAvalidatedstruggles legislator, anissuetowhichIwillreturnin the conclusionofthispaper.Whatis calls foranaltogetherdifferenttypeofintellectual, aninterpreterratherthana civil society,however,itishardtoleavethestudy of‘consciousness’totheparty!It reform ofeducationforupgradingthelabour force).Onceoneenterstheterrainof liberation first)orsuccumbingtoaWarof Position fromabove(expansionand winning statepower,warningagainstaWar of Movement(boycotteducationand Gramscian argumentforaWarofPositionthat wouldrestructurecivilsociety Although henevermentionsAntonioGramsci, nonethelessheisnowmakingthe preparatory andcriticaltothetransitionademocraticSouthAfrica. to dualpower,andtheimportanceofbuildingalternativeformseducationas endorsed aLenistseizureofstatepower,nowinhisanalysisschoolingherefers forces ratherthanthelocusofprefigurativepolitics.Inshort,whereasbeforehehad parliamentary terrain.Civilsociety,ifitappearedatall,wasthecrucibleofclass his writingsonthestatehespokeofappearance/dissolutionextra- of statepower,’butthemeaning‘winningpower’wasnotinterrogated.In of 1985hewrotethatthe‘fundamentalobjectivepoliticalstruggleiswinning apartheid transitionandtheprioritiesofliberationmovement.Inhispraxispiece his theorizingofthestate,butalsoshiftinWolpe’sperspectiveonpost- Before turningtohisworkatEPUitisimportantnotenotonlytheparallelswith Africa in1991. His premonitionswereonthemark,ashewoulddiscoverwhenreturnedtoSouth be edgedtowardsperformingapredominantlyreproductiveratherthantransformativerole. question ofrestructuringthesocialandinstitutionalorder,threatenstoalloweducation this, ontheonehand,withaprogrammeofpeople’seducationand,other Preoccupation withthequestionofprovisioneducationandskillingwhichfailstolink before 27 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 was increasing asstudentspoured intotheHBUs.South Africa wasfacedwith the necessary wasmuchgreater fortheHBUsthanHWUs,andit wasagapthat research facilities–still thedeficitbetweenresourcesofferedand theresources academic functionwith facultiesofsciences,professionalschools and extensive vocational function,largely intheartsandhumanities,while HWUs hadan Even ifoneacceptedthebifurcationofhigher education–withHBUslimitedtoa new SouthAfrica. functions underapartheidandboth,therefore, hadtoberadicallytransformedinthe argued thatbothbranchesweretheproductof apartheid,thatbothhadtheirdistinct while theHBUsweredistortedcreaturesofapartheid. Wolpeandhiscollaborators as againstthosewhoclaimedthattheHWUs representedthenewSouthAfrica who claimedthatHBUsreceivedasmuchifnot moresubsidiesthanHWUsaswell In hismostthoroughanalysisofthelegacies of apartheidhearguedagainstthose mission ofeducationwouldbereducedtoafootnote. be overloaded.Inpursuitofshorttermobjectiveshefearedthatthetransformative development andeducationforequity,insistingthatneithersideofthescalescould between them.Hewrestledwiththetensioneducationforeconomic historically blackuniversities(HBUs),throwinguphugebarrierstomobility deepening dividebetweenthehistoricallywhiteuniversities(HWUs)and education woulddissolveintoitsmanyparts,withharmfuleffects,notleasta tion ofhighereducation.Therewasadangerthattheapartheidsystem dispensation. Withoutanoveralldevelopmentplantherecouldbenoreconstruc- He setaboutdefiningtheparametersofhighereducationinnewdemocratic suburbs –butbythesametokeninstitutionsofyesterdayhadapowerfulinertia. although violencecontinuedinthetownshipsjustasfortresseswerebuilt struggling inhisnewrole.Thetransitionitselfwasrealenoughandpeaceful– Reading thepapersthatcameoutofEPUoneseesWolpe,notsurprisingly, collaborators andhehadtodelveintonewprojects. little timetoadjust.Hehadsetupanewcentreincountrywithmainly corresponding lossofsocialistvision.Thingsweremovingquicklyandtherewas reconstruction; andfourththecollapseofSovietUnionmovement’s critic oftheliberationmovementtoservinganewgovernmentnational shift inintellectualorientationfromtheoristtopractitioner,engagedandloyal the transformationofSouthAfricathathehadlastseennearly30yearsago;third,a transplantation fromonecontinenttoanotherforfamilyaswellhimself;second, accept Gerwel’soffer.Yetitdidimmersehiminabewilderingquadrupletransition: AnnMarie Wolpe’s beacon ofoppositiontoapartheid. comfortable positionatoneofthe‘historicallywhiteuniversities,’buthechosethis declaring UWC‘anintellectualhomefortheleft.’Wolpecouldhavetakenamore own inauguraladdressof1987,wasevenmoreforcefulinitsdefianceapartheid, to theadvancementofThirdWorldcommunitiesSouthernAfrica.Gerwel’s had adoptedanoppositionalMissionStatementthatforegroundeditscommitment Unit. Createdasauniversityforcolouredstudentsin1959,early1982UWC insistent, urgingWolpetotakeRESAUWCandtherecreateanEducationPolicy Chancellor andRectorattheUniversityofWesternCape,whosevoicewasmost and thephonestartedringingfromSouthAfrica,itwasJakesGerwel,thenVice- When amnestyformembersoftheoppositionwasannouncedFebruary1990, Education PolicyUnit rmLbrto oRcntuto:Ter rciei h ieo aodWle 669 From LiberationtoReconstruction:Theory&PracticeintheLifeofHaroldWolpe 28 The LongWayHome suggeststhatitwasnothardforWolpeto Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 was pessimisticthatpastinjusticescouldbereversed. an urbanorintellectualinfrastructure.WithoutoveralldevelopmentplanWolpe apartheid order,suchastheremotegeographicallocationofHBUsinareaswithout interests, backedupbyideologyofuniversityautonomy,andbuilt-infeaturesthe the maldistributionofresources.Theobstaclestochangewerenotsimplyvested frightening prospectthathighereducationwasdeepeningratherthanredressing ReviewofAfricanPoliticalEconomy 670 the NewSouthAfricait wouldhavetobecreated. autonomy oftheintellectual. InEnglandthatautonomyhadbeenassured, nowin least, fortheforcesofsocial justice.Oncemorehewasinsistingonthe institutional apartheid statewas,or, ifitwascontradictory,thenhowdifficult toexploit,at In short,hisworkineducationledhimtoquestion justhowcontradictorythepost- work. outside thecoreinstitutionsofstatecouldintellectuals beeffectiveintheirpolicy independent centresofcriticalthinkingoutside thestate.Onlyfromastrongbase the stateforcriticalwork,Wolpeseemedtobe arguing, thenitwasimportanttoform function, legitimatingpolicieshewantedtoquestion. Iftherewasnospacewithin He foundhimself,however,continuallybeing forcedbackintoamoreideological Government ofNationalUnityaspointdeparture andtotheninterrogatethem. Wolpe hadbeentryingtoactualizehisfirstprinciple,taketheprioritiesof should setupitsowncentresforcriticalthinking. accordance withwhichhighereducationcanbereorganized,thentheuniversity can’t provideasatisfactoryprogrammaticforsocialtransformation,frameworkin his lasttestament.InitheproposedanInstituteforSocialtheory!Ifthegovernment This wasWolpe’slastpublishedstatementontheuniversity,youmightsayit between trainingintechnicalskillsandsocialtransformation. view ofeducation:fromthetensionbetweendevelopmentandequityto the theoryandpracticeofreconstruction.Therewasasubtleshiftemphasisinhis apartheid state,andbeganlookingforspacesincivilsocietyfromwhichtoengage university. IthinkWolpebecamelesssanguineaboutthespaceswithinpost- despair thatledWolpeinhislastwritingstoemphasizethecriticalroleof Perhaps itwasfrustrationattheabsenceofadevelopmentplanandfeeling (emphasis added) UWC’s redefinedmissiontoestablish,forexample,an consistent withUWCstraditions.Itwouldbefullyconsonantthisinterpretationof theoretical issuesaboutcontinuoussocialtransformation technical knowledge.…Thetaskof the otherputsinquestionsocialrelationswhicharebeingorintendedtobeservedby leaves unquestionedtheextantsocialrelationsand,hence,purposesoftechnique; The differencebetweenthetwoapproachesisthatonerestsonatechnicalrationalitywhich appropriate policiesofeducationandtraining. needed isthepreparationofdemocraticallyreacheddevelopmentstrategiesand,withinthese, serve tohelpreproducepowerfullyentrenchedstructuresgeneratedbyapartheid.Whatis contribute onlytoahighlylimiteddegreeprocessofsocialtransformationand,indeed,may policies tobeadvanced.Aconsequenceofthisisthateducationandtrainingprogrammesmay coherent developmentstrategies,thereisastrongtendencyforadhoceducationandtraining My centralconcernhasbeentohighlightthefactthat,indifferentways,absenceof continuous critiqueofthesocialorderand 30 32 Institute forSocialTheory 29 Asearlyas1991hewrote: isacompellingoneand . 31 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 what maybeunfeasible, yetimaginable. not onlyamatterofexamining whatisfeasibleinanygivenhistorical momentbut rhetoric ofRDP,Wolpe wasabletoraisethequestionofsocialistalternatives. Itwas reports. Byfocusingon thecapitalistcharacterofSouthAfrica,mystified bythe up theimaginationto different possiblefuturesthatareoff-limits to government the intellectualnowbecomes‘thecontinuous critiqueofthesocialorder,’opening the endsthemselves,tostimulatedebateabout thegoalsofsociety.Amajortask realizing agivenendinanyhistoricalconjuncture, thepurposenowwastoexpose Rather thandeterminetheappropriatemeans for agivengoal,orthepossibilities the government’sReconstructionandDevelopmentProgram(RDP). Wolpe gaveexpressiontohisdoubtsinoneoflastpapers–interrogation priorities theywereandwhatinterestsconcealed. depart fromthegovernment’sprioritiesheinevitablyraisedquestionsaboutwhose principles butnoattempttoanalyzethesocialforcesatwork.Butashebegan documents writtenfortheEPU.Therewerefigures,tendencies,conditions, continued toduckthequestionofconsciousnesswhichfindsnotracein government wereincreasinglynothisown.Asregardsthesecondprinciple,Wolpe and equityinhighereducationbutitwasbecomingclearthattheprioritiesof Unity’s platformashispointofdeparture.Hewroteaboutthedilemmasquality that hehadbeguninEngland.Asbestcould,tooktheGovernmentofNational obvious hewouldservetheANCinpower,continuingpolicyworkeducation reconstruction. Byforceofcircumstanceandbypoliticalcommitment,itwas He continuedhiscommitmenttothesesametwoprinciplesintotheperiodof corrective tothosewhoonlyfocusonthesubjectiveanddiscursive. without consideringconsciousnessandinsodoingWolpeofferedapowerful alliances thatmightdevelop.Still,hedemonstratedonecantravelalongway with structureevenwhenitlefthimhelplesstoassessthecompromisesandclass Africa. Similarlyhedidnotentertainthestudyofconsciousness.Tolaststuck accentuate thecontradictionsbetweendifferentclassprojectsforpost-apartheidSouth national andsocialistagendas.Intheendhesoughttopreserveunityratherthan perilously closetoabandoningthem,especiallywithrespecttherelationbetween 1985. Hetooktheprioritiesofliberationmovementaspointdeparturebutcame In engagingwiththeliberationmovementWolpefollowedguidelineshelaidoutin IV: FromLegislatorstoInterpreters system inSouthAfrica.’ does notputinissue,’Wolpewrites,‘isthequestion ofthecontinuitycapitalist privatization wasrearingitshead,trumping publicownership.‘[W]hattheRDP the table,inparticularintroductionof socialist propertyrelations.Instead and clashingpriorities.Indeed,certainprioritieshadbeenexplicitlyremovedfrom presented aspuriouspictureofconsensusandunity,obscuringcontradictoryforces especially inthelightofsunsetclausesthatprotectedwhitecivilservants.TheRDP between classesandraces,withinthestatedifferentagencies, become meaningless.TheRDPpaperedoverconflictsofinterestincivilsociety the GovernmentofNationalUnitywereelusiveandvaguesothatstrategieshad one strategywasmoreappropriatethananother,nowhearguedthattheprioritiesof was thetaken-for-grantedprioritiesofliberationmovementandwhy,therefore, document, publishedexactlyadecadeearlier.If,inthepast,hispointofdeparture long wayhome.Moresignificantly,ittookamajorturnawayfromthe1985praxis ‘coming outasacriticaltheorist,’orratherhisreturnfrominternalexile,own rmLbrto oRcntuto:Ter rciei h ieo aodWle 671 From LiberationtoReconstruction:Theory&PracticeintheLifeofHaroldWolpe 34 33 Thiswashis Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 as-legislator, whileidentifying In short,wehavetwotypesofintellectuals,which,followingZygmuntBauman, future. those imaginaryalternativesthatfuelthecriticalmindandgivehopeforabetter the educatortoohastobeeducated,discoveringinlivedexperienceofothers autonomous actors.Itisnotsimplyamatteroftheintellectualasspokesperson,but interests, andmostgenerallytobringthemintocivilsocietyasfullyresponsible whether tobringpublicsintobeing,helparticulateidentities,pursuetheir indirectly orvirtuallyconnected.Todaythereisnolessaneedforpublicsociology, in thestrugglesagainstapartheid.ItisatraditiontowhichWolpeexilewasatbest experiences –literatureaswellapublicsociologythatflourished,particularly, long traditioninSouthAfrica,aofsocialcommentarybasedonlived develop organiclinkswithdifferentgroups,classesinsociety.Heretoothereisa substitute itsinterestsforthoseofthepeopleitrepresents.Intellectualsneedto consciousness cannotbelefttothepartyinpowerwhenitismorethanlikely scientist notonlyengageswithendsbutalsopublics.Theinvestigationof reconstruction, butthereisasecondonethatfollowsfromthefirst.Thesocial Challenging officialideologyisoneimportantintellectualtaskintheperiodof ReviewofAfricanPoliticalEconomy 672 they mustreturn tothebarracks belegislators–focusing ontrainingandpolicy an effectiveinterpreter role inthetrenchesofcivilsocietyduringliberation, butnow apartheid state,however, seemedtotaketheoppositeview:intellectuals hadplayed position ofFrantzFanon, forexample.Thedirectorsandspokespersons ofthepost- whereas buildinganew SouthAfricaprioritizesaWarofPosition. Thatwasthe argue, thatthestruggleagainstapartheidplaces WarofMovementattheforefront periods –onewilldominatebutnevertotheexclusion oftheother.Thus,onemight combination ofthetwomodespolitical transformation willvaryinthetwo period, therefore,callsforbothlegislatorsand interpreters.Tobesure,thespecific as-interpreter. EachperiodcallforbothWarof MovementandWarofPosition;each It wouldbewrongtoidentify the state-drivenreconstructionofSouthAfrica. implicated intheWarofMovementfirsttodissolve theapartheidstateandthenin removed fromSouthAfricanpublics.Perhapsitwasbecausehesodeeply intellectual-as-legislator. Perhapsthiswasbecauseheinexileandtherefore Cape. However,heneverdistinguishedtheintellectual-as-interpreterfrom Soweto uprising,anditreappearsinhislastvisionoftheUniversityWestern an intellectualinhisaccountofthemovementforpeople’seducationfollowing with publicsandtorecomposetheinstitutionsofcivilsociety.Wolpehintedatsuch as wellsuppressingclassinequality;itcallsonintellectualstoengagedirectly will galvanizeanationalpopulararoundsocialjusticeforallracesandgenders moral andpoliticalorder.Itcallsforanimaginativeconstructionofideologythat a verydifferenttypeofintellectual,theinterpreter,whoisconcernedtocreatenew On theotherhand,WarofPosition-reconstitutioncivilsociety–callsfor Movement. praxis statementisamanifestoforintellectualaslegislator.ItpresumesWarof that thesocialscientistcansupportprojectsofpoliticalorgan.Wolpe’s1985 of partyorstate,discernsthepossibilitieswithinanygivenstructuralcontext,so the post-apartheidperiod–intellectual-as-legislatorengageswithpriorities winning statepowerunderapartheidordesigningandimplementingpolicyin of transformation:WarMovementandPosition.In– we cancall‘legislators’and‘interpreters,’correspondingtotwodivergentstrategies liberation reconstruction withWarofMovementandtheintellectual- with WarofPositionandintellectual- 35 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 revolutionary impetus,which inturnledhimtoanalyzepoliticstermsofastruggle forhegemony revolution intheWestmore generally,Gramscifocusedontheroleofcivilsociety inabsorbing 10. Ashereflectedfromprison onthefailureofItalianfactorycouncilmovement andof Critique ofPoliticalEconomy forces ofproductionandthe relationsofproduction.’KarlMarx,Prefaceto be explainedfromthecontradictionsofmateriallife, from theconflictexistingbetweensocial such aperiodoftransformationbyitsconsciousness,but, onthecontrary,thisconsciousnessmust out. Justasonedoesnotjudgeanindividualbywhathe thinksabouthimself,soonecannotjudge philosophic –inshort,ideologicalformswhichmen becomeconsciousofthisconflictandfightit determined withtheprecisionofnaturalscience,and thelegal,political,religious,artisticor between thematerialtransformationofeconomic conditionsofproduction,whichcanbe 9. ‘Instudyingsuchtransformations[socialrevolutions] itisalwaysnecessarytodistinguish 8. Ibid.,p.77 7. Ibid.,p.76 6. Ibid.,p.76. 5. Ibid.,p.77 4. Ibid.,p.75. (April, 1985):72-78.IwillrefertothisasWolpe’s1985praxisstatement. 3. HaroldWolpe,‘TheLiberationStruggleandResearch’, Wolpe MemorialTrust,OldAssemblyHallatParliament,CapeTown,September,2002. University ofWesternCape,1-2April,1997;JakesGerwel,‘InauguralMemorialLecture’,Harold Work ofHaroldWolpe’.AddresstoInauguralConferencetheWolpeMemorialTrust, O’Meara, ‘TheEngagedIntellectualandtheStruggleforaDemocraticSouthAfrica:TheLife launch oftheHaroldWolpeMemorialTrust,SpierAuditorium,Stellenbosch,31March1997;Dan 2. SeeSaleemBadat,‘HaroldWolpe:ReminiscencesandReflections’.KeynoteAddressatthe Town (July21,22and29th,2004). on thelivelyandstrangelydifferentresponsesofaudiencesinJohannesburg,DurbanCape this paperIhavereliedonthecommentsofAnnMarieWolpe,andEddieWebster,StephenGelb and sponsoredbytheWolpeTrust,tocontinueintellectuallegacyofHaroldWolpe.Inrewriting big ataskforsingleindividual.Thislecture,therefore,ispartofcollectiveenterprise,nurtured Wolpe’s writings.Ithasbeenadauntingtasktocometermswiththemaswhole,infactfartoo to givethislecture.Itisanhonourindeed.Fornearly20yearsIwasaclosestudentofHarold 1. IwouldliketothanktheHaroldWolpeTrust,andinparticularAnnMarieWolpe,forinvitingme Endnotes index.htm and theobligationsofintellectualresponsibilitytheyimpose.See,http://www.wolpetrust.org.za/ that lieahead,thepoliticalpracticetheydemand,usesofstatepowerrequiredforthesetasks African liberationstrugglebutalsoanacutereflectionofthestrugglesforandreconstruction ROAPE andwhichthisissuerevisits.ItisnotonlyatributetoWolpe’ssingularcontributionthe 2004 inSouthAfrica.AmongtheideasonwhichitreflectsarethoseWolpeoriginallypublished Editor’s Note California; e-mail:[email protected] Michael Burawoy other. and interpreters,indialoguewitheachother,correctingtheexcessesof position. Wolpe’sInstituteforSocialTheorywouldbeahomebothlegislators rebelling in1995–tenyearsafterhehimselfhadpresenteditastheonlycorrect research. ItwasagainstthislegislativeconceptionoftheintellectualthatWolpe rmLbrto oRcntuto:Ter rciei h ieo aodWle 673 From LiberationtoReconstruction:Theory&PracticeintheLifeofHaroldWolpe : ThisisashortenedversionofTheHaroldWolpeMemorialLecture,presentedinJuly isProfessorofSociologyattheUniversityCaliforniaBerkeley, . Review ofAfricanPoliticalEconomy A Contributiontothe , 32 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 of theStateinSouthAfrica’, 16. RobDavies,DavidKaplan,MikeMorrisandDanO’Meara,‘ClassStrugglesthePeriodisation (London: RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1973). (Harmondsworth: PenguinBooks,1969);forthelatterseeJohnRex, 15. FortheformerseeJackandRaySimons, shifted hisanalysisquiteconsiderably,butitwas 20. African Petit-Bourgeoisie’,pp.143-74inP.Zarembka (ed.), and Society should examineandtakeintoaccount!See,‘The“white workingclass“inSouthAfrica’, about theconsciousnessofAfricanpetit-bourgeoisie butdirectingtheSACPtoapossibilityit divide, Wolpestillinsistsonputtingclassfirst.Againwasnotmakingadefinitiveclaim African petit-bourgeoisieunderAfricansingeneral.WheretheSACPgaveprimacytoracial structures aresodifferent.HeadmonishedJoeSlovoforprematurelysubsumingtheinterestsof between newandoldAfricanpetit-bourgeoisiesinbothurbanruralareaswherepolitical structures. InthesecondpaperWolpeagaingivesprioritytorelationsofproductionindistinguishing relation tothemeansofproductionandthen,onlyconsideringeffectspolitical In thefirsthecutsthroughmuchconfusionbydeterminingwhiteworkers’exactlocationsin two superbarticles–oneonthewhiteworkingclassandotherAfricanpetit-bourgeoisie. 19. Thisclassanalysiscanbefoundin 18. Conference on‘SouthernAfricanStudies:RetrospectandProspect,30May–1June1983. of Law 17. SeeWolpe,‘TowardsanAnalysisoftheSouthAfricanState’, Power, Socialism Left Books,1973)thatinfluencedDaviesetal.whileWolpewouldturntohislaterbook, 1867, voteddisproportionately fortheTories,EngelswrotetoMarx:‘Whatdo yousaytothe 23. Wolpeisingoodcompany. AftertheEnglishworkingclass,whichhadbeen enfranchisedin Prison Notebooks Frantz Fanon’s 22. Interestingly,thetwo Marxists whowereespeciallyawareofquestions consciousness– negotiated transition. corporate capital,eventhoughhisadvocacyof‘insurrectionary struggles’dovetailedwellwitha between thehighestlevelsofANCandeitherSouth AfricangovernmentorSouth 21. Thereisnoevidence,therefore,thatWolpeknew ofthenegotiationsthatweretakingplace Booth (eds.), internal colonialism:theSouthAfricancase’,pp.229-252inIvarOxaal,TonyBarnettandDavid 14. Wolpetakesontheinternalcolonialmodelor‘colonialismofaspecialtype’,in‘Thetheory regular participantinShulaMarks’sLondonseminaronthehistoryofSouthAfrica. was verydependentontheworkofhistorians,suchasColinBundyandMartinLeggasick.He and Society 13. ‘Capitalismandcheaplabour-powerinSouthAfrica:fromsegregationtoapartheid’, space thisparthadtobeexcised. (c) race,classandthepost-apartheidstate,comparativeperspectives.Ininterestsof mechanisms forthereproductionofcheaplabourpower,(b)newprocessesextractingsurplus, 12. TheoriginalversionofthispaperdevelopedaWolpeanresearchagendafortoday:(a) Africa forthefirsttimesincehisescape. The lasttimeImethimwasinCapeTownon5July1990,whenhehadjustcomebacktoSouth 11. WhileIspentalotoftimewithHaroldWolpeinLondon,thatwasnotthecaseSouthAfrica. to thisquestioninthelastpartofpaper. in hislastarticleshetoowasgropingtowardastudyofhegemonySouthAfricansociety.Ireturn and thedevelopmentofclassconsciousness.IbelieveWolpewasfollowingasimilartrajectory ReviewofAfricanPoliticalEconomy 674 Race,ClassandtheApartheidState Race, ClassandtheApartheidState 8(4)(1980):399-421;‘TheAnalysisoftheSouthAfricanState’,paperpresentedto 1(4)(1972):425-56.ItshouldbeemphasizedthatWolpe’stheorizingofSouthAfrica 5(2)(May1976):197-240;and‘TheChangingClass StructureofSouthAfrica:The Beyond theSociologyofDevelopment The WretchedoftheEarth (NewYork:InternationalPublishers, 1971)–neverappearinWolpe’stexts. (London, NewLeftBooks,1978)foraverydifferentviewofthestate. Review ofAfricanPoliticalEconomy (London:JamesCurreyandParis:Unesco,1988). , 104-5 Race, ClassandtheApartheidState (NewYork:GrovePress,1963) andAntonioGramsci’s (London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1975). Political PowerandSocialClasses Class andColourinSouthAfrica,1850-1950 Research inPoliticalEconomy 3(7)(1976):4-30.NicosPoulantzas International JournaloftheSociology Race, ClassandColonialism butitsfoundationsliein (London:New , 2(1978). Economy Economy State, The Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution] At: 04:01 17 December 2007 transformation. intellectuals isentirelydifferentsinceitattaches toclassesratherthanstrategiesof (Cambridge, UK:PolityPress,1987).Gramsci’sdistinctionbetweentraditionalandorganic 35. ZygmuntBauman, 34. Ibid.,p.100. 33. ‘TheUnevenTransitionfromApartheidinSouthAfrica’, national conditions. specifically nationalproblemsofsocialtransformation.Theuniversityhastoberesponsive or uncriticallyadopttherhetoricof‘quality’and‘excellence,’butdosoonlywithincontext 32. WolpeaddedthatSouthAfricanuniversitiesshouldnotslavishlyseek‘internationalstandards’ University ofWesternCape’, 31. HaroldWolpe,‘TheDebateonUniversityTransformationinSouthAfrica:thecaseof New Jersey:AfricaWorldPress,1992),p.16. Unterhalter, HaroldWolpe,andThozamileBotha(eds.), 30. HaroldWolpe,‘Educationandsocialtransformation:problemsdilemmas’inElaine Towards PolicyFormulationforEqualityandDevelopment’. Education’ andSaleemBadat,HaroldWolpeZenariahBarends,‘ThePost-SecondarySystem: and ZenariahBarends,‘APerspectiveonQualityInequalityinSouthAfricanUniversity 29. See,forexample,thefollowingtwopapersofEPUthatappearedin1993,HaroldWolpe Africa’, ReporttotheDesmondTutuEducationalTrust.EducationPolicyUnit,1994. 28. Badatetal.,‘DifferentiationandDisadvantage:TheHistoricallyBlackUniversitiesinSouth (London: ZedBooks,1991),p.15. of educationinSouthAfrica’Unterhalteretal.(eds.), 27. HaroldWolpeandElaineUnterhalter,‘Reproduction,reformtransformation:theanalysis Paper 5,1990). Education inSouthAfrica’(RESAPaper3,1988),‘ThreeThesesonPeople’sEducation’(RESA, State’ (RESAPaper2,1988);‘TheStruggleAgainstApartheidEducation:TowardsPeople’s Capital’ (RESA,Paper1,1988);‘BantuEducationasaReformistStrategyoftheSouthAfrican 26. ‘StrategiesonEducationandtraininginSouthAfrica,1960-1987:TheRoleofCorporate (Berkeley: UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1994). 25. GaySeidman, Africa 24. KarlvonHoldt, didn’t believethatthestudyofconsciousnessisbestlefttoanyparty! sense ofEnglishworkingclassconsciousnessduringthe19thcentury.TheywereMarxistswho with theory.ItwasMarxistsocialhistoriansEdwardThompsonandEricHobsbawmwhomade McKenzie andSilver, elections inthefactorydistricts?Onceagainproletariathasdiscrediteditselfterribly’[cited (Pietermaritzburg:UniversityofNatalPress,2003). rmLbrto oRcntuto:Ter rciei h ieo aodWle 675 From LiberationtoReconstruction:Theory&PracticeintheLifeofHaroldWolpe Manufacturing Militance:Workers’MovementsinBrazilandSouthAfrica,1970-1985 Transition FromBelow:ForgingTradeUnionismandWorkplaceChangeinSouth Angels inMarble Legislators andInterpreters:OnModernity,Post-modernity,Intellectuals Comparative Education (London:Heinemann1968:14)].Theytoogotcarriedaway (1995)31(2):288-9 Education inaFutureSouthAfrica Apartheid EducationandPopularStruggles Transformation 27(1995):88-101. (Trenton,