239 Unless Otherwise Indicated, All Translations from the Italian Are My Own. 1. Max Weber, “Parliament and Government in Germ

Notes Unless otherwise indicated, all translations from the Italian are my own. INTRODUCTION 1. Max Weber, “Parliament and Government in Germany under a New Political Order,” in Weber: Political Writings, ed. Pater Lassman and Ronald Speirs (New York: Cambridge University Press), 174 (italics in the original). The essay was published in book form in 1918 and was based on five articles Weber wrote for theFrankfurter Zeitung in the spring of 1917. 2. Bonnie Honig, Democracy and the Foreigner (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 4, 7 (italics in the original). 3. “Mrs. Doug. Mary Goes in for the Fairbanks-Sort-of-Thing,” MPM, February 1927, 58. The title refers to two other images on top of the page showing Pickford launching the javelin and playing golf. Some of the friends in the photograph reproduced here would later emerge as leaders in the film business. Ted Reed, for instance, who had met Fairbanks during the third Liberty Loan drive, would serve as the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences’ fifth president. 4. “Mary Pickford e Douglas Fairbanks in Italia,” La Tribuna illustrata, April 26, 1926, 8. 5. “Douglas Fairbanks e Mary Pickford a Roma,” Il Messaggero, April 28, 1926, 5. 6. “Le Giornate romane di Douglas,” La Tribuna, April 29, 1926, 5. The state agency LUCE (L’Unione Cinematografica Educativa) made a newsreel of the Hollywood stars’ Roman visit. It is now viewable on a DVD entitled La Roma del LUCE, directed by Nicola Caracciolo and Gianni Borgna (Rome: Istituto LUCE/Comune di Roma, 2004). Neither the LUCE footage nor any of the newspapers that I consulted included images of the three individuals together. 7. Both the Italian and the American press reported the stars’ brief meeting with the Duce but did not mention the exact date. See “L’on. Mussolini riceve Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks,” Il Tevere, May 11, 1926, 3; “Film Stars See Mussolini,” NYT, May 11, 1926, 29; “Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks ricevuti da Mussolini,” Il Giornale d’Italia, May 12, 1926, 3. Their meeting, first announced for early May, was postponed at least once. 239 240 Notes 8. Most biographical accounts tend to either ignore or downplay this meeting. Jeffrey Vance gives it a passing reference in Douglas Fairbanks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 225. The one partial exception is Eileen Whitefield’s biography, which mentions that Pickford “had met Mussolini in the 1920s.” Pickford: The Woman Who Made Hollywood (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1997), 315. Lorenzo Quaglietti discusses the stars’ meeting with the Duce in Ecco i nostri: L’invasione del cinema americano in Italia (Rome: ERI, 1991), 41–44. 9. “L’on. Mussolini riceve Mary Pickford.” See also “Impressioni di Mary Pickford e Douglas su Mussolini,” L’Impero, May 22, 1926, 3. 10. To which Mussolini “smilingly” replied: “I don’t know whether I like you better in the movies or in real life, but I certainly do both.” “Film Stars See Mussolini,” NYT, May 11, 1926, 29. 11. “Film Stars See Mussolini.” 12. Thomas Doherty,Hollywood and Hitler 1933–1939 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013), 87, 91. 13. Alan R. Raucher, Public Relations and Business, 1900–1929 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968), 7. 14. Raucher, Public Relations and Business, 13, 15. 15. Raucher, 15. 16. My stress on World War I is indebted to, among others, Suzanne W. Collins, “Calling All Stars: Emerging Political Authority and Cultural Policy in the Propaganda Campaign of World War I” (PhD diss., New York University, 2008; forthcoming from Indiana University Press). Kathryn Cramer Brownell described the same phenomenon as “mass-mediated politics” but placed its key starting point in 1934, during the California gubernatorial campaign. Showbiz Politics: Hollywood in American Political Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014). 17. Doherty rightly posits that these issues were “disputed without Hollywood stars manning the picket lines.” Hollywood and Hitler, 111. 18. On Mussolini’s diplomatic calculations, see Philip V. Cannistraro, “Mussolini, Sacco-Vanzetti, and the Anarchists: The Transatlantic Context,”JMH (March 1996): 31–62. 19. Silas Bent (1882–1945) was a journalist, author, and lecturer. In his critical survey of newspaper practices entitled Ballyhoo, Bent adopted a lexicographer’s definition of the term as “synonymous with barker in the slang sense of this word.” Ballyhoo: The Voice of the Press (New York: Horace Liveright, 1927), unnumbered page before frontispiece. An excerpt from the book also appeared as “The Art of Ballyhoo,”H P, September 1927, 485–94. 20. I am referring here to Daniel Boorstin’s famous notion of “pseudo-events,” intro- duced in his book The Image. Referring to pseudo-events, whose master architect was Edward Bernays, Boorstin defined them as “not spontaneous [, . .] planted primarily [. .] for the immediate purpose of being reported or reproduced [, . .] ambiguous [, . .] intended to be a self-fulfilling prophecy.” The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America (1962; New York: Harper & Row, 1964), 11–12. 21. Graeme Turner, “Approaching Celebrity Studies,” Celebrity Studies (March 2010): 16. 22. Randolph Bourne, “Trans-National America,” AM, July 1916, 93. 23. “The Melting Pot,”Photoplay, November 1918, 21. Notes 241 24. For a discussion of transnational branding, see Turner, “Approaching Celebrity Studies,” 15. 25. Italian historian Ferdinando Fasce’s work, especially his La democrazia degli affari: Comunicazione aziendale e discorso pubblico negli Stati Uniti, 1900–1940 (Rome: Carocci, 2016), has been foundational to my approach of grounding questions about social legiti- macy into a concrete network of actors, interests, and investments. 26. For a critique of the culturalist approach to the study of Fascism, see Sergio Luzzatto, “The Political Culture of Fascist Italy,”Contemporary European History (July 1999): 389–406. 27. Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio, 236 U.S. 230 (1915) 244, quoted in Lee Grieveson, Policing Cinema: Movies and Censorship in Early-Twentieth-Century America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 201 (italics mine). Further, Justice Joseph McKenna added: “They are mere representations of events, of ideas and sentiments published and known; vivid, useful, and entertaining, no doubt, but, as we have said, capable of evil, having power for it, the greater because of their attractiveness and manner of exhibition.” 28. Herbert Howe, “Hitting the Hookah with Rudie,” MPC, December 1921, 19. 29. For a broad discussion of the attractiveness of Mussolini’s authoritarian style of government in 1930s American political and popular culture, see Benjamin L. Alpers, Dictators, Democracy, and American Public Culture: Envisioning the Totalitarian Enemy, 1920s–1950s (Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 2003). 30. Josh Glick, “Wilson and the War Effort,” inFilm and the American Presidency, ed. Jeff Menne and Christian B. Long (New York: Routledge, 2015), 72–95. 31. Steven J., Ross, Hollywood Left and Right: How Movie Stars Shaped American Politics (New York: Oxford, 2011); and Brownell, Showbiz Politics. 32. Doherty, Hollywood and Hitler; and Ben Urwand, The Collaboration: Hollywood’s Pact with Hitler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013). 1. POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY, PUBLIC OPINION, AND THE PRESIDENCY 1. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Library of America, 2004), 62, 292–93. 2. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 139. 3. Woodrow Wilson, Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1885), 204–5, 332, 331, 324. 4. Woodrow Wilson, An Old Master, and Other Political Essays (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1893), 91. 5. Wilson, An Old Master, 80. 6. Woodrow Wilson, Division and Reunion, 1829–1889 (New York: Longman, Green, 1894), 111. 7. Woodrow Wilson, Constitutional Government in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1908), 110. 8. Similarly, the 1913 passage of the Seventeenth Amendment allowed for the direct election of U.S. senators for the first time. Up to that point they had been chosen by state legislatures. 9. George Kibbe Turner, “Manufacturing Public Opinion: The New Art of Making Pres- idents by Press Bureaus,” McClure’s Magazine, July 1912, 318. 242 Notes 10. Turner, “Manufacturing Public Opinion,” 316, 322. 11. The film company’s lawyers stressed cinema’s educational role in “making or -an nouncing publicly something that otherwise might have remained private and unknown,” akin to the role and function of illustrated newspapers, magazines, and periodicals. Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio, 236 U.S. 230 (1915), 243, quoted in Lee Grieveson, Policing Cinema: Movies and Censorship in Early-Twentieth-Century America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 199. Grieveson, who provides the best account of this decision and its impact (198–215), adds that the lawyers did not argue for First Amendment guarantees but instead relied on state guarantees of free speech “because it was not clear that the First Amendment was binding on the states” (310n30). 12. Mutual Film Corporation, 236 U.S. at 230 (italics mine). McKenna added: “They are mere representations of events, of ideas and sentiments published and known; vivid, useful, and entertaining, no doubt, but, as we have said, capable of evil, having power for it, the greater because of their attractiveness and manner of exhibition.” Mutual Film Corporation, 236 U.S. at 244. 13. Arguably, the notion of film censorship itself did not impinge upon such clear-cut separation but instead relied on the appreciation of the intersection between private enter- prise and public benefit due to their converging interest in public attention and consensus. 14. Charles Musser, “The Media Reconfigured: The US Presidential Elections of 1892 and 1896,” in Film and the American Presidency, ed. Jeff Menne and Christian B. Long (New York: Routledge, 2015), 21. See also Charles Musser, Politicking and Emergent Media: US Presidential Elections of the 1890s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2016). 15. Musser, “The Media Reconfigured,” 34 (italics mine).

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