Water Quality of the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia: Pollution Threats and Hotspots Assessment (2013)

UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

Water Quality of the Kharaa

River Basin, Mongolia: Pollution threats and hotspots assessment Final report

with support of

The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the project. UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

GEF project “Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem” (Mongolia and Russia), 2011-2014

Technical report under Output 1.4 (pollution hotspot assessment)

Water Quality of the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia: Pollution threats and hotspots assessment (2013)

International executing partner for Output 1.4 (pollution hotspot assessment) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization - UNESCO

©Batimaa, P., 2013

Figure 5. The Kharaa River at Baruunkharaa hydrological gauging station (21 July 2012)

Photo credits: Batimaa Punsalmaa and Mongolia Water Forum

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Figure 6. The Kharaa River Basin and water quality monitoring sites

Pollution threats and hotspots assessment 27 UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

WaterWater Quality Quality of the of theKharaa Kharaa River River

Basin,Basin, Mongolia: Mongolia PollutionPollution threats threats and hotspotsand hotspots assessment assessment Final report

Editor: Editor: Sarantuyaa Zandaryaa, UNESCO International Hydrological Programme Sarantuyaa Zandaryaa, UNESCO

Prepared by: Prepared Batimaaby: Punsalmaa, Mongolia Water Forum - Uskhelts Erdenbayar Yadamsuren, Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology of Mongolia Batimaa Punsalmaa, Mongolia Water Forum - Uskhelts ErdenbayarTumurstooj Yadamsuren, Dashdorj, Central Institute Laboratory of Meteorology, for Environment Hydrology and Meteorologyand Environment of Mongolia TumurstoojOyuntugs Dashdorj, Tserendendev, Institute of Meteorology, National Water Hydrology Committee and of Environment Mongolia Oyuntugs DavaadalaiTserendendev, Batnasan, National Mongolia Water WaterCommittee Forum of – MongoliaUskhelts Sarantuyaa Zandaryaa, UNESCO International Hydrological Programme Davaadalai Batnasan, Mongolia Water Forum – Uskhelts Sarantuyaa Zandaryaa, UNESCO (Paris, France)

with support of

Ulaanbaatar 2013 Ulaanbaatar The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the2013 information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the project. UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

This report presents results of water quality assessment of the Selenge River Basin (Mongolia), with specific emphasis on assessment of pollution threats and pollution hotspots in the Kharaa River Basin.

The study was conducted in the framework of UNESCO-executed activities under the UNDP- GEF Project on “Integrated Natural Resources Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem” (Mongolia and Russia). The project objective is to spearhead integrated natural resources management of Lake Baikal Basin, ensuring ecosystem resilience and reduced water quality threats in the context of sustainable economic development. The project is executed by UNOPS. UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme (IHP) is an international executing partner for the project.

This study was carried out by UNESCO, in collaboration with the National Water Committee of Mongolia, Mongolia Water Forum-Uskhelts and a national team of experts. The study and report preparation was coordinated by Sarantuyaa Zandaryaa, Division of Water Sciences, UNESCO. The national team of experts was coordinated by Tsend Badrakh, National Water Committee of

Mongolia, and comprised the following experts: Batimaa Punsalmaa, Mongolia Water Forum - Uskhelts; Erdenbayar Yadamsuren, Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology; Tumurstooj Dashdorj, Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment; Oyuntugs Tserendendev, National Water Committee of Mongolia; and Davaadalai Batnasan, Mongolia

Water Forum-Uskhelts. Tserendolgor Munkhtsetseg, Mongolia Water Forum - Uskhelts, assisted in the preparation of the report for publishing.

Findings and recommendations of the study were discussed with relevant stakeholders at the National Workshop “Selenge – A River without Borders”, organized by UNESCO in collaboration with the National Water Committee and Ministry of Environment and Green Development of Mongolia, which took place in the State Palace in Ulaanbaatar on 04 June 2013. The workshop participants included representatives of the Ministry of Environment and Green Development, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Industry and Agriculture, River Basin Authorities, research institutions, universities, NGOs and the private sector. The key outcomes of the workshop discussions were incorporated in this final report. The report also benefited from discussions at the scoping meetings and workshops, organized by UNESCO in the framework of this study.

The publication of this report was made possible with the support of Sergey Kudelya, Project Manager (Ulan-Ude, Russia), and Tumurchudur Sodnom, Technical Director (Mongolia), of the GEF project “Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Eco- system”.

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Foreword by Prime Minister of Mongolia

Throughout the human history, we, Mongolians, valued the water as the basis of all existence on theForeword Earth and theby unique treasure of the world. ThePrime Government Minister of ofMongolia Mongolia attaches great importance to the protection and sustainable use of this precious resource and, in particular, to establishing an effective policy and legal to new challenges and threats resulting from Throughout the human history, we, Mongolians, transboundary water resources is essential. frameworkvalued the forwater water as the resources basis of allmanagement. existence on climateFurthermore, change theimpacts support on waterof internationalresources. I the Earth and the unique treasure of the world. amorganizations pleased that theis projectneeded on “Integratedto strengthen Nat- WaterThe Governmentis a special resource of Mongolia that is attaches not confined great uralcooperation Resource to Management face up to new in challengesthe Baikal andBa- toimportance a country’s to territory the protection or political and boundaries. sustainable sinthreats Transboundary resulting from Ecosystem”, climate change implemented impacts Mongoliause of this is preciouslocated in resource the heart and, of Centralin particular, Asia, byon various water resources. UN organizations, I am pleased responds that the projectto this whereto establishing the headwaters an effective of world’s policy many and largelegal needon “Integrated and to the Natural goals that Resource the Mongolian Management Gov- riversframework are formed for water by resources runoff from management. numerous ernmentin the Baikal has prioritized Basin Transboundary for sustainable Ecosystem”, use and springs, snowmelt and glaciers of the Mongo- managementimplemented of by natural various and UN water organizations, resources. I lianWater mountains. is a special Mongolians resource thathave is anot long confined tradi- wouldresponds like to to this warmly need congratulate and to the goals the organizthat the- tionto a of country’s conserving territory the purity or political of water boundaries. resources ersMongolian and participants Government of the Nationalhas prioritized Workshop for thatMongolia originate is inlocated our country’s in the territoryheart of and Central flow entitledsustainable “Selenge—A use and River management without Borders” of natural for and water resources. I would like to warmly outAsia, to ourwhere neighboring the headwaters countries. Thisof traditionworld’s providing a platform to discuss the results of the many large rivers are formed by runoff from congratulate the organizers and participants has been preserved from generation to genera- project studies presented in this report on wa- numerous springs, snowmelt and glaciers of of the National Workshop entitled “Selenge-A tion and has been enshrined in the Mongolian ter quality of the Kharaa River, which I consider the Mongolian mountains. Mongolians have a River without Borders” for providing a platform government’slong tradition policy of conserving on water the resources purity of manwater- anto importantdiscuss the contribution results of tothe maintain project thestudies Bai- agement.resources Mongolia that originate is fully in our engaged country’s in interna territory- kalpresented Basin ecosystems in this reportthat constitute on water the world’squality tionaland flowcooperation out to our with neighboring our neighboring countries. coun This- magnificentof the Kharaa freshwater River, resourcewhich I andconsider heritage. an triestradition on fair, has equitable been preserved and sustainable from generation use of important contribution to maintain the Baikal transboundaryto generation waterand has resources. been enshrined An example in the WeBasin share ecosystems the same that rivers. constitute We thelive world’sin the isMongolian our cooperation government’s with the policy Russian on Federa water- samemagnificent river basin. freshwater We resourcedrink water and heritage.from the tionresources on the implementationmanagement. Mongoliaof the “Agreement is fully same rivers. Therefore, our common goal onengaged the Protection in international and Use cooperationof Transbound with- mustWe sharebe to the protect same rivers. our preciousWe live in water the same re- aryour Waters”, neighboring which countries was signed on fair,between equitable the sourcesriver basin. and toWe use drink them water sustainably from the to same en- governmentsand sustainable of ouruse twoof transboundarycountries in 1995.water hancerivers. theTherefore, country’s our developmentcommon goal andmust imbe- resources. An example is our cooperation with proveto protect the ourliving precious standard water ofresources our people. and to Ourthe waterRussian resources Federation are onbecoming the implementation scarcer due use them sustainably to enhance the country’s development and improve the living standard toof climate the “Agreement change. Inon view the Protectionof climate andchange Use of Transboundary Waters”, which was signed of our people. impacts on water resources, international co- between the governments of our two countries operation on fair and equitable use of trans- in 1995. Norov Altankhuyag boundary water resources is essential. Further- Prime Minister of Mongolia more,Water the resources support of are international becoming organizations scarcer due isto needed climate to change. strengthen In viewcooperation of climate to facechange up Chairman, National WaterNorov Committee Altankhuyag impacts on water resources, international Prime Minister of Mongolia cooperation on fair and equitable use of Chairman, National Water Committee *This Foreword is based on the message of the Prime Minister of Mongolia to the National Workshop “Selenge—A River without Borders”, organized by UNESCO, National Water Committee and Ministry of Environment and Green Development of Mongolia*This Foreword in Ulaanbaatar is based (Stateon the Palace)message on of 04the June Prime 2013. Minister of Mongolia to the National Workshop “Selenge-A River without Borders”, organized by UNESCO, National Water Committee and Ministry of Environment and Green Development of Mongolia in Ulaanbaatar (State Palace) on 04 June 2013.

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Table of Contents

List of Figures...... 5 List of Tables ...... 6 Acronyms ...... 9 Executive summary...... 1 1. Introduction ...... 7 1.1. Background...... 8 1.2. Objectives of the study...... 10 1.3. Data and methodology...... 11 1.3.1. Monitoring sites...... 11 1.3.2. Data...... 12 1.3.3. Methodology...... 14 2. Water Resources of the Selenge River Basin, Mongolia ...... 19 2.1. Hydrology...... 20 2.2. Hydrochemistry...... 20 2.3. Water quality...... 22 3. Water Quality Assessment of the Kharaa River Basin...... 25 3.1. Hydrology and hydrogeology...... 26

3.1.1. Surface water...... 26 3.1.2. Groundwater...... 28 3.2. Hydrochemistry...... 28 3.2.1. Major ions...... 29 3.2.2. Dissolved oxygen...... 30

3.2.3. Biological Oxygen Demand...... 33 3.2.4. Nutrients...... 33 3.2.5. Metals...... 36 3.2.6. Suspended solids...... 38 3.3. The Kharaa River water quality...... 39

3.4. Aquatic ecology...... 39 3.5. Groundwater quality in the Kharaa River Basin...... 43 4. Assessment of pollution hotspots in the Kharaa River Basin...... 45 4.1. Pollution from urban areas...... 46 4.1.1. Municipal wastewater...... 46 4.1.2. Solid waste...... 50 4.2. Industrial pollution...... 53 4.3. Mining...... 53 4.4. Agriculture...... 57 4.5. Pollution hotspots mapping...... 58 4.6. Environmental and health impacts...... 59 5. Conclusions and Recommendations...... 63 5.1. Conclusions...... 64 5.2. Recommendations...... 68 References...... 72 Annex...... 74 Data analyses...... 75

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Map of the Lake Baikal Basin, shared between Mongolia and Russia ...... 9 Figure 2. The Confluence of the Selenge and Orkhon rivers (29 June 2009...... 11 Figure 3. Water quality index at the Sukhbaatar of the Selenge River...... 23 Figure 4. Biotic Index results at three sites of the Selenge River...... 23 Figure 5. The Kharaa River at Baruunkharaa hydrological gauging station (21 July 2012) ...... 27 Figure 6. The Kharaa River Basin and water quality monitoring sites...... 27 Figure 7. Relationship between total dissolved salts and cations and anions (Kharaa-Zuunkharaa upper)...... 29 Figure 8. Relationship between total dissolved salts and cations and anions (Kharaa-Darkhan down)...... 30 Figure 9. Dissolved Oxygen concentration trends of the Kharaa River for the period 1985-2010...... 32 Figure 10. Biological oxygen demand concentration trend of the Kharaa River near Darkhan city for the period 1985-2010...... 33 Figure 11. Trends in NH4-N concentrations at Zuunkharaa and Darkhan monitoring station...... 35 Figure 12. Trends in NO3-N concentrations at Zuunkharaa and Darkhan monitoring stations...... 35

Figure 13. Trends in PO4-P concentrations at Zuunkharaa and Darkhan monitoring stations...... 36 Figure 14. Trends of Fe and Cr6+ at Zuunkharaa and Darkhan stations...... 37 Figure 15. Trends of suspended solidsat Zuunkharaa and Darkhan stations...... 38 Figure 16. Water quality of the Kharaa river at Zuunkharaa and Darkhan stations...... 39

Figure 17. Number of total individuals of Taxa and EPT...... 40 Figure 18. The Kharaa river water quality assessed by Biotic index...... 41 Figure 19. Annual variation of the Kharaa river water quality assessed by Biotic index..... 41 Figure 20. Ecological assessment of the Kharaa River Basin ...... 42 Figure 21. The administrative units in the Kharaa River Basin...... 47

Figure 22. The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant...... 49 Figure 23. Wastewater treatment rate of the Darkhan WWTP...... 48 Figure 24. BOD concentrations of treatedwastewater of the Darkhan WWTP...... 48 Figure 25. Suspended solids concentrations in treated wastewater of the Darkhan WWTP...... 49 Figure 26. Mining areas of the Kharaa River Basin...... 54 Figure 27. The Boroo Gold mining site...... 55 Figure 28. The tailing facility of the Boroo mining...... 56 Figure 29. Cropland area on the Kharaa River bank...... 57 Figure 30. Bornuur cropland farming near the Boroo River bank...... 58 Figure 31. Map of areas of concern (potential pollution hotspots) in the Kharaa River Basin...... 59 Figure 32. Runoff forming and river bank protection zone...... 60

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List of Tables

Table 1. Kharaa River monitoring stations and parameters...... 13 Table 2. Hydrobiological monitoring stations...... 13 Table 3. Water quality classification...... 15 Table 4. Macroinvertebrates Biotic Index...... 16 Table 5. Water quality classification...... 16 Table 6. Hydrological parameters of rivers in the Selenge River and its tributaries...... 21 Table 7. Long-term mean concentration of major ions in the Selenge River and its tributaries...... 21 Table 8. Long-term mean concentrations of chemical pollutants in the Selenge and its tributaries...... 21 Table 9. Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera,Trichoptera individuals found in the Selenge river and its tributaries...... 22 Table 10. Summary analysis of Aquatic Macroinvertebrate at different stations in the Selenge River and its tributaries...... 23 Table 11. Exploitable groundwater resources of the Kharaa River Basin...... 28 Table 12. Annual distribution of average concentrations of total dissolved salts, or mineralization...... 29 Table 13. Monthly mean concentrations of major ions of the Kharaa River...... 31 Table 14. Annual distribution of dissolved oxygen concentrations...... 32

Table 15. Monthly mean concentrations of ammonium of the Kharaa River...... 34 Table 16. Concentrations of metals in the Kharaa River...... 36 Table 17. Heavy metals concentrations in the Kharaa River...... 37 Table 18. Monthly mean concentrations of suspended solids in the Kharaa River...... 38 Table 19. Groundwater quality parameters ...... 43

Table 20. Quantities and composition of solid waste generated in Darkhan by source category ...... 51 Table 21. Results of chemical analysis of the monitoring wells ...... 56

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Acronyms

BOD Biological oxygen demand DO Dissolved oxygen EPT Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GEF Global Environment Facility IHP International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO

MAC Maximum Acceptable Concentrations MNET Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism of Mongolia MNS Mongolia National Standard NSA National Standard Agency of Mongolia

NSO National Statistics Office of Mongolia OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs of the United Nations TSS Total suspended solids UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization USAG Water Supply and Wastewater Company of Ulaanbaatar WHO World Health Organization

WQI Water Quality Index

WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant

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ExecutiveExecutive summarysummary

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Mongolia has many beautiful freshwater an archaeologically-rich cultural landscape. lakes and rivers. Some of the world’s major The Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape has rivers originate in Mongolia, including been designated by UNESCO as a World Selenge River, Yenisei and Irtysh. Most Heritage Site. of Mongolia’s rivers are spread across the northern part of the country, where the river The pollution of the Kharaa River Basin is system is also most extensive. The Selenge becoming a growing concern due to the high River is the largest river by volume of flow, vulnerability of the basin to urban and which is a major transboundary river in the industrial pollution from urban settlements heart of Asia flowing to Lake Baikal, located and large industrial operations located in in Russia. About two-thirds of the surface the basin. The Kharaa River Basin is shared runoff leaves Mongolia. The largest lakes among three administrative regions, called of Mongolia, including Khuvsgul, Uvs and aimags (equivalent to provinces)-namely, Khar-Us, are located in the northern and Selenge aimag, Tuv aimag and Darkhan-Uul western regions of the country. Mongolia has aimag. The basin also includes the rapidly- substantial groundwater resources, which growing industrial city of Darkhan, which is are unevenly distributed over the country- thethird largest city with 74,738 inhabitants abundant in the north and very scarce, or (as of 2010)2. The entire population of the non-existent, in the south. Kharaa River Basin is about 133,000. The Kharaa River Basin is under increasing Driven by climate change, urbanization and pressure from rapid urbanization, rising rapid economic growth, Mongolia’s water water demand and climate change. The resources are under increasing pressure. upper basin is in a relatively pristine state Water resources of Mongolia are limited, and has experienced minimal anthropogenic with the annual water reserves of 34.6 impacts. The lower basin is characterized by cubic kilometers-which is relatively low diverse economic activities such as industry, compared to other countries. Yet, the per agriculture and livestock breeding, which capita annual renewable water availability may potentially have significant impacts on exceeds 10,000 cubic meters, which is more the quantity and quality of water resources than in most other countries in the world. of the basin. Furthermore, the basin provides This seeming contradiction can be explained drinking water for the rapidly-growing city by the country’s population density of only of Darkhan, which water supplies largely 1.8 persons per square kilometers, which is rely on alluvial aquifers containing shallow- the lowest in the world1. Despite the huge depth groundwater, and the inhabitants of amount of renewable water in the country, its small human settlements in the basin. Hence, availability is unevenly distributed in space growing pressures from climate change and and in time. Most of Mongolia’s territory lies anthropogenic activities on the Kharaa River in arid and semi-arid regions, which makes may become a matter of concern in securing its water resources particularly vulnerable to future water supplies in the area. climatic and human pressures. The assessment of water quality and water The Kharaa River Basin is one of the main pollution in the Selenge River Basin, tributaries of the Orkhon-Selenge River undertaken by this study, focused on a case- system. The Orkhon River originates in the study on pollution hotspots and pollution Khangai Mountains in central Mongolia and threats in the Kharaa River Basin, including flows northwards for 1,124 km before joining urban water pollution in the city of Darkhan, the Selenge River, which empties into Lake Mongolia. Baikal. The Orkhon River is the longest river in Mongolia and the valley along the river is

1Ministry of Environment and Green Development, 2012. Integrated Water Management Plan of Mongolia 2010-2021: A Brief Introduction, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, December 2012. 2Data from the National Statistical Office of Mongolia.

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TheThe main main objectives objectives of of this this studystudy were toto assess assess the the current current statestate of ofthe the water water quality quality of theof the Kharaa Kharaa River River Basin, Basin, assess assess waterwater pollution pollution from diffusefrom diffuseand point and sources, point sources,identify pollutionidentify hotspotspollution in thehotspots basin, in and the determine basin, and the determine main pressures the main on thepressures water quality on the of water the Kharaaquality River,of the withKharaa a qualitative River, with de a- scriptionqualitative of their description impacts. of The their study impacts. focused The on: study the surveyfocused of wateron: thequality survey characteristics of water quality of the characteristics Kharaa River; of thethe identifiKharaa- River; the identification of anthropogenic impacts on the cation of anthropogenic impacts on the river’s water quality; river’s water quality; the identification of major threats the identification of major threats to the water quality in the to the water quality in the basin; and the development of basin;recommendations and the development on pollution of recommendations prevention and control on pollution in the preventionKharaa River and Basin.control in the Kharaa River Basin.

TheThe assessment assessment of of thethe water qualityquality in in the the Kharaa Kharaa River River is is basedbased on onboth bothhydrochemical hydrochemical and hydrobiologicaland hydrobiological param- The Kharaa River eters.parameters. The hydrochemical The hydrochemical assessment assessment is based on ishydrochemi based on- calhydrochemical monitoring data monitoring collected bydata the collectedCentral Laboratory by the Central for En- vironmentLaboratory and for Meteorology Environment for and the Meteorology period from for1986 the through period 2011.from The 1986 hydrobiological through 2011. Theassessment hydrobiological is based assessmenton macroin is- vertebratesbased on datamacroinvertebrates collected by the data Institute collected of Meteorology, by the Institute Hy- drologyof Meteorology, and Environment Hydrology for theand period Environment from 2005 for theto 2010.period from 2005 to 2010.

As part of the Mongolia’s freshwater quality monitoring net- As part of the Mongolia’s freshwater quality monitoring work, the Kharaa River water quality has been monitored at network, the Kharaa River water quality has been monitored The Orkhon River fourat foursampling sampling points points at attwo two monitoring monitoring stations stations sincesince 1986.1986.

TheThe upper upper monitoring monitoring station, whichwhich is is the the reference reference site site of the of thestudy, study, is islocated located near near Zuunkharaa Zuunkharaa (a small (a small urban urban settlement) settlement)and andhas twohas samplingtwo sampling points points upstream upstream and downstream and downstream from from Zuunkharaa. The second monitoring station is located Zuunkharaa. The second monitoring station is located near to nearDarkhan to Darkhan city and city has and two has sampling two sampling points too-upstream points too—up and- streamdownstream and downstream from the city. from the city.

TheThe overall overall assessment assessment of the of chemicalthe chemical composition composition has shown has shown good chemical conditions at the sampling sites on good chemical conditions at the sampling sites on the Kharaa The grassland of the Kharaa River Basin River.the TheKharaa monthly River. mean The concentrations monthly mean of totalconcentrations dissolved salts of total dissolved salts (the sum of Ca2+, Na++K+, Mg2+, HCO -, (the sum of Ca2+, Na++K+, Mg2+, HCO -, SO 2- and Cl-), 3or SO 2- and Cl-), or mineralization, in the3 Kharaa4 River vary mineralization,4 in the Kharaa River vary between 162.2-335.7 between 162.2-335.7 mg/l and show a tendency to increase mg/ltowards and show downstream. a tendency The toconcentrations increase towards of total downstream. dissolved Thesalts concentrations increase also of during total dissolved snow melting salts increase periods. also In aduring vast snowmajority melting of periods.the cases, In thea vast order majority of abundance of the cases, of cations the order is 2+ + + 2+ of Caabundance2+>Na++K +of>Mg cations2+, and is theCa order>Na of+K abundance>Mg , ofand anions the or is- der of abundance2- of- anions is HCO ->SO 2->Cl-. HCO3->SO4 >Cl . 3 4

TheThe concentrations concentrations of of the the biologicalbiological oxygenoxygen demanddemand (BOD)(BOD) are,are, in inmost most of of the the cases, cases, belowbelow thethe Maximum AcceptableAcceptable ConcentrationConcentration of of 5 5mg/l—the mg/l-the standard set byby thethe MongolianMongolian NationalNational Standard Standard for Waterfor Water Quality Quality of the Aquaticof the EnvironAquatic- ment:Environment: General Requirements General Requirements MNS 4586-98 MNS (NSA, 4586-98 1998). (NSA, 1998).

This indicates that in general the river water is clean. However, The forest of the Kharaa River Basin This indicates that in general the river water is clean. However,

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it should be noted that the BOD More than 60 percent of the total area of the concentrations occasionally exceed the Kharaa River Basin is pasture. Accordingly, Maximum Acceptable Concentrations (5 the livestock herding at the river bank is mg/l) at both sampling sites during summer. the major non-point source of pollution This may show that organic pollutants during warm seasons, leading to the fecal originating from urban and industrial areas contamination and direct nutrient inputs to and livestock wastes enter the river with the river water by domestic waste, including surface washing during heavy rainfall events animal manure. in summer. The second largest non-point source is open Phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations mining. Several large mining reserves are show a decreasing trend near Zuunkharaa, found in the Kharaa River Basin and occupy while there is no trend near the city of an area of about 16 percent of the total area Darkhan. The concentrations of NO3-N of the basin. Some of the mines are not yet near Zuunkharaa have decreased since exploited, which means that exploration and 1990s. Similarly, PO4-Pconcentrations have development licenses of these reserves may decreased near Zuunkharaa. have been issued to mining companies, with mining operations not having started. The There are no observed data on metals, except mining area under operation represents 1.5 total Fe and Cr6+ at the downstream sampling percent of the total area of the basin, which points of both monitoring stations. The is about 9.3 percent of the total area for monthly mean concentrations of Fe range mining purposes (Figure 26). There are no between 0.08 and 0.15 mg/l and increases systematically observed data to assess the during rainy seasons. The Cr6+ concentrations pollution from mining activities in the area. are between 0 and 0.01 mg/l and also Heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, and increase in rainy season. cyanide are commonly used in gold mines, which may have potentially serious impacts The analysis of the macro-invertebrate not only on surface water quality but also communities at the two monitoring sites of on groundwater and soil. An incident of a the Kharaa River watershed indicates that possible mercury and cyanide contamination the ecological condition of the river is good. of groundwater caused by a tailings spill from The assessment of the fish communities has a small mining operation in Khongor soum shown a good, or a very good, ecological was recorded in 2007. status at the sites. A moderate status, detected at two sites in the watershed, is caused by The results of the assessment indicate that the absence of ubiquistic species, showing the water quality in the Kharaa River Basin no clear deficits in the ecological integrity of decreases occasionally to ‘moderately- the fish fauna. Most of the fish species are polluted’ and ‘very-polluted’ near urban and known to occur in the Kharaa River Basin. industrial settlements, which may become a concern in the future. The main sources of The major point source of pollution appears water pollution in the basin are urban areas, to be the wastewater treatment plants in the agriculture and mining activities. cities of Darkhan and Salkhit. The treatment rate of the Darkhan Wastewater Treatment The assessment also shows that the self- Plant ranges between 80-98%. The BOD purification rate in the Mongolian rivers concentrations in the outlet wastewater range is usually high with the distance of self- between 3.1-33.6 mg/land very rarely exceed purification of 6-18 kilometers. The self- the Maximum Acceptable Concentrations purification distance of the Kharaa River (20 mg/l), set by the Mongolian National appears to be 10 kilometers downstream Standard for Wastewater Treatment MNS from the city of Darkhan. Consequently, 4943-2000. the Kharaa River water becomes clean at its outlet at the confluence with the Orkhon

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qualityquality of ofthe the Orkhon Orkhon and and Selenge Selenge rivers. rivers.

InIn overall, overall, the the results results of theof thestudy study show show that thatthe waterthe water qual - ityquality of the ofKharaa the KharaaRiver Basin River is Basinclean andis clean has goodand hasecological good conditions.ecological The conditions. water quality The ofwater the qualityKharaa Riverof the decreases Kharaa occasionallyRiver decreases to ‘moderately-polluted occasionally to ‘moderately-polluted’’ and ‘very-polluted’ andnear ‘very-polluted’ near urban and industrial areas, as well as urban and industrial areas, as well as during high water periods during high water periods and snow melting times. This and snow melting times. This shows that moderate pollution shows that moderate pollution occurs near urban areas occursand in near snow urban melting areas periods, and in snow with meltingno serious periods, degradation with no seriousin the degradation water quality in ofthe the water whole quality basin. of the whole basin.

TheThe main main sources sources of of water water pollutionpollution inin the basinbasin areare urbanurban areas,areas, agriculture agriculture and and mining mining activities. activities. Due toDue rapid to urbanrapid - izationurbanization and economic and economic development, development, pollution pollution from munici from - palmunicipal wastewater wastewater and mining and activities mining mayactivities become may a become concern ina the concern future. in Furthermore, the future. Furthermore,the Kharaa River the BasinKharaa is Riverfacing growingBasin ispressures facing growingfrom climate pressures change from and climaterising water change de - mands.and rising Hence, water the demands. sustainable Hence, use and the management sustainable use of water and resourcesmanagement of the of Kharaa water Riverresources Basin of is theof crucial Kharaa importance River Basin in securingis of crucial future importance water supplies in securingin the area. future water supplies The Borоo Gold mining in the area.

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1.1. Introduction Introduction

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Life on Earth originated from water. Water is Our health and well-being depend on it. It is essential for human life. We drink it, we essential for the sustainable development produce food and other products with it, and of society. Water a resource that must be we use water for many socio-cultural activities. sustained for future generations. 1.1. Background

With abundant water resources in some areas north and very scarce, or non-existent, in the and shortages in others, Mongolia is facing a south. With abundant water resources in some areas and shortages in others, Mongolia is facing a Most of Mongolia’s water resources belong challenge to use and manage its water to transboundary river basins of the Arctic resources for the country’s sustainable Ocean and Pacific Ocean drainage. Some of development and the prosperity of its people, the world’s major rivers have their origin in while protecting and maintaining them for Mongolia, including Selenge River, Yenisei future generations. and Irtysh. The Selenge River is a major transboundary river in the heart of Asia and Mongolia has many beautiful freshwater the main tributary of Lake Baikal, located in lakes and rivers. Most of Mongolia’s rivers Russia. The Selenge River Basin is shared are spread across the northern part of the by Mongolia and Russia (Figure 1). It forms country, where the river system is also most the headwaters of the Yenisei-Angara river extensive. The largest and longest rivers system. About two-thirds of the surface runoff leaves Mongolia. in Mongolia are the Orkhon River (1,124 km), the Kherlen River (1,090 km), the Tuul River (704 km), Zavkhan River (670 Driven by climate change, urbanization and km) and the Selenge River (539 km). The rapid economic growth, Mongolia’s water resources are under increasing pressure. Selenge River is the largest river by volume of flow. Many rivers are used as sources of Water resources of Mongolia are limited, water for livestock and irrigation. Because with the annual water reserves of 34.6 of the mountainous terrain, there is a great cubic kilometers- which is relatively low concentration of potential hydropower in the compared to other countries. Yet, the per north. Most of the rivers are unsuitable for capita annual renewable water availability navigation. The largest lakes of Mongolia, exceeds 10,000 cubic meters, which is more including Khuvsgul, Uvs and Khar-Us, are than in most other countries in the world. located in the northern and western regions This seeming contradiction can be explained of the country. Lake Khuvsgul, located in by the country’s population density of only northern Mongolia, is Mongolia’s largest 1.8 persons per square kilometers, which is freshwater lake and the 16th largest naturally the lowest in the world. Despite the huge formed lake in the world by water volume. amount of renewable water in the country, Lake Khuvsgul contains 60 percent of the its availability is unevenly distributed in surface freshwater resources of Mongolia space and in time. Most of Mongolia’s and is a constant source of clean freshwater territory lies in arid and semi-arid regions, flowing to the Selenge River through its which makes its water resources particularly outflow the Eg River. It is one of the ancient vulnerable to climatic and human pressures. lakes of Asia and a sister lake of Lake Baikal. Mongolia’s water resources are faced with Lake Uvs (Uvs Nuur) is the largest lake in rapidly growing problems such as the impact Mongolia by surface area. The Uvs Nuur of global climate change, overexploitation of Basin has been designated by UNESCO water resources, wastewater discharge into as a World Heritage Site for its rich steppe rivers from point sources in urban and rural biodiversity. Mongolia has substantial areas, and diffuse pollution from non-point groundwater resources, which are unevenly sources like livestock and cropland (Batimaa distributed over the country-abundant in the et al, 2011).

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Figure 1.Map of the Lake Baikal Basin, shared between Mongolia and Russia Figure 1. Map of the Lake Baikal Basin, shared between Mongolia and Russia

designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage TheThe Kharaa RiverRiver Basin Basin is oneis one of theof themain main trib- HeritageSite. Site. The pollution of Kharaa River tributariesutaries of Orkhon-Selengeof Orkhon-Selenge River RiverBasin (FigureBasin BasinThe pollution is becoming of Kharaa a growing River concernBasin is becom due to- (Figure2). The 2).Orkhon The Orkhon River originates River originates in the inKhan the- theing higha growing vulnerability concern due to the high vul- Khangaigai Mountains Mountains in central in central Mongolia Mongolia and flowsand ofnerability the basinof the basinto urban to urban and and industrial industrial flowsnorthwards northwards for 1,124 for 1,124 km beforekm before joining joining the pollution from urbanurban settlementssettlements andand largelarge theSelenge Selenge River, River, which which empties empties into intoLake Lake Bai- industrial operationsoperations located located in inthe thebasin. basin. The Baikal.kal. The The Orkhon Orkhon River River is theis the longest longest river river in TheKharaa Kharaa River BasinRiver isBasin shared is amongshared three among ad- inMongolia Mongolia and and the the valley valley along along the the river river is anis threeministrative administrative regions, calledregions, aimags called (equivalent aimags anarchaeologically-rich archaeologically-rich cultural cultural landscape. landscape. The (equivalentto provinces)—namely, to provinces)—namely, Selenge aimag Selenge, Tuv The Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape has aimag, Tuv aimag and Darkhan-Uul aimag. Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape has been aimag and Darkhan-Uul aimag. been designated by UNESCO as a World

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The basin also includes the rapidly-growing water for the rapidly-growing Darkhan industrial city of Darkhan, which is the third City, which water supplies largely rely on largest city with 74,738 inhabitants (as of alluvial aquifers containing shallow-depth 2010). The entire population of the Kharaa groundwater, and the inhabitants of small River Basin is about 133,000. The Kharaa human settlements in the basin. Hence, River Basin is under increasing pressure from growing pressures from climate change rapid urbanization, rising water demand and anthropogenic activities on the Kharaa and climate change. The upper basin is in a River may become a matter of concern in relatively pristine state and has experienced securing future water supplies in the area. minimal anthropogenic impacts. The lower Consequently, the assessment of water basin is characterized by diverse economic pollution in the Selenge River Basin focused activities such as industry, agriculture and on a case-study on pollution hotspots and livestock breeding, which may potentially pollution threats in the Kharaa River Basin, have significant impacts on the quantity and including urban water pollution in Darkhan, quality of water resources of the basin. Mongolia. Furthermore, the basin provides drinking

1.2. Objectives of the study

River water systems bring a multitude of identify pollution hotspots in the basin, and benefits, called “ecological goods and determine the main pressures on the water services”, to the society. Water resources for quality of the Kharaa River, with a qualitative human uses and ecological services depend description of their impacts. on good natural ecological conditions of rivers. Furthermore, the availability of The water quality assessment focused on: valuable fish populations in rivers and • the survey of water quality characteristics lakes and the self-purification capacity of of the Kharaa River; rivers directly depend on water quality. • the identification of anthropogenic The protection and maintenance of water impacts on the river’s water quality; quality is, therefore, required to ensure • the identification of major threats to the the sustainability of water resources and water quality in the basin; and ecosystem goods and services. • the development of recommendations on pollution prevention and control in the Climate change, rapid urbanization and Kharaa River Basin. expanding economic activities exert a wide range of pressures on the Selenge River The scope of study includes: Basin, particularly on the Kharaa River, • Human impacts on water quality in the which makes the Kharaa River Basin an ideal basin; focus region of this study. There are growing • Major pollution threats to water quality; concerns over the overexploitation of water • Pollution hotspots, including major resources and pollution from urban areas, pollution sources, types and levels of selected agriculture and mining. main pollutants; • Urban pollution, including municipal The assessment of water pollution in the wastewater, stormwater, and solid waste; Selenge River Basin focused on a case-study • Negative impacts of water pollution on pollution hotspots and pollution threats on the sustainability of water resources in in Kharaa River Basin, including urban water the basin, as well as on human health and pollution in Darkhan, Mongolia. ecosystems.

The main objectives of this study were to The study is based on existing information assess the current state of the water quality and data that are available at national of the Kharaa River Basin, assess water institutions. pollution from diffuse and point sources, The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the 10project. Water Quality of the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia: UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

1.3.1.3. Data and and methodology methodology

MongoliaMongolia has has a surface a surface water qualitywater monitorquality- integralterm freshwater part of the quality long-term monitoring freshwater network. quality ingmonitoring network, whichnetwork, consists which of nationalconsists sam of- monitoringIt incorporates network. biological It incorporates information biological into plingnational sites samplingat various siteslocations at various and frequencies locations informationtraditional physicochemicalinto traditional physicochemicalwater quality throughoutand frequencies Mongolia’s throughout river network. Mongolia’s The river wa- watermonitoring. quality Macro-invertebrate monitoring. Macro-invertebrate samples are ternetwork. quality Themonitoring water quality aims to monitoring monitor the aims wa- samplescollected are for collected use in assessing for use thein assessingdegradation the terto qualitymonitor of the rivers water and quality to provide of rivers an overview and to degradationof aquatic ecosystems. of aquatic ecosystems. ofprovide the state an of overview water quality of the of stateMongolia’s of water riv- quality of Mongolia’s rivers in compliance The Selenge River is one of the most- ers in compliance with the Mongolian National The Selenge River is one of the most-extensive- Standardwith the forMongolian Water Quality National of the Standard Aquatic Enfor- lyextensively monitored monitored rivers in Mongolia.rivers in Mongolia. As the study As Water Quality of the Aquatic Environment: vironment: General Requirements MNS 4586- focusesthe study on focuses the Kharaa on the River Kharaa Basin, River data Basin, from General Requirements MNS 4586- 98 data from selected water quality monitoring 98 (NSA, 1998). Water quality monitoring mea- selected water quality monitoring stations are (NSA, 1998). Water quality monitoring stations are used in the study. Monitoring surementsmeasurements include includephysicochemical physicochemical parameters usedstations in the and study. sampling Monitoring sites selectedstations and for samthis- suchparameters as temperature, such as pH,temperature, major ions, pH, nutrients major plingstudy sites are describedselected for in thisthe respectivestudy are described sections and metals. Since 1995, the surface water bio- in the respective sections hereafter of the re- ions, nutrients and metals. Since 1995, the hereafter of the report. monitoringsurface water network biomonitoring has been recognized network ashas an port. been recognized as an integral part of the long- 1.3.1. Monitoring sites 1.3.1. Monitoring sites

AsAs part part of thethe Mongolia’sMongolia’s freshwaterfreshwater qualityquality ofof the study.study. It hashas twotwo samplingsampling points:points: thethe monitoring network, the Kharaa River water first sampling point (Zuunkharaa-upper) is lo- monitoring network, the Kharaa River water first sampling point (Zuunkharaa-upper) is qualityquality hashas beenbeen monitored at twotwo stationsstations catedlocated upstream upstream of Zuunkharaa;of Zuunkharaa; and andthe secthe- sincesince 1986 1986 (see (see Figure Figure 6). 6). ondsecond sampling sampling point point (Zuunkharaa-down) (Zuunkharaa-down) is lo- catedis located downstream downstream from fromZuunkharaa Zuunkharaa in order in TheThe upperupper monitoring station is locatedlocated nearnear toorder monitor to monitor the impact the impact of the ofsettlement the settlement on the Zuunkharaa—aZuunkharaa-a smallsmall urban urban settlement. settlement. This This qualityon the ofquality the Kharaa of the RiverKharaa water. River water. stationstation hashas beenbeen chosen as the referencereference sitesite

Figure 2. The ConfluenceFigure of the 2. The Selenge Confluence and Orkhon of the rivers (29 June 2009) Selenge and Orkhon rivers (29 June 2009)

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The second monitoring station is located Darkhan-upper and Darkhan-down, which near to Darkhan city, and has two sampling are located upstream and downstream from points: the city.

1.3.2. Data

Water quality varies considerably throughout The assessment of the water quality of the the year in relation to climatic conditions, Kharaa River Basin included an assessment runoff and human activities. In order to of changes in both hydrochemical obtain a realistic view on surface water and hydrobiological parameters. The quality and to evaluate trends in the basin, hydrochemical monitoring data, collected by monitoring data must be collected at the Central Laboratory for Environment and different times of the year on same sampling Meteorology for the period from 1986 through sites. However, surface water sampling 2011, are used for the hydro-chemical study. alone cannot characterize all the physical The macroinvertebrates data collected by and biological conditions of surface water the Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and systems. In addition to surface water Environment for the period from 2005 to assessment, studies on sediments, habitats 2010 are used for the hydrobiological study. and biological diversity are also necessary to obtain a complete understanding of the state of water quality and ecological conditions of river basins and their changes.

Observed data on surface water quality

Within the Mongolian national environmental Environment and Meteorology for the period monitoring network, there are 64 sampling from 1986 through 2011. sites for surface water quality monitoring. These sampling sites are located on 19 rivers The Kharaa River water quality is monitored and one lake. There are also two sampling at the Zuunkharaa monitoring stations with a sites in the Selenge River Basin for the analysis monthly frequency during the months of April of wastewater discharges from wastewater through November, whereas the monitoring treatment plants. It should be noted that is carried out once a month throughout the data from only selected sampling sites are year at the Darkhan monitoring station. The assessed for this report, as the study focuses water quality monitoring parameters at these on the Kharaa River Basin. The Kharaa River stations are shown in Table 1. water quality is monitored at four sampling points at two monitoring stations—near The hydrobiological assessment is based on Zuunkharaa and the city of Darkhan. macroinvertebrates data collected by the Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and The assessment of the water quality in the Environment for the period from 2005 Kharaa River is based on both hydrochemical to 2010. Table 2 shows hydrobiological and hydrobiological parameters. monitoring stations in the Selenge River Basin. The hydrochemical assessment is based on hydrochemical monitoring data of the Kharaa River collected by the Central Laboratory for

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Table 1.1. Kharaa Kharaa River River monitoring monitoring stationsstations andand parametersparameters

№ Stations Chemistry 2+ 2+ + + - -- - Hard- pH Suspended Ca Mg Na +K HCO3 SO4 Cl ness Solids 1 Zuunkharaa + + + + + + + + + upper 2 Zuunkharaa + + + + + + + + + down 3 Darkhan + + + + + + + + + upper 4 Darkhan + + + + + + + + + down Nitrogen Metals O2 BOD NH4-N NO3-N PO4-P Fe Cr 1 Zuunkharaa + + + upper 2 Zuunkharaa + + + + + down 3 Darkhan + + + + + upper 4 Darkhan + + + + + + + down

Table 2.2. Hydrobiological Hydrobiological monitoring monitoring stations stations № Rivers Station Location Latitude Longitude 1 Selenge Khurag 49037’611 102085’056 2 Selenge Khyalganat 49. 046’833 104037’944 3 Selenge Sykhbaatar 50025’258 106013’786 4 Chuluut Chuluut 47054’250 100024’722 0 0 5 Eg Khantai 49 55’000 103 26’806 0 0 6 Orkhon Orkhon 48 .66’000 103 56’778 0 0 7 Urdtamir Tsetserleg 47 44’722 101 50’250 8 Achuut Bulgan 48082’917 103050’306 9 Tuul Ulaanbaatar 47088’333 106093’333 10 Tuul Altanbulag 47068’333 106028’330 11 Tuul Lun 47085’000 105018’333 12 Terelj Terelj 47096’667 107046’667 13 Zuunturuu Bulgan 48082’917 103054’583 14 Ulaistai Uliastai 48004’130 107006’255 15 Selbe Sanzai 48013’333 106088’333 16 Selbe Dambadarjaa 47098’000 106092’000 17 Kharaa Baruunkharaa 48091’089 106007’844 18 Kharaa Darkhan 49059’142 105085’908 19 Ider Tosontsengel 48074’111 98023’056 20 Sharyin gol Jimsnii stants 49076’667 106016’667

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GroundwaterGroundwater quality quality data data

GroundwaterGroundwater qualityquality monitoring is limited toto tionmineralization of aquifers ofdoes aquifers not change does notsignificantly change onlyonly aa number number of of locations locations for forthe theperiod period be- withinsignificantly a few withindecades, a fewit was decades, assumed it wasthat forebefore 1990. 1990. Data Data on groundwateron groundwater quality quality were theseassumed data that reflect these roughly data reflectthe current roughly state the of recordedwere recorded for shallow for shallow and deep and wells deep and wells in- physico-chemicalcurrent state of qualityphysico-chemical of groundwater. quality The and included data on mineral composition, of groundwater. The available data are not cluded data on mineral composition, pH, and available data are not sufficient to assess trends sometimespH, and sometimes nitrogen-based nitrogen-based nutrients nutrientssuch as ofsufficient groundwater to assess quality trends in the ofKharaa groundwater River Ba- nitrite,such as ammonium, nitrite, ammonium, and nitrate. and As mineralizanitrate. As- sin.quality in the Kharaa River Basin.

Reports,Reports, publications publications and and other other materials materials

ManyMany other published reports werewere reviewedreviewed usedused reports ofof thethe ongoing ongoing German-funded German-funded andand used in this studystudy inin orderorder toto capturecapture allall projectproject onon “Integrated “Integrated Water Water Resources Resources Man- availableavailable informationinformation onon thethe water qualityquality ofof agementManagement for Central for Central Asia–MoMo” Asia–MoMo” in the inbasin. the thethe Kharaa Rver Basin.Basin. TheThe studystudy extensivelyextensively basin.

1.3.3.1.3.3. MethodologyMethodology

InIn general,general, water water quality quality is defined is definedby the com by- TheThe assessmentassessment of theof waterthe qualitywater monitorquality- positionthe composition of its constituents, of including:its constituents, physical ingmonitoring data is based data on is the based basic statisticalon the analybasic- including: physical characteristics (such as statistical analysis (arithmetic mean, max/ characteristics (such as temperature, suspended sis (arithmetic mean, max/min, trends, etc.) for temperature, suspended solids); chemical min, trends, etc.) for each possible chemical solids);characteristics chemical (such characteristics as major ions, (such nutrients, as major eachparameter possible monitored chemical at parameter the sampling monitored points ions, nutrients, oxygen, organic compounds); at the sampling points in the Kharaa River as oxygen, organic compounds); and biological in the Kharaa River as part of the national andcharacteristics biological characteristics(such as macroinvertebrates). (such as macro- partwater of quality the national monitoring water network. quality monitoring invertebrates). network.

Water Quality Index Water Quality Index

One of the key goals of implementing One of the key goals of implementing conser- LaboratoryCentral Laboratory for Environment for Environment and Meteorology and conservation practices is to maintain and Meteorology of Mongolia for the purpose vation practices is to maintain and improve wa- of Mongolia for the purpose of assessing the improve water quality within a watershed. of assessing the ecological status of surface terThe quality overall within state aof watershed. water quality The can overall serve state as ecological status of surface waters in Mongolia. waters in Mongolia. Below is the description ofa simplewater quality first step can tool serve in effortsas a simple of evaluating first step Belowof the methodologyis the description for determining of the methodology the WQI, tooleffects in effortsof the of evaluatingconservation effects practices of the con in- forused determining in this study. the WQI, It is usedbased in on:this study.surface It servationimproving practices and/or insustaining improving theand/or quality sustain of- iswater based quality on: surface index; waterand biotic quality index. index; and ingwater the in quality the watershed. of water in One the watershed.of the methods One biotic index. ofto thedescribe methods the tooverall describe state the of overallwater qualitystate of Surface water quality index: The surface is Water Quality Index (WQI). It is based water quality is Water Quality Index (WQI). It Surfacewater quality water qualityindex (Windex:qi) is The defined surface as wa a- on information from a number of different simple expression of a more or less complex is based on information from a number of dif- ter quality index (Wqi) is defined as a simple ferentsources sources and andcombines combines them them into into a asingle single expressioncombination of aof more a several or less parameterscomplex combina which- numbernumber thatthat represents an overall state of thethe tionserves of asa severala measure parameters for water which quality serves (Bulgan, as a qualityquality ofof thethe water at aa particularparticular timetime andand measure2008). Itfor is water estimated quality (Bulgan,by the 2008).following It is location. Conventionally, WQI has been location. Conventionally, WQI has been de- estimatedequation: by the following equation: developed and used for evaluating water velopedquality ofand water used resourcesfor evaluating such water as streams, quality ofrivers water and resources lakes. such as streams, rivers and lakes. The Water Quality Index is used by the = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 The Water Quality Index is used by the Central ∑𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 � � 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the 1414project. WaterWater Quality Quality of the of Kharaathe Kharaa River River Basin, Basin, Mongolia: Mongolia: UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

TableTable 3. 3. Water Water quality quality classification classification

Water quality classification Classification Water Quality Index I Very clean ≤0.3 II Clean 0.1-0.89 II Moderately polluted 0.90-2.49 IV Polluted 2.50-3.99 V Highly polluted 4.00-5.99 VI Extremely polluted ≥6.0

Where,Where, th Ci is concentration ofth i pollutant, Pl is the maximum C is concentration of i pollutant, Pl is thei maximum permis- i th i siblepermissible level of levelith pollutant of i pollutant in accordance in accordance with the MNS with 4586-the MNS 4586- 98, and n is the total number of pollutants. 98, and n is the total number of pollutants. The water quality of rivers is then classified based on W The water quality of rivers is then classified based on W valqi - values, as shown in Table 3. qi ues, as shown in Table 3. In determining the WQI, the water quality parameters should be chosen according to the importance of assessing Inwater determining quality theand WQI, the theavailability water quality of monitoring parameters data.should be chosen according to the importance of assessing water The following parameters were used in the water quality qualityassessment and theof theavailability Kharaa ofRiver monitoring in the framework data. The followingof this parametersstudy: were used in the water quality assessment of the Kharaa River• ammonium-nitrogen in the framework of (NH4-N)this study: • nitrate-nitrogen• ammonium-nitrogen (NO3-N) (NH4-N) • phosphate• nitrate-nitrogen (PO4-P) (NO3-N) The Borоо River dam • permanganate• phosphate value (PO4-P) The Borоо river dam • suspended• permanganate solids. value • suspended solids. The dissolved oxygen (DO) and biological oxygen demand

(BOD) are the most preferable parameters for the water The dissolved oxygen (DO) and biological oxygen demand quality assessment. However, the DO and BOD are (BOD) are the most preferable parameters for the water qual- monitored only at the two sampling points of the Darkhan itymonitoring assessment. station, However, whereas the theDO Zuunkharaa and BOD are monitoring monitored onlystation at thedoes two not sampling include pointsthese parameters,of the Darkhan as shown monitoring in station,Table 1. whereas Therefore, the dueZuunkharaa to lack ofmonitoring data on DOstation and does BOD not includeat the Zuunkharaathese parameters, monitoring as shown station, in Table these 1. Therefore, parameters due towere lack not of datataken on into DO account and BOD the atcalculation the Zuunkharaa of the monitorWater - ingQuality station, Index these of parametersthe Kharaa wereRiver. not taken into account the calculation of the Water Quality Index of the Kharaa River. Biotic index: One of the methods that scale the water quality by the hydrobiology is the “Hilsenhoff Biotic BioticIndex” index: (Barbour One et of al, the 1999). methods The thatBiotic scale Index the is water based quality on bycategorizing the hydrobiology macroinvertebrates is the “Hilsenhoff Biotic Index” (Barbour into categories depending on their response to organic et al, 1999). The Biotic Index is based on categorizing macro- pollution (i.e., the tolerance of various levels of dissolved invertebrates into categories depending on their response to oxygen) and the pollution tolerance scores and expanded organic pollution (i.e., the tolerance of various levels of dissolved oxygen) and the pollution tolerance scores and expanded the range from 0 to 10 (Table 4). The Bornuur irrigation channel

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TableTable 4. 4.4. Macroinvertebrates MacroinvertebratesMacroinvertebrates BioticBiotic Biotic IndexIndex Index

GroupGroup namename BioticBiotic GroupGroup namename BiotBioticicic GroupGroup namename BioticBiotic indexindex indexindexindex indexindexindex EphemeopteraEphemeoptera LestidaeLestidae 66 DixidaeDixidae 11 AmeletidaeAmeletidae 00 LibellulidaeLibellulidae 22 EmphididaeEmphididae 66 BaetidaeBaetidae 55 MacromiidaeMacromiidae 22 EphydridaeEphydridae 66 BaetiscidaeBaetiscidae 44 TrichopteraTrichoptera PsychodidaePsychodidae 88 CaenidaeCaenidae 66 BrachycentridaeBrachycentridae 11 SimulidaeSimulidae 66 EphemereEphemere llidaellidaellidae 11 GlossomatidaeGlossomatidae 11 MuscidaeMuscidae 66 EphemeridaeEphemeridae 33 HydropsychidaeHydropsychidae 44 SyrphidaeSyrphidae 1010 HeptageniidaeHeptageniidae 33 HydroptilidaeHydroptilidae 44 TabanidaeTabanidae 55 IsonychiidaeIsonychiidaeIsonychiidae 11 LepidostomatidaeLepidostomatidae 11 TipulidaeTipulidae 33 LeptophlebidaeLeptophlebidae 33 LeptoceridaeLeptoceridae 44 HomopteraHomoptera MetretopodidaeMetretopodidae 22 LimnephLimnephilidaeilidaeilidae 33 CorixidaeCorixidae 55 OligoneyridaeOligoneyridae 22 MolannidaeMolannidae 66 MegalopteraMegaloptera PolymitarcyidaePolymitarcyidae 22 OdontaceridaeOdontaceridae 00 CorydalidaeCorydalidae 44 PotamanthidaePotamanthidae 44 PhryganeidaePhryganeidae 44 SialidaeSialidae 44 SiphlonuridaeSiphlonuridae 44 PolycentropodidaePolycentropodidae 66 LepidopteraLepidoptera PlecopteraPlecoptera PsychomyiidaePsychomyiidae 22 PyralidaPyralidaee 55 CapniidaeCapniidae 22 RhaycophilidaeRhaycophilidae 11 PagurianPagurian ChloroperlidaeChloroperlidae 00 BattleBattle GammaridaeGammaridae 66 LeuctridaeLeuctridae 00 ElmidaeElmidae 44 AsellidaeAsellidae 88 NemouridaeNemouridae 22 DytiscidaeDytiscidae 55 TranslingualTranslingual PerlidaePerlidae 22 GyrinidaeGyrinidae 44 AcariformesAcariformes 44 PerlodidaePerlodidae 22 HaliplidaeHaliplidae 55 PulmonatePulmonate

PteronarPteronarcyidaecyidae 00 HydrophilidaeHydrophilidae 55 LymnaeidaeLymnaeidae 66 TaeniopterygidaeTaeniopterygidae 22 DipteraDiptera PhysidaePhysidae 88 OdonataOdonata AthericidaeAthericidae 44 PlanorbidaePlanorbidae 77 AeshnidaeAeshnidae 33 BlepharoceridaeBlepharoceridae 00 SphaeridaeSphaeridae 88 CalopterygidaeCalopterygidae 66 CeratopogonidaeCeratopogonidae 66 ClitellataClitellata CoenagrionidaeCoenagrionidae 88 ChaoboridaeChaoboridae 88 OlOligochaetaigochaetaigochaeta 88 CordulegastridaeCordulegastridae 33 RedChironomidaeRedChironomidae 88 HirudineaHirudinea 1010

CorduliidaeCorduliidae 22 OtherOther ChironomidaeChironomidae 66 TurbellariaTurbellaria 44 GomphidaeGomphidae 33 CulicidaeCulicidae 88

TheThe MacroinvertebratesMacroinvertebratesMacroinvertebrates BioticBiotic Biotic Index,Index, Index, usedused used forfor Where,Where, thethe assessmentassessment ofof thethe riverriver waterwater quality,quality, isis eses-- isis -group-group macroinvertebrates,macroinvertebrates, isis macroinvertemacroinverte-- for the assessment of the river water quality, xi is i-group macroinvertebrates, ti is timatedtimatedis estimated byby thethe by followingfollowing the following equation:equation: equation: bratesmacroinvertebratesbrates index,index, andand isis index,thethe totaltotal and numbernumber n is the ofof mactotalmac-- roinvertebrates.numberroinvertebrates. of macroinvertebrates.

TheThe waterwater qualityqualityquality classificationclassificationclassification basedbased onon thethethe ∑∑ tx tx ii ii ii BioticBiotic Index=Index= Macroinvertebrates Biotic Index is given in nn MacroinvertebratesMacroinvertebrates BioticBiotic IndexIndex isis givengiven inin TaTa-- bleTableble 55 below.below. 5 below.

TableTable 5. 5.5. Water WaterWater qualityquality quality classificationclassification classification

ClassificationClassification VeryVery cleanclean CCleanleanlean SlightlypollutedSlightlypolluted PPollutedolluted VeryVery pollutedpolluted

BiotBiotiiicc indexindex <4.18<4.18 4.184.18--5.095.09 5.105.10--5.915.91 5.925.92--7.057.05 >7.05>7.05

Source:Source: Bulgan,Bulgan, 20082008

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The advantage of the Biotic Index is that it 1. Preliminary screening: The number gives a possibility to assess the quality of of industries discharging their effluents into water more precisely. But it requires that the a river and its tributaries is significant. The analysis is done by specialized experts in a goal of this step is to shortlist or reduce this laboratory with special equipment. number into a manageable number for the second step. The preliminary screening is Water Quality Index based on available wastewater data such as biological oxygen de-mand (BOD5) or metal The Mongolian National Standard for concentration. Water Quality of the Aquatic Environment: General Requirements MNS 4586-98, 2. Detailed evaluation: The objective developed by the Centre of Standardization of the evaluation is to gather information on and Measure¬ments of Mongolia in 1998 the selected sites during the first step. Each (NSA, 1998) and still in force, provides a hot spot is evaluated based on the impact national standard for principal water quality of its discharges on the following issues: parameters of the aquatic environment. (i) pollution control, (ii) water quality and This standard includes 27 parameters. The human health, (iii) biodiversity, and (iv) objective of this standard is control the quality socio-economic. of surface and groundwater in Mongolia. 3. Prioritization: Based on the data col- There is, so far, no internationally-agreed lected, each hot spot is scored. Higher score stan-dard for physico-chemical and will be given to hot spot with higher negative ecological wa¬ter quality of the aquatic impact. A rating is then established to classify environment and water resources as rivers, the industrial hotspots based on their impact streams and lakes. Hence, the MNS 4586-98 on the surface water. has been applied for this study to evaluate The basic principles of the UNIDO's hotspot the quality of the Kharaa River water. assessment methodology are applied in the pollution hotspot assessment of the Kharaa Pollution hotspot assessment Riv¬er Basin due to the availability of data and the timeframe required for conducting a There are a number of methodologies on pol- compre-hensive assessment. lution hotspot analysis (Vidon et. al., 2010), which are used worldwide. One of them is the Furthermore, there are only few point methodology developed by UNIDO (2013) sources of pollution in the Kharaa River in the framework of the GEF-funded project Basin, except two municipal wastewater on the Dnieper River Basin (2000-2005). treatment plants that discharge their treated The ap¬proach used in this methodology wastewater into the Kharaa River. But there is to assess and prioritize the sources of is no much informa¬tion of outflows of these industrial efflu¬ent discharges (hotspots) in a wastewater treatment plants. Thus, the focus river basin. Only point source pollutions are of the study was to ana¬lyze the Kharaa considered under this methodology (http:// River water quality, as detailed as possible, www.unido.org/what- we-do/environment/). using the available observed data on water The following three steps are applied in this quality monitoring. ap-proach:

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2. Water 2.Resources Water Resources of the ofSelenge the Selenge River River Basin,Basin, Mongolia Mongolia

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The Selenge River Basin covers seven differ significantly from region to region. provinces, including Zavkhan, Khuvsgul, Within the Khangai, Khentii, and Khuvsgul Bulgan, Arkhangai, Uvurkhangai, Tuv, and mountains, taiga, tundra, and mountain soils Selenge. Ulaanbaatar—the capital city of prevail, while drysteppe soil is dominant Mongolia—is located on the bank of the in the wide valley areas of the Orkhon and Tuul River, which is part of the Tuul-Orkhon- Selenge rivers (Dorjgotov, 2003). Selenge River system. Few other cities such as industrial cities of Darkhan (the second The basin belongs to different geographical biggest city) and Erdenet (the third biggest zones. The Selenge River Basin covers about city) are located in the Selenge River Basin. 57.5 percent of the total Mongolian high mountain areas, 64.6 percent of the forest Approximately 80 percent of the basin steppe, and 13.6 percent of the steppe zone landscape is classified as high mountain area (National Atlas, 2009). The area of plateau and mountainous taiga, 90 percent is the Selenge River Basin does not have any forest steppe and, 15 percent is steppe zone. desert, which indicates favorable ecological Due to the large area of the basin, the soil and climatic conditions of the area. conditions and formation processes present

2.1. Hydrology The water resources of the Selenge River Basin The Selenge River forms a large delta on the contain about 50 percent of total surface southeast shoreline of Lake Baikal. Average water resources of Mongolia (Myagmarjav annual precipitation is 350-400 mm in and Davaa, 1999). the upper river reaches of the basin in the Khangai, Khentii and Khuvsgul mountains The Selenge River forms at the confluence of and 300-350 mm in the middle water way, the Ider, Delgermuren and Bugsei rivers in while it is in the range of, or lower than, the northern Mongolia. It is one of the biggest 250-300 mm in downstream valleys. About freshwater resources in Mongolia. Its 70 percent of the total annual precipitation drainage area is 282 154 square kilometers falls during the summer months from June to (Myagmarjav and Davaa, 1999). The Selenge September (National Atlas, 2009).

River is a transboundary water system, located between latitudes 46 and 52°N and The rivers directly flow into Selenge River longitudes 96 and 109°E. The river flows are Orkhon, Eg and Khanui. The long-term northeastwards through Mongolia to Russia, average runoff data at the gauging stations emptying to Lake Baikal. on the Selenge River and its tributaries are given in Table 6 (Myagmarjav et al, 2012).

2.2. Hydrochemistry

In terms of chemical composition, the rivers dominance of calcium. During winter low- in the Selenge River Basin are similar in that water periods and in years of drought, the 2+ Na++K+ appear to be dominant ions. The calcium (Ca ) and bicarbonate (HCO3-),are the dominant ions. About 90-100 percent of long-term mean of total dissolved salts, the all samples show the dominance or mineralization of the main river, varies of bicarbonate and 70-90 percent the between 128-255 mg/l (Table 7).

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TableTable 6. 6. Hydrological Hydrological parameters parameters of of rivers rivers in in the the Selenge Selenge River River and and its its tributaries tributaries

No River -station Period of Area, Mean Discharge, Specific Runoff observation km2 elevation, m m3 /sec runoff, l/sec depth, mm km2 1 Selenge-Khutag 1945-2010 92300 1909 132.7 1.44 45.4 2 Selenge -Khyalgant 1982-2010 143500 1220 306.6 2.14 67.4 3 Selenge -Zuunburen 1975-2010 148000 1200 248.5 1.68 53.0 4 Ider-Zurkh 1960-2010 21300 2179 33.9 1.59 50.2 5 Delgermuren-Muren 1947-2010 18900 2023 36.1 1.91 60.3 7 Bugsei-Tumerbulag 1964-2010 2761 1980 1.57 0.57 17.9 11 Eg-Erdenebulgan 1973-2010 15300 1857 26.6 1.74 54.8 12 Eg-Khantai 1959-2010 41000 1708 99.2 2.42 76.4 13 Orkhon-Kharkhorin 1970-2010 6410 2241 13.3 2.08 65.5 14 Orkhon-Orkhon 1945-2010 36400 1900 41.6 1.14 36.1 16 Orkhon-Orkhon Tuul 1971-2010 96000 1880 81.1 0.84 26.7 17 Orkhon-Sukhbaatar 1950-2010 132000 1200 129.4 0.98 30.9 Source: Myagmarjav et al, 2012.

AccordingAccording to to some some studies studies (Myagmarjav (Myagmarjav et. al.,et. hasfor winterdecreased for inthe all period seasons, from except 1945 for through winter 2012),al., 2012), the runoff the runoff of the Selengeof the Selenge River Basin River for2008. the period from 1945 through 2008. Basin has decreased in all seasons, except

TableTable 7. 7. Long-term Long-term mean mean concentration concentration of of major major ions ions in in the the Selenge Selenge Riverand Riverand its its tributaries tributaries

2 2 + + Rivers TDS Ca + Mg + Na +K HCO3- SO4-- Cl- mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l Selenge 253.7 34.9 10.3 15.6 1578 18.6 5.9 Ider 162.2 25.2 6.8 14.0 104.6 14.1 7.9 Delgermuren 254.5 39.3 9.2 10.0 170.0 17.9 3.6 Eg 234.6 332 11.4 9.8 160.0 12.9 3.9

Orkhon 226.1 26.6 8.9 25.7 142.7 18.5 10.8

Eree 128.9 14.5 4.8 10.5 75.7 10.8 4.4

Data source:Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology

TableTable 8. 8. Long-term Long-term mean mean concentrations concentrations of of chemical chemical pollutants pollutants in in the the Selenge Selenge and and its its tributaries tributaries

Permanganate Hardness Rivers NH4 NO PO Si BOD O pH 3 4 Value 2 as Ca 2++Mg 2+ Selenge 0.190 0.265 0.037 5.9 3.2 2.1 9.6 2.4 7.8 Ider 0.170 0.280 0.015 4.1 3.2 1.5 1.9 7.5 Delgermuren 0.110 0.150 0.021 2.6 2.7 2.2 8.7 2.8 7.7 Eg 0.107 0.190 0.024 2.9 3.2 1.9 2.4 7.7 Orkhon 0.247 0.357 0.040 5.8 3.5 2.7 10.4 2.1 7.6 Eree 0.224 0.311 0.030 6.7 4.0 1.5 11.1 2.6 7.7

Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology

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2.3. Water quality 2.3. Water quality The Selenge River’s water quality is generally dent risk of water quality impairments caused consideredThe Selenge to River’s be good. water The quality long-term is generally mean byno theevident presence risk of chemicalwater quality fertilizers, impairments polluted concentrationsconsidered to bemain good. water The quality long-term parameters mean stormcaused water by the run-off, presence and of poorly chemical treated fertilizers, sewage (suchconcentrations as BOD mainand DO)water and quality concentrations parameters orpolluted leaking stormseptic systems.water run-off, and poorly treated sewage or leaking septic systems. of(such chemical as BOD pollutants, and DO) ammonium-nitrogen, and concentrations nitrate-nitrogen,of chemical pollutants, orthophosphate ammonium-nitrogen, and perman- With respect to hydrobiology and ecological nitrate-nitrogen, orthophosphate and With respect to hydrobiology and ecological ganate do not exceed the respective Maximum water quality, of the Selenge River and its tribu- permanganate do not exceed the respective water quality, of the Selenge River and its Acceptable Concentrations (Table 8). taries are also considered to be in good condi- Maximum Acceptable Concentrations tributaries are also considered to be in good (Table 8). tions.conditions. The number The number of Ephemeroptera, of Ephemeroptera, Plecop- The nutrient pollution in the Selenge River, tera, Trichoptera (EPT) individuals found in the The nutrient pollution in the Selenge River, Plecoptera, Trichoptera (EPT) individuals whichwhich isis generally thethe primary cause of waterwater Selengefound in River the and Selenge its some River tributaries and itsare some given qualityquality impairmentsimpairments in in rivers and lakes, isis veryvery intributaries Table 9. Theare givensummary in Table of macroinvertebrates 9. The summary low.low. Low Low concentrations concentrations of of orthophosphate, orthophosphate, as isof shown macroinvertebrates in Table 10. is shown in Table 10. shownas shown in Table in Table 8, indicate 8, indicate that there that isthere no evi is-

Table 9. Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera individuals found in the Selenge river and its tributaries Table 9. Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera individuals found in the Selenge river and its tributaries

№ Stations 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 1 Selbe-Sanzai 4 6 8 6 13 0 2 Selenge-Khutag 2 4 5 16 6 0 3 Selenge-Sukhbaatar 3 22 11 5 4 77 4 Selenge-Khyalganat 7 11 13 11 25 0 5 Kharaa-Baruunkharaa 5 8 9 31 34 0

6 Kharaa-Darkhan 12 6 3 10 12 1 7 Achuut-Bulgan 4 6 5 3 6 0 8 Zuunturuu-Bulgan 5 4 2 4 5 0 9 Ider-Tosontsengel 6 2 11 10 2 0 10 Tuul-Lun 0 0 2 0 47 0

11 Tuul-Altanbulag 2 5 0 3 6 38 12 Tuul-Ulaanbaatar 12 20 8 4 40 66 13 Terelj-Terelj 5 11 3 18 5 1 14 Urdtamit-Tsetserleg 10 7 4 18 9 0 15 Chuluut-Chuluut 7 6 7 3 4 0 16 Shariyngol-Jibsnii stants 3 2 4 4 5 4 17 Eg-Khantai 5 6 17 18 5 0 Total 112 140 124 168 294 276

Data source: Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment

In order to evaluate the quality of the Selenge chemical pollutants, described in section 1.3.3, RiverIn order water, to evaluate flowing the out quality of Mongolia of the Selenge at the usingsection all observed/sampled1.3.3, using all dataobserved/sampled between 2001 Mongolia-RussiaRiver water flowing border, out monitoring of Mongolia data at at thethe anddata 2010 between at the 2001 station. and According 2010 at theto the station. WQI outletMongolia-Russia of the Sukhbaatar border, station monitoring on the Selengedata at basedAccording on these to parameters,the WQI basedthe Selenge on theseRiver Riverthe outlet were ofassessed the Sukhbaatar for the period station of on 2001- the waterparameters, quality theat the Selenge Sukhbaatar River stationwater appearsquality 2010.Selenge The River assessment were assessed is based for on thethe periodWater fromat the very Sukhbaatar clean to stationclean. Theappears results from are verypre- Qualityof 2001-2010. Index and The parameters assessment of is fivebased major on sentedclean toin clean.Figure 3.The results are presented in the Water Quality Index and parameters of Figure 3. five major chemical pollutants, described in

22 The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be Water used Quality by a third of the party Kharaa before River consulting Basin, Mongolia: with the 22project. Water Quality of the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia: UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

In addition, the water quality of the Selenge pears to be also clean. Populations of pollutant RiverIn addition, has been the assessed water quality by the ofBiotic the IndexSelenge at sensitivesites appears insects to were be alsofound clean. at these Populations sampling threeRiver hassites—namely, been assessed Khutag, by the Khyalganat Biotic Index and at sitesof pollutant for the period sensitive of 2005 insects and were 2010, found indicat at- Sukhbaatar—forthree sites—namely, the period Khutag, of 2005-2010.Khyalganat andThe ingthese therefore sampling that sites the goodfor the quality period of theof water2005 resultsSukhbaatar—for are presented the inperiod Figure of 4. 2005-2010. The water conditions.and 2010, indicating therefore that the good qualityThe results of the are Selenge presented River inat Figurethese sites 4. Theap- quality of the water conditions. water quality of the Selenge River at these

Table 10. Summary analysis of Aquatic Macroinvertebrate at different stations in the Selenge River and its Tabletributaries 10. Summary (2005-2010) analysis of Aquatic Macroinvertebrate at different stations in the Selenge River and its tributaries (2005-2010)

№ Metric (by category) Selenge River tributaries

- - - - lun UB - - t Eg Ider Selbe Terelj Khutag Achuut Uliastai Chuluut Kharaa Kharaa Darkhan Selenge Selenge Tuul

Orkhonn Tuul Urdtamir Zuunturuu Khyalgana Sharyingol Baruunkha Richness and Diversity 1 Total Taxa Richness 13 5 10 11 21 9 11 14 12 10 18 13 15 7 10 14 7 2 Taxa Richness of EPT 9 4 5 6 12 6 10 9 9 8 12 6 10 7 7 11 6 3 Simpson's Diversity 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 Index 4 Simpson's 9.4 2.6 5.1 3 6 6.4 7.1 5.4 4.6 5.5 6.7 3.7 3 3.3 6.3 4.3 6 Reciprocal Index 5 Total individuals of 54 343 46 276 178 60 115 196 200 79 233 146 88 113 51 144 13 Taxa 6 Individuals of EPT 34 342 22 260 133 50 97 169 188 77 170 45 74 113 36 125 10 Taxa 7 Individuals of 17 4 10 226 110 21 38 109 136 41 132 29 61 65 27 71 7 Ephemeroptera 8 Individuals of 15 338 6 33 16 11 1 0 28 24 21 13 9 43 3 26 1 Plecoptera 9 Individuals of 2 0 6 1 7 18 58 60 24 12 17 3 4 5 6 28 2 Trichoptera Composition and Evenness 10 Dominant Taxon 18.5 53.1 37 43.5 33.1 26.7 18.3 32.1 38.5 31.6 25.8 48.6 56.8 41.6 31.4 43.1 38.5 11 EPT Taxa 69.2 80 50 54.5 57.1 66.7 90.9 64.3 75 80 66.7 46.2 66.7 100 70 78.6 85.7 12 EPT Individuals 63 99.7 47.8 94.2 74.7 83.3 84.3 86.2 94 97.5 73 30.8 84.1 100 70.6 86.8 76.9 13 Chironomidae 14.8 0 2.2 0 0.6 6.7 0 2.6 3 0 2.1 0 1.1 0 0 0 0 Tolerance/Intolerance 14 Sensitive Organisms 45.3 100 67.5 96.3 61 78.4 96.4 54.3 62.1 48.5 71.1 84.6 83.2 68.2 72.4 63.8 37 15 Moderate-Sensitive 24.5 - 30 2.1 26.3 14.8 2.7 33.4 11.1 38 10.9 13.9 10.7 27.1 7.9 32.4 51.1 Organisms 16 Tolerant Organisms 30.2 - 2.5 1.6 12.7 6.8 0.9 12.3 26.8 13.5 18 1.5 6.1 4.8 19.7 3.8 11.9 Data source: Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment

Figure 3. Water quality index at the Sukhbaatar of the Figure 4. Biotic Index results at three sites of the Figure 3. Water qualitySelenge index River at the Sukhbaatar of Figure 4. Biotic IndexSelenge results River at three sites of the the Selenge River Selenge River

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3.3. Water Water Quality Quality AssessmentAssessment of of the the KharaaKharaa River River Basin Basin

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The Kharaa River Basin is shared among diverse economic activities such as industry, three administrative regions, called aimags agriculture and livestock breeding, which (equivalent to provinces)—namely, Selenge may potentially have significant impacts on aimag, Tuv aimag and Darkhan-Uul aimag. the quantity and quality of water resources The basin also includes the rapidly-growing of the basin. Furthermore, the basin provides industrial city of Darkhan, which is the third drinking water for the rapidly-growing largest city with 74,738 inhabitants as of Darkhan City, which water supplies largely 2010 (NSO, 2010). rely on alluvial aquifers containing shallow- The entire population of the Kharaa River depth groundwater, and the inhabitants of Basin is about 133,000. small human settlements in the basin. Hence, growing pressures from climate The Kharaa River Basin is under increasing change and anthropogenic activities on the pressure from rapid urbanization, rising Kharaa River (Figure 5) makes the basin water demand and climate change. The an ideal example of river basins under a upper basin is in a relatively pristine state spectrum of climatic and anthropogenic and has experienced minimal anthropogenic pressures. impacts. The lower basin is characterized by

3.1. Hydrology and hydrogeology

3.1.1. Surface water

The Kharaa River Basin is located in northern The annual mean discharge ranged from Mongolia, not far away from the capital 3.84 to 26.3 m3/s between 1991 and 2010 Ulaanbaatar, between latitudes 47°53’ (Battsetseg, 2011). Together with the Orkhon and 49°38’N and longitudes 105°19’ and River, the Kharaa River discharges to the 107°22’E. The catchment area of the basin is Selenge River Basin, which is the main about 15,050 square kilometers (Battsetseg, catchment region of Lake Baikal. 2011). The lowest elevation is about 654 meters a.s.l. and is found near the outlet of The upper course of the Kharaa River is the catchment, whereas the highest point characterized by mid- to high mountain is about 2668 meters a.s.l. and is located ranges of the Khentii Mountains, with steep in the vicinity of the Asralt Khairhan (2799 valley slopes and rises. The summit region meters a.s.l.)—the highest peak of the Asralt Khairhan, which peak altitude is 2799 Khentii Mountains range and the area of the meters a.s.l., is dominated by denudated, headwaters of some important Mongolian flattened and periglacially transformed rivers. In around 60 percent of the basin area, mountains (MoMo, 2009). In the middle the elevation ranges between 900 and 1300 reaches, the relief is dominated by broad meters a.s.l. The average altitude of the valleys with significant terrace levels and whole catchment is 1,167 meters (Figure 6). hilly uplands with gentle slopes, as well as remnants of denudated rocks. At 291 km in length, the Kharaa River originates in the mountains north of Ulaanbaatar and passes through Selenge and Darkhan-Uul provinces in central northern Mongolia before emptying into the Orkhon River.

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©Batimaa, P., 2013

Figure 5. TheThe Kharaa Kharaa River River at at Baruunkharaa Baruunkharaa hydrological hydrological gauging gauging station station (21 (21 July July 2012) 2012)

Figure 6. The KharaaKharaa RiverRiver Basin Basin and and waterwater qualityquality monitoringmonitoring sitessites

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InIn this this river river section, section, the theKharaa Kharaa River Riverflows landscape.lowlands, theIn Kharaathe lowlands, River flowsthe Kharaa as a natural River throughflows through a wide a floodplainwide floodplain and has and a meanhas a- flowsmeandering as a natural river meandering system with river ancient system cut-off with deringmeandering channel channel of 10 ofto 1025 to meters 25 meters wide wide and ancientmeanders cut-off in some meanders places. in some places. fromand from0.2 to 0.2 2 metersto 2 meters deep. deep.Upstream Upstream of the cityof theof Zuunkharaa,city of Zuunkharaa, the river splitsthe intoriver several splits ChannelizationChannelization waswas conductedconducted only inin somesome smallinto andseveral shallow small branches. and shallow The lower branches. reaches veryvery limitedlimited river river areas. areas. Therefore, Therefore, the flood the- fromThe lowerthe gauging reaches station from theat Baruunkharaa gauging station to plainfloodplain meadow meadow still serves still itsserves natural its retentionnatural at Baruunkharaa to the confluence of the retention function, a situation which is the confluence of the Kharaa River with the function, a situation which is important for na- Kharaa River with the Orkhon River is an important for nature conservation. Orkhon River is an open steppe and lowland ture conservation. open steppe and lowland landscape. In the

3.1.2.3.1.2. Groundwater

The Kharaa River Basin is mainly groundwater recharge from precipitation is Thecharacterized Kharaa River by unconfined Basin is mainly alluvial character aquifers.- ferentvery low layers. in the The Darkhan groundwater area. recharge from izedThe byunconfined unconfined groundwater alluvial aquifers. aquifers The areun- precipitationThe recharge is verydepends low inon the the Darkhan inflow area. of confinedcharacterized groundwater by alluvial aquifers sand are and character gravel- Thegroundwater recharge dependsfrom aquifers on the inflow of the of groundupper- izedwith by interlaced alluvial sand sandy and loam gravel (Batsukh, with interlaced 2007). watercatchment from areaaquifers where of thethe precipitationupper catchment and sandyDue toloam the (Batsukh, porous media,2007). Duethe conductivityto the porous areagroundwater where the infiltration precipitation are muchand groundwater higher. media,of the aquiferthe conductivity is high, mainly of the fromaquifer 10 isto high,100 infiltration are much higher. m/day and partly up to 300m/day. The main The “exploitable groundwater resources” of mainly from 10 to 100 m/day and partly up water bearing stratum extends with a width of the Kharaa River Basin has been estimated at to 300m/day. The main water bearing stratum The “exploitable groundwater resources” of 10 to 20 kilometers along the Kharaa River, 182 million cubic meters, as shown in Table extends with a width of 10 to 20 kilometers the Kharaa River Basin has been estimated at reaches near Darkhan a thickness of 70 m, 11 (Jadambaa, 2012). alongand is the divided Kharaa up River, into reachesdifferent near layers. Darkhan The 182 million cubic meters, as shown in Table 11 a thickness of 70 m, and is divided up into dif- (Jadambaa, 2012).

Table 11. Exploitable groundwater resources of the Kharaa River Basin

Table 11.Exploitable groundwater resources of the Kharaa River Basin

No of Area (sq.km..) Resources per unit area, Total resources per unit area, aquifers m3/sec per sq.km. mln m3/year per sq.km. 1 250 315000 79 3 3121 31500 98 7 46 5203 0.24 8 67 5203 0.35 11 4719 520 2 12 234 5203 1 13 9026 94.6 1 Total 17463 182 Data source: Jadambaa, 2012

3.2.3.2. HydrochemistryHydrochemistry In general, concentrations of the chemical along the river. Slightly higher concentrations composition of the headwaters of the Kharaa were observed after snow melting and heavy In general, concentrations of the chemical the river. Slightly higher concentrations were River are near the natural background rainy periods and dry years (Batimaa, 1998). compositionconditions and of increasethe headwaters towards of downstream the Kharaa observed after snow melting and heavy rainy River are near the natural background condi- periods and dry years (Batimaa, 1998). tions and increase towards downstream along

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In this river section, the Kharaa River flows landscape. In the lowlands, the Kharaa River 3.2.1.3.2.1. Major ions ions through a wide floodplain and has a mean- flows as a natural meandering river system with dering channel of 10 to 25 meters wide and ancient cut-off meanders in some places. The monthly mean concentrations of total between 162.2 and 335.7 mg/l and increase from 0.2 to 2 meters deep. Upstream of the Thedissolved monthly salts, mean or concentrations mineralization, of total which dis- andin downstream 335.7 mg/land are increase as along in thedownstream river length are solved salts, or mineralization,2+ + + which2+ is the sum as along the river length (Table 12). The con- city of Zuunkharaa, the river splits into several Channelization was conducted only in some is the sum of Ca , Na +K , Mg , HCO3-, (Table 12). The concentrations also increase 2-2+ + + 2+ 2- - small and shallow branches. The lower reaches very limited river areas. Therefore, the flood- ofSO Ca4 ,and Na Clions,+K , Mg in the, HCO Kharaa3-, SO River4 and vary Cl centrationsduring snow also melting increase periods. during snow melting from the gauging station at Baruunkharaa to plain meadow still serves its natural retention ions, in the Kharaa River vary between 162.2 periods. the confluence of the Kharaa River with the function, a situation which is important for na- Orkhon River is an open steppe and lowland ture conservation.

Table 12. Annual distribution of average concentrations of total dissolved salts, or mineralization Table 12. Annual distribution of average concentrations of total dissolved salts, or mineralization 3.1.2. Groundwater Stations Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Zuunkharaa - - - 199.2 - 189.4 166.2 168.4 213.0 188.3 214.8 - The Kharaa River Basin is mainly character- ferent layers. The groundwater recharge from (upper) ized by unconfined alluvial aquifers. The un- precipitation is very low in the Darkhan area. Zuunkharaa - - - 248.4 - 189.3 174.2 176.9 203.7 208.6 223.7 - (down) confined groundwater aquifers are character- The recharge depends on the inflow of ground- Darkhan 218.8 224.3 256.3 262.2 298.3 283.8 269.1 245.4 229.1 237.4 261.9 197.9 ized by alluvial sand and gravel with interlaced water from aquifers of the upper catchment (upper) Darkhan 264.7 290.6 268.6 275.5 335.7 294.8 273.6 284.4 270.1 270.1 300.6 253.7 sandy loam (Batsukh, 2007). Due to the porous area where the precipitation and groundwater (down) media, the conductivity of the aquifer is high, infiltration are much higher. Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology mainly from 10 to 100 m/day and partly up to 300m/day. The main water bearing stratum The “exploitable groundwater resources” of extends with a width of 10 to 20 kilometers the Kharaa River Basin has been estimated at In most of the cases, the calcium and bicar- monitoring station on the Kharaa River (Figure along the Kharaa River, reaches near Darkhan 182 million cubic meters, as shown in Table 11 In most of the cases, the calcium and areas, as observed at the Zuunkharaa upper bonate are the dominant ions at all monitoring 7). In the downstream from Darkhan city, the a thickness of 70 m, and is divided up into dif- (Jadambaa, 2012). bicarbonate are the dominant ions at all monitoring station on the Kharaa River stations of the Kharaa River. According to the order of abundance of anions is the same as in monitoring stations of the Kharaa River. (Figure 7). In the downstream from Darkhan PiperAccording diagram to and the classifications Piper diagram of O.A. andAle- thecity, upstream the order station, of abundance while the order of anions of abun is-

Table 11.Exploitable groundwater resources of the Kharaa River Basin kin,classifications in a vast majority of O. of A. the Alekin, cases the in ordera vast of dancethe same of anions as in thebecomes upstream considerably station, whileunsta- 2+ + + 2+ . abundancemajority of ofthe cations cases isthe Ca order>Na of abundance+K >Mg ble,the asorder observed of abundance at the Darkhan of anions down becomes monitor- No of Area (sq.km. ) Resources per unit area, Total resources per unit area, of cations is Ca2+>Na++K+>Mg2+ and the considerably unstable, as observed at the 3 3 and the order of abundance of anions is HCO3- ing station on the river (Figure 8). aquifers m /sec per sq.km. mln m /year per sq.km. 2- - >SOorder >Clof abundance. This order of is anionsclearer inis upstreamHCO3-> Darkhan down monitoring station on the 1 250 315000 79 2-4 - areas,SO4 >Cl as .observed This order at theis clearer Zuunkharaa in upstream upper river (Figure 8). 3 3121 31500 98 7 46 5203 0.24 8 67 5203 0.35 11 4719 520 2 12 234 5203 1 13 9026 94.6 1 Total 17463 182 Data source: Jadambaa, 2012

3.2. Hydrochemistry

In general, concentrations of the chemical the river. Slightly higher concentrations were composition of the headwaters of the Kharaa observed after snow melting and heavy rainy FigureFigure 7. 7. RelationshipRelationship betweenbetween total dissolved salts and cationscations andand anionsanions River are near the natural background condi- periods and dry years (Batimaa, 1998). (Kharaa-Zuunkharaa(Kharaa-Zuunkharaa (upper)) tions and increase towards downstream along

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FigureFigure 8. 8. RelationshipRelationship betweenbetween total dissolved salts and cationscations andand anionsanions (Kharaa-Darkhan(Kharaa-Darkhan (down))

TheThe overalloverall assessment assessment of the of chemical the chemical compo- TheThe results of the MoMoMoMo (2009)(2009) studystudy showshow sitioncomposition has shown has good shown chemical good conditions chemical at veryvery similarsimilar results results of of the the chemical chemical analysis analysis of allconditions sampling atsites all onsampling the Kharaa sites River.on the Kharaa theof the Kharaa Kharaa River River water water quality. quality. River. The Kharaa River water is moderately hard and InIn general, the qualityquality of surfacesurface waterswaters inin thethe itsThe pH Kharaa varies Riverbetween water 6.9 is andmoderately 8.2. Chloride hard mountainousmountainous regionregion of the KharaaKharaa RiverRiver BasinBasin and its pH varies between 6.9 and 8.2. is good with low nutrient concentrations, concentrations appear to be higher in down- is good with low nutrient concentrations, to- Chloride concentrations appear to be higher total solids concentrations ranging from 17 stream areas compared to in the upstream tal solids concentrations ranging from 17 to 60 in downstream areas compared to in the to 60 mg/l, very low chloride concentrations regionupstream near region the Zuunkharaanear the Zuunkharaa upper sampling upper mg/l,between very low2 and chloride 4 mg/l, concentrations and heavy between metal point.sampling Higher point. levels Higher of chloride levels of may chloride be indica may- 2concentrations and 4 mg/l, and almost heavy below metal concentrationsthe detection tive of possible water pollution. almost below the detection limits. However, in be indicative of possible water pollution. limits. However, in the middle and lower thereaches middle there and are lower the reachesnutrient there concentrations are the nu- MonthlyMonthly meanmean concentrations of majormajor ions,ions, trienttend toconcentrations increase, whereas tend to the increase, total dissolved whereas hardnesshardness andand pH pH at at all all monitoring monitoring stations stations are thesolids total concentrations dissolved solids are concentrations as high as 100-340 are as givenare given in Table in Table 13. 13. highmg/l asand 100-340 the chloride mg/l and concentrations the chloride concen range- trationsbetween range 10 to between 17 mg/l. 10 to 17 mg/l.

3.2.2. Dissolved oxygen 3.2.2. Dissolved oxygen Dissolved oxygen is absolutely essential for much more important parameter to measure the survival of all aquatic organisms-not only water quality than faecal coliform (Hunt et Dissolvedfish, but oxygenalso invertebrates is absolutely suchessential as forcrabs, the oxygenal, 2000). is a much more important parameter survivalclams, zooplankton,of all aquatic organisms—not etc. Moreover, only oxygen fish, to measure water quality than faecal coliform butaffects also a invertebratesvast number ofsuch other as watercrabs, qualityclams, (HuntThe dissolvedet al, 2000). oxygen concentrations in zooplankton,indicators in etc. terms Moreover, of not oxygenonly physicalaffects a the Kharaa River water are monitored only vastchemical number and of biological other water parameters quality indicators of water Theat the dissolved two sampling oxygen points concentrations of the Darkhan in the inquality, terms ofbut not also only indicators physical chemical of the andesthetic bio- Kharaamonitoring River station:water are Darkhan monitored upper only atand the logicalquality parameters of river’s waterof water like quality, the odor, but alsoclarity in- twoDarkhan sampling down. points The of thedissolved Darkhan oxygen moni- dicatorsand taste. of theConsequently, esthetic quality oxygen of river’s is perhaps water toringconcentration station: Darkhanis not uppermeasured and Darkhanat the likethe themost odor, well-established clarity and taste. indicator Consequently, of water down.Zuunkharaa The dissolved monitoring oxygen station. concentration is oxygenquality. is Theperhaps level the of most dissolved well-established oxygen is in a- not measured at the Zuunkharaa monitoring dicator of water quality. The level of dissolved station.

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Table 13.Monthly mean concentrations of major ions of the Kharaa River Table 13. Monthly mean concentrations of major ions of the Kharaa River

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Zuunkharaa upper Ca2+ - - - 30.4 - 27.5 25.6 25.3 23.7 27.9 32.0 - Mg2+ - - - 9.4 - 9.2 7.3 7.0 6.0 8.4 8.9 - Na+ +K+ - - - 7.5 - 8.2 8.2 8.0 24.2 8.8 11.4 - - HCO3 - - - 133.5 - 129.4 119.8 114.8 142.8 127.0 142.7 - 2- SO4 - - - 13.6 - 10.5 7.9 8.1 11.2 11.7 15.6 - Cl- - - - 4.2 - 3.9 3.6 4.2 5.1 4.0 3.9 - Hardness - - - 2.3 - 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2.1 2.3 - pH - - - 7.4 - 7.3 7.4 7.0 6.9 7.3 7.2 - Zuunkharaa down Ca2+ - - - 33.6 - 26.7 27.2 27.5 25.6 29.6 33.2 - Mg 2+ - - - 11.1 - 7.9 6.1 8.0 6.5 9.8 8.6 - Na+ +K+ - - - 9.9 - 9.8 7.1 7.2 7.4 9.2 7.6 - - HCO3 - - - 170.7 - 122.4 111.8 117.4 106.8 133.0 133.5 - 2- SO4 - - - 17.9 - 4.9 6.3 6.1 5.0 7.4 11.2 - Cl- - - - 7.7 - 4.9 6.3 6.1 5.0 7.4 11.2 - Hardness - - - 2.6 - 2.0 1.8 2.1 1.8 2.3 2.4 - pH - - - 7.3 - 7.2 7.3 7.0 7.4 7.3 7.1 -

Darkhan Upper

Ca2+ 33.5 32.3 33.4 31.8 31.2 30.5 32.4 29.8 31.1 31.0 32.5 31.9 Mg 2+ 11.6 14.6 14.7 12.8 12.9 12.5 13.0 10.5 10.5 12.6 12.9 12.6 Na+ +K+ 27.7 30.1 24.7 23.9 27.2 28.2 23.3 25.6 24.9 26.4 29.4 25.7 - HCO 3 182.2 190.8 166.8 164.0 169.8 157.1 160.3 162.1 159.7 161.4 182.7 170.2 2- SO 4 35.5 28.6 34.6 31.9 35.7 30.4 34.9 28.8 32.8 35.5 31.4 26.2 Cl- 8.2 9.2 8.8 7.5 9.6 8.2 11.5 9.3 6.5 14.0 9.4 7.7

Hardness 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7

pH 8.1 7.8 8.1 8.0 8.0 8.1 8.0 8.1 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.2 Darkhan down Ca2+ 29.8 34.5 29.0 24.6 31.0 31.4 30.3 27.6 26.7 29.6 34.3 34.6 Mg2+ 11.4 12.1 11.9 9.6 12.3 12.1 12.8 11.1 10.0 13.2 12.4 13.4 Na++K+ 21.8 27.4 18.0 18.0 22.0 23.7 21.8 20.2 21.7 29.6 33.1 27.1 - HCO3 141.7 171.9 154.3 131.1 153.2 154.8 163.7 147.3 146.8 164.8 182.5 173.2 2- SO4 28.9 31.3 23.6 26.7 30.4 29.8 29.2 27.1 30.8 34.1 36.8 29.9 Cl- 13.7 15.8 11.7 8.6 11.4 9.1 12.9 8.4 9.1 13.2 11.7 13.4 Hardness 2.4 2.7 2.3 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.4 2.1 2.1 2.7 2.7 2.8 pH 8.1 8.2 7.9 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.0 8.0 8.2 8.2 8.2

Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology

The dissolved oxygen concentrations at the and minimum concentrations of dissolved The dissolved oxygen concentrations at the mum concentrations of dissolved oxygen are Darkhan sampling points vary from 3.8 to oxygen are given below in Table 14. Darkhan14.0 mg/l. sampling The monthlypoints vary mean, from 3.8maximum to 14.0 given below in Table 14. mg/l. The monthly mean, maximum and mini-

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TableTable 14. 14. Annual Annual distribution distribution of of dissolved dissolved oxygen oxygen concentrations concentrations

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Darkhan upper Average 9.12 8.83 9.46 10.63 9.25 8.87 8.74 9.06 10.04 11.19 10.35 10.00 Max 12.16 12.10 12.00 18.80 14.00 11.60 11.20 12.40 13.60 13.40 13.60 12.09 Min 6.00 6.10 6.66 7.37 6.14 5.80 6.80 6.10 8.00 8.56 8.10 8.28 Darkhan down Average 8.47 9.89 9.89 9.43 8.82 8.93 8.21 8.87 9.50 10.96 9.91 9.59 Max 11.70 14.80 14.80 12.15 10.90 12.43 10.70 12.60 12.72 14.90 12.64 12.00 Min 6.33 7.80 7.80 4.03 6.00 6.40 6.10 1.20 5.40 5.44 5.21 5.80

Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology

The trend with regard to the river’s water qual- more continuous monitoring of dissolved oxy- The trend with regard to the river’s water causes, a more continuous monitoring of ityquality assessed assessed for dissolved for dissolvedoxygen conditions oxygen gendissolved is needed oxygen to understand is needed the to dailyunderstand fluctua- overconditions a twenty-five over a yearstwenty-five period isyears shown period in Fig is- tionsthe daily and howfluctuations it relates and to weather how it conditionsrelates to ureshown 9. Between in Figure 1986 9. Between and 2011, 1986 there and was 2011, no andweather the quality conditions of the andriver’s the water. quality of the statisticallythere was significantno statistically trend insignificant dissolved trend oxy- river’s water. gen,in dissolved based on oxygen,the monthly based spot on measurements. the monthly The Mongolian National Standard for Water spot measurements. On the other hand, the The Mongolian National Standard for Water On the other hand, the dissolved oxygen con- Quality of the Aquatic Environment MNS 4586- centrationsdissolved oxygenquite vary concentrations seasonally within quite a year,vary 98Quality sets theof Maximumthe Aquatic Acceptable Environment Concentra MNS- asseasonally shown in within Table 14.a year, No clearas shown reason in canTable be tion4586- of dissolved98 sets theoxygen Maximum at 4-6 mg/l. Acceptable Accord- found14. No for clear this seasonal reason change,can be whilefound variations for this ingConcentration to the observed of dissolveddata, there oxygen were no at cases4-6 seasonal change, while variations from year mg/l. According to the observed data, there from year to year can be caused by a variety of when the dissolved oxygen concentrations fell to year can be caused by a variety of factors, were no cases when the dissolved oxygen factors, such as the weather conditions preced- below 4 mg/lin the upper stream of the Kharaa such as the weather conditions preced¬ing concentrations fell below 4 mg/l in the upper ing the sample collection, water temperature, River. Slightly higher dissolved oxygen concen- the sample collection, water temperature, stream of the Kharaa River. Slightly higher other water quality parameters (e.g., nutrients), trations, but below the upper limit of 6 mg/l, other water quality parameters (e.g., dissolved oxygen concentrations, but below andnutrients), the time and of thesample time collection.of sample collection.In order to werethe upper observed limit in of very 6 mg/l, few werecases observeddownstream in lookIn order assess to lookany long-term assess any changes long-term in dissolvedchanges fromvery Darkhanfew cases city downstream (Figure9). from Darkhan oxygenin dissolved concentrations oxygen concentrations and their causes,and their a city (Figure 9).

Figure 9.9. Dissolved Dissolved OxygenOxygen concentration trends ofof the Kharaa RiverRiver forfor thethe periodperiod 1985-20101985-2010

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3.2.3. Biological Oxygen Demand 3.2.3. Biological Oxygen Demand Acceptable Concentration of 5 mg/l (as set in the national water quality standard MNS The biological oxygen demand (BOD) is one of dard MNS 4586:98), indicating that the river theThe chemical biological parameters oxygen demand that measure (BOD) organic is one water4586:98), is clean. indicating However, that it theshould river be waternoted pollutionof the chemical in rivers andparameters streams. that measure thatis clean. during However, summer itthe should BOD beconcentrations noted that during summer the BOD concentrations organic pollution in rivers and streams. occasionally exceeded the Maximum Accept- occasionally exceeded the Maximum The BOD of the Kharaa River is monitored able Concentration in both sampling points The BOD of the Kharaa River is monitored Acceptable Concentration in both sampling only at the two sampling points of the Darkhan (Figure10). This may indicate that organic pol- only at the two sampling points of the points (Figure 10). This may indicate that monitoring station. The observed data for the lutants, originating from urban and industrial Darkhan monitoring station. The observed organic pollutants, originating from urban perioddata forfrom the1985-2010 period showfrom that 1985-2010 in most of areaand ofindustrial Darkhan areacity, andof Darkhanlivestock wastescity, and en- theshow cases, that the in BOD most concentrations of the cases, were the belowBOD terlivestock the river wastes with surfaceenter the washing river withduring surface heavy theconcentrations Maximum Acceptable were below Concentration the Maximum of 5 rainfallwashing events. during heavy rainfall events. mg/l (as set in the national water quality stan-

Figure 10. Biological oxygen demand concentration trend of the Kharaa River near Darkhan city for the Figure 10. Biological oxygen demand concentrationperiod 1985-2010 trend of the Kharaa River near Darkhan city for the period 1985-2010

As shown in Figure 10,10, therethere isis no no increasing, increasing, noticeablyably higher higherthan those than upstream. those upstream. This may This be or decreasing,decreasing, trends trends in in BOD BOD concentrations concentrations at maycaused be by caused the discharge by the discharge of Darkhan of WastewaDarkhan- bothat both sampling sampling points. points. However, However, the concen the- Wastewaterter Treatment Treatment Plant effluents. Plant effluents. trationsconcentrations downstream downstream from the from city theare city notice are- 3.2.4. Nutrients 3.2.4. Nutrients In Mongolia, the level of nutrients in rivers is river water in warm seasons because animal generallyIn Mongolia, influenced the bylevel natural of factorsnutrients such inas manurenutrient isinputs washed to theinto riverrivers water with showmeltin warm catchmentrivers is generallygeology, rainfall influenced and river by flownatural pat- andseasons rainfall because runoff (Batimaa,animal manure 1998). is washed terns.factors The such main as catchmentsource of nutrients geology, in rainfall urban into rivers with showmelt and rainfall runoff areasand riveris municipal flow patterns. wastewater, The whereasmain source agri- Monthly(Batimaa, mean 1998). concentrations of ammonium- of nutrients in urban areas is municipal cultural fertilizers and livestock manure are the nitrogen (NH4-N) range between 0.09 and 0.38 majorwastewater, non-point-sources whereas agricultural of nitrogen andfertilizers phos- mg/,Monthly while mean the concentrations of ammonium-nitrate-nitro- and livestock manure are the major nitrogen (NH4-N) range between 0.09 phorus in rural areas. Usually nutrients con- gen (NO3-N) vary from 0.01 to 0.84 mg/l for the centrationsnon-point sources increase of during nitrogen high and water phosphorus periods periodand 0.38 from mg/, 1985 while to 2010. the Theconcentrations concentrations of duein rural to areas.snowmelting Usually and nutrients heavy concentrations rainfalls. This ofnitrate-nitro¬gen phosphate (PO (NO3-N)P) are in the vary range from from 0.01 0.01 to increase during high water periods due to 0.84 mg/l for the4- period from 1985 to 2010. is mainly due to Mongolia’s pastoral livestock to 0.21 mg/l. The phosphate concentrations in snowmelting and heavy rainfalls. This is The concentrations of phosphate (PO4-P) herdingmainly duepractices, to Mongolia’s as herders pastoral live along livestock a river theare Kharaain the rangeRiver werefrom much0.01 tolower 0.21 than mg/l. the The ni- bank.herding Traditionally, practices, riversas herders and streams live alongare used a trogenphosphate concentrations. concentrations in the Kharaa asriver sources bank. of Traditionally,livestock water. rivers This leadsand streams to fecal River were much lower than the ni¬trogen contaminationare used as sources and direct of livestock nutrient inputswater. to This the concentrations. leads to fecal contamination and direct

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The nutrient concentrations in the Kharaa However, the number of cases, in which the TheRiver nutrient water concentrationsusually increased in the during Kharaa spring River thenutrient order concentrationsof 2 to 3 times. However,exceeded the the number MAC waterand summer usually increasedtime (Table during 15) andspring sometimes and sum- oflevels cases, represents in which lessthe nutrientthan 5 percentconcentrations of all mer time (Table 15) and sometimes exceeded exceeded the MAC levels represents less than exceeded the Maximum Acceptable samples. theConcentrations Maximum Acceptable by the order Concentrations of 2 to 3 times. by 5 percent of all samples.

TableTable 15. 15. Monthly Monthly mean mean concentrations concentrations of of ammonium ammonium of of the the Kharaa Kharaa River River

Stations Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

NH4-N, (MAC is 0.5 mg/l) Zuunkhara a - - - 0.32 - 0.20 0.14 0.28 0.34 0.11 0.19 - (upper) Zuunkharaa - - - 0.38 - 0.32 0.21 0.20 0.13 0.26 0.17 - (upper) Darkhan 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.25 0.39 0.24 0.22 0.17 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.06 (upper) Darkhan 0.13 0.09 0.09 0.45 0.29 0.18 0.22 0.20 0.11 0.15 0.18 0.12 (down) NO3-N, (MAC is 10 mg/l) Zuunkharaa - - - 0.35 - 0.47 0.35 0.75 0.15 0.37 0.26 - (upper) Zuunkharaa - - - 0.25 - 0.28 0.84 0.67 0.56 0.24 0.59 - (upper) Darkhan 0.17 0.01 0.15 0.19 0.17 0.25 0.24 0.14 0.10 0.13 0.17 0.24 (upper) Darkha n 0.50 0.01 0.56 0.35 0.34 0.49 0.80 0.26 0.21 0.34 0.36 0.76 (down) PO -P, (MAC is 0.1 mg/l) 4 Zuunkharaa - - - 0.05 - 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.03 - (upper) Zuunkharaa - - - 0.07 - 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.04 - (upper) Darkhan 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03

(upper) Darkhan 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.21 0.06 (down) Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology

MostMost domesticdomestic and and industrial industrial wastewaters wastewaters have ResultsResults of of the the trend trend analyses analyses of nutrient of nutrientconcen- muchhave highermuch concentrations higher concentrations of ammonia, niof- trationsconcentrations since 1990 since are 1990 illustrated are illustrated in Figures11 in trate,ammonia, and phosphate nitrate, and than phosphate the river water than does. the throughFigures11 13. through As shown 13. in As Figure shown 11, inthere Figure are river water does. The Darkhan Wastewater 11, there are no increasing, or decreasing, The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant, no increasing, or decreasing, trends in NH - Treatment Plant, which is located in the study trends in NH4-N concentrations in both4 which is located in the study area, is a major N concentrations in both monitoring stations. area, is a major source of nutrient pollution monitoring stations. The concentrations of source of nutrient pollution in the Kharaa River The concentrations of NO -Nnear Zuunkharaa in the Kharaa River (see Section 4.1.1). Thus, NO3-N near Zuunkharaa3 have decreased (seehigher Section concentrations 4.1.1). Thus, of higherNH4-N,NO3-N concentra- havesince decreased1990, while since data 1990, from while the dataDarkhan from tionsand PO4-Pof NH4 -N,NOobserved3-N inand the PO downstream4-Pobserved ofin themonitoring Darkhan stationmonitoring show station no showtrend no(Figure trend theDarkhan downstream city with of respectDarkhan to city other with sampling respect (Figure12). Similarly, 12). Similarly, PO4-P POconcentrations4-P concentrations have topoints other indicate sampling that points munici¬pal indicate thatwastewater munici- havedecreased decreased near nearZuunkharaa, Zuunkharaa, while while there there is paldischarges wastewater into dischargesstreams of intothe basinstreams increase of the isno no trend trend near near Darkhan Darkhan city city (Figure (Figure 13). 13). basinthe nutrient increase concentrations the nutrient concentrations in the Kharaa in theRiver Kharaa water. River water.

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Figure 11. Trends in NH4-N concentrations at Zuunkharaa and Darkhan monitoring stations

Figure 12.12. Trends in NO3-N concentrations at ZuunkharaaZuunkharaa and DarkhanDarkhan monitoring stations monitoring stations

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Figure 13.Trends in PO4-P concentrations at

Figure 13. Trends in PO4-PZuunkharaa concentrations and Darkhan at Zuunkharaa monitoring and stations Darkhan monitoring stations

3.2.5.3.2.5. Metals

ThereThere areare very very limited limited observed observed data dataon met on- varyof Fe between vary between0.08 and 0.150.08 mg/land with 0.15 concen mg/l- 6+ als,metals, except except for iron for (Fe)iron and(Fe) chromiumand chromium (Cr ) trationswith concentrations increasing during increasing rainy duringseasons. rainy The ions.(Cr6+ )The ions. total The Fe totaland CrFe6+ andions Crare6+ measuredions are Crseasons.6+ concentrations The Cr6+ concentrations range from below range the from de- atmeasured the downstream at the downstream sampling samplingpoints of points both tectionbelow thelevel de-tection to 0.01 mg/land level to also0.01 increase mg/l and in monitoringof both monitoring stations stationsin Zuunkharaa in Zuunkharaa and Dark and- rainyalso increaseseasons (Tablein rainy 16). seasons (Table 16). han.Darkhan. The monthlyThe monthly mean mean concentrations concentrations of Fe

TableTable 16.Concentrations 16.Concentrations of of metals metals in in the the Kharaa Kharaa Riverstations Riverstations

Stations Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Fe, (MAC is 0.5 mg/l) Zuunkharaa - - - 0.08 - 0.12 0.11 0.18 0.16 0.17 0.12 - (upper) Darkhan 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.16 0.08 0.09 0.11 (down) Cr6+, (MAC is 0.01 mg/l) Zuunkharaa - - - 0.01 - 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 - (down) Darkhan 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 (down) Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology

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InIn terms terms of of trends trends over over time, time, the thetotal total Fe con Fe- increasedCr6+ have nearincreased Zuunkharaa, near Zuunkharaa, while decreasing while centrationsconcentrations have havedecreased decreased in both in stations both atdecreasing the Darkhan at stationthe Darkhan (Figure 14).station (Figure sincestations 1990. since The 1990. concentrations The concentrations of Cr6+ have of 14).

6+ Figure 14. Trends of Fe and Cr6+ at Zuunkharaa and Darkhan stations Figure 13.Trends in PO4-P concentrations at Figure 14. Trends of Fe and Cr at Zuunkharaa and Darkhan stations

Zuunkharaa and Darkhan monitoring stations

As part of the MoMo project, measurements (Fe) and manganese (Mn), were conducted As part of the MoMo project, measurements of (Mn), were conducted on the Kharaa River at of other metals and a number of heavy on the Kharaa River at the Darkhan 3.2.5. Metals other metals and a number of heavy metals, the Darkhan monitoring station and the outlet metals, such as arsenic (As), lead (Pb), monitoring station and the outlet of the basin such as arsenic (As), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), of the basin near Burentolgoi during the period There are very limited observed data on met- vary between 0.08 and 0.15 mg/l with concen- cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), near Burentolgoi during the period from chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), mer- from September 2006 to 2008 (Table 17). als, except for iron (Fe) and chromium (Cr6+) trations increasing during rainy seasons. The nickel (Ni), mer¬cury (Hg), zinc (Zn), iron September 2006 to 2008 (Table 17). cury (Hg), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and manganese ions. The total Fe and Cr6+ ions are measured Cr6+ concentrations range from below the de- at the downstream sampling points of both tection level to 0.01 mg/land also increase in Table 17. Heavy metalsconcentrations in the Kharaa River, mg/l monitoring stations in Zuunkharaa and Dark- rainy seasons (Table 16). Table 17.Heavy metalsconcentrations in the Kharaa River, mg/l han. The monthly mean concentrations of Fe Sampling site As Pb Cd Cr Cu Ni Hg Zn Fe Mn Kharaa-Darkhan 0.0021 n.d. n.d. 0.0025 0.0127 0.004 n.d. 0.013 0.95 0.091 Table 16.Concentrations of metals in the Kharaa Riverstations Kharaa- 0.0025 n.d. n.d. 0.009 0.013 0.011 n.d. 0.026 1.645 0.158 Burentolgoi Stations Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec (river basin Fe, (MAC is 0.5 mg/l) outlet) Zuunkharaa - - - 0.08 - 0.12 0.11 0.18 0.16 0.17 0.12 - Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology (upper) Darkhan 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.16 0.08 0.09 0.11 The results of these measurements (MoMo, concentrations in suspended solids are low. (down) 2009)The results indicate of thesethat the measurements heavy metal (MoMo,concen- Concentrationslead). Natural ofbackground arsenic, primarily concentrations originating 6+ Cr , (MAC is 0.01 mg/l) trations2009) showindicate increased that levels,the heavyalthough metal most fromin suspended human activities,solids are increaselow. Concentrations downstream Zuunkharaa - - - 0.01 - 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 - ofconcentrations them being lowershow or nearincreased to the allowedlevels, andof arsenic, show increasingprimarily originatingvalues in Darkhan. from human Ele- although most of them being lower or near activities, increase downstream and show (down) maximum concentration. Concentrations of vated concentrations of heavy metals were de- to the allowed maximum concentration. increasing values in Darkhan. Elevated Darkhan 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 dissolved heavy metals in the upper and mid- tected especially in the Boroo River and down- (down) Concentrations of dissolved heavy metals concentrations of heavy metals were dle reaches are often below detection limit stream of the city of Darkhan. Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology in the upper and middle reaches are often detected especially in the Boroo River and (e.g.below cadmium detection and limitlead). (e.g. Natural cadmium background and downstream of the city of Darkhan.

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3.2.6.3.2.6. Suspended solids solids The concentration of total suspended solids The results of suspended solids monitoring The(TSS) concentration is important forof totalecological suspended and watersolids Thedata resultsat Zuunkharaa of suspended and Darkhansolids monitoring stations (TSS)quality. is Suspendedimportant forsolids ecological in most freshwaterand water datashow at Zuunkharaaa similar andcharacteristic, Darkhan stations as showthe quality.systems Suspendedoriginate fromsolids watershed in most freshwater sources, aconcentrations similar characteristic,as increase theduring concentrations snowmelt systemspollutant originate point sources from watershed and sediments. sources, pol- increaseand rainfall during runoff. snowmelt In general, and rainfall suspended runoff. lutant point sources and sediments. Insolids general, concentrations suspended-solids were highestconcentrations in the In Mongolia, total suspended solids appear to werespring-summer highest in theand spring-summer lowest in the and winterlowest Inbe Mongolia, more strongly total relatedsuspended to surface solids appeardeposits to in(Table the winter18). The (Table increase 18). Theduring increase the spring- during be(such more as riverstrongly bank related erosion) to thansurface to landdeposits use thesummer spring-summer can be attributed can be attributed to higher to flows,higher (suchand to as increase river bank from erosion) headwater than downto land along use flows,surface surface washing washing and the and associated the associated increase in- anda river to increase(Batimaa, from 1998). headwater down along a creasein runoff in runoff and and transport. transport. TheThe trend trend of susof- river (Batimaa, 1998). pendedsuspended solids solids is shown is shown in Figure in Figure 15. 15.

TableTable 18.Monthly 18. Monthly mean mean concentrations concentrations of of suspended suspended solids solids in inthe the Kharaa Kharaa River River

Stations Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Zuunkharaa - - - 39.4 - 28.4 31.4 37.7 28.1 14.5 12.5 - (upper) Zuunkharaa - - - 31.7 - 75.6 25.8 54.9 11.7 18.4 18.1 - (down ) Darkhan 20.6 25.0 24.9 37.0 62.9 65.5 81.7 51.5 64.6 25.6 24.9 28.1

(upper) Darkhan 25.4 25.0 25.0 62.2 101.4 60.7 82.3 60.8 74.9 32.1 28.9 29.4 (down) Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology

FigureFigure 15.15.Trends Trends ofof suspendedsuspended solidsatsolidsat ZuunkharaaZuunkharaa andand DarkhanDarkhan stationsstations

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3.2.6. Suspended solids 3.3.3.3. TheThe Kharaa Kharaa River River water water quality quality

The Kharaa River water quality was assessed ‘very clean’ to ‘clean’, except for few cases. The concentration of total suspended solids The results of suspended solids monitoring Theusing Kharaa the Water River Quality water qualityIndex, wasdescribed assessed in cleanThe river’ to ‘clean water’, exceptquality for decreased few cases. in The lower river (TSS) is important for ecological and water data at Zuunkharaa and Darkhan stations show usingSection the 1.3.3. Water In Qualityorder to Index, analyze described trends inin waterreaches quality of the decreased river near in the lower city reaches of Darkhan. of the quality. Suspended solids in most freshwater a similar characteristic,as the concentrations Sectionwater quality, 1.3.3. allIn observedorder to dataanalyze for the trends period in riverMore near than the 95 city percent of Darkhan. of the More all samplesthan 95 systems originate from watershed sources, pol- increase during snowmelt and rainfall runoff. waterfrom 1991toquality, 2011all observed were used, data and for the resultsperiod percentshow that of thethe allriver’s samples water show quality that canthe rivbe- lutant point sources and sediments. In general, suspended-solids concentrations fromare presented 1991to 2011 in Figure were 16.used, and the results er’sclassified water qualityas ‘clean’. can beA slightclassified decline as ‘clean’. in the A were highest in the spring-summer and lowest are presented in Figure 16. slightriver’s decline water qualityin the river’s to the water ‘slightly-polluted’ quality to the In Mongolia, total suspended solids appear to in the winter (Table 18). The increase during At the upper reaches of the river near the level is observed during highwater periods of ‘slightly-polluted’ level is observed during high- be more strongly related to surface deposits the spring-summer can be attributed to higher AtZuunkharaa the upper monitoringreaches of station,the river the near quality the watersnowmelt periods in April of snowmelt to May, inas Aprilwell asto inMay, low- as (such as river bank erosion) than to land use flows, surface washing and the associated in- Zuunkharaaof the Kharaa monitoring River water station, can be the classified quality asof wellwater as periods in low-water in June. periods in June. and to increase from headwater down along a crease in runoff and transport. The trend of sus- the Kharaa River water can be classified as ‘very river (Batimaa, 1998). pended solids is shown in Figure 15.

Table 18.Monthly mean concentrations of suspended solids in the Kharaa River

Stations Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Zuunkharaa - - - 39.4 - 28.4 31.4 37.7 28.1 14.5 12.5 - (upper) Zuunkharaa - - - 31.7 - 75.6 25.8 54.9 11.7 18.4 18.1 - (down) Darkhan 20.6 25.0 24.9 37.0 62.9 65.5 81.7 51.5 64.6 25.6 24.9 28.1

(upper) Darkhan 25.4 25.0 25.0 62.2 101.4 60.7 82.3 60.8 74.9 32.1 28.9 29.4 (down) Data source: Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology

Figure 16.16. Water qualityquality ofof thethe KharaaKharaa riverriver atat ZuunkharaaZuunkharaa andand DarkhanDarkhan stationsstations

3.4. Aquatic ecology

3.4.The potential Aquatic impacts ecology of human activities on ecological status of rivers and the trends the ecological functions and services of of relevant impact factors are rare and not locally adapted in the basin. Thethe potentialKharaa impactsRiver ecosystems of human activitiesand their on cording to the studies MoMo project (2009), theinteractions ecological have functions not been and fully services studied, of theor monitoring programs for the ecological status of understood. According to the studies MoMo Kharaa River ecosystems and their interactions rivers and the trends of relevant impact factors project (2009), monitoring programs for the have not been fully studied, or understood. Ac- are rare and not locally adapted in the basin. Figure 15.Trends of suspended solidsat Zuunkharaa and Darkhan stations

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AsAs macroinvertebrates macroinvertebrates are emergingare emerging as promis as- sinThe for number the period of total from individuals 2005 to 2010. of Taxa, and ingpromising ecological ecological indicators indicatorsof water qualityof water and Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera ecologicalquality and health. ecological The health.evaluation The of evaluation the eco- The(EPT) number individuals of total found individuals in the Kharaaof Taxa, River and logicalof the statusecological of the status Kharaa of theRiver Kharaa is based River on Ephemeroptera,are shown in Figure Plecoptera, 17. Trichoptera (EPT) aquaticis based macroinvertebrate on aquatic macroinvertebratecommunities data individuals found in the Kharaa River are shown monitoredcommunities at twodata sites monitored in the Kharaa at two River sites Ba inin Figure 17. the Kharaa River Basin for the period from 2005 to 2010.

Figure 17. Number of total individuals of Taxa and EPT Figure 17.Number of total individuals of Taxa and EPT

The analysis of the macroinvertebrate Baruunkharaa has decreased since 2005 and communities at two sites of the Kharaa River has reached the same levels as those near The analysis of the macroinvertebrate com- creased since 2005 and has reached the same munitiesBasin indicates at two sitesgood of ecological the Kharaa conditions River Ba- levelsthe city as thoseof Darkhan near the in city 2009 of Darkhanand 2010. in 2009This sinof theindicates river. goodThe number ecological of conditionstotal individuals of the andshows 2010. that Thisthe qualityshows thatof the the river’s quality water of the at river.of Taxa The numberis almost of totalthree individuals times higher of Taxa at is river’sthe Baruunkharaa water at the monitoringBaruunkharaa site monitoringhas been the Darkhan monitoring site than at the continuously declining for the last six years, almost three times higher at the Darkhan moni- site has been continuously declining for the last Baruunkharaa site. However, the number of while it stays stable near the city of Darkhan. toring site than at the Baruunkharaa site. How- six years, while it stays stable near the city of highly pollution-sensitive individuals of EPT ever,is almost the numberthe same. of highly pollution-sensitive Darkhan.In terms of the annual distribution, water individuals of EPT is almost the same. quality is lower during spring and autumn The Kharaa River water quality has been also Inand terms gets of better the annual in summer distribution, (Figure water19). qual- Thebeen Kharaa assessed River using water the quality Biotic has Index been at alsothe ity is lower during spring and autumn and gets beentwo monitoring assessed using sites. theThe Bioticwater qualityIndex atof thethe betterThe results in summer of the (Figure two sites 19). are similar to that twoKharaa monitoring River meets sites. Thethe ‘clean’water quality level ofof thethe results of integrated ecological assessment Kharaawater Riverquality meets classification the ‘clean’ levelat both of the sites wa- Thethat basedresults onof benthicthe two invertebratessites are similar produced to that terin qualityBaruunkharaa classification and atDarkhan, both sites although in Baru- resultsby MoMo of integrated project by ecological mean value assessment (Figure 20).that unkharaathe water and quality Darkhan, slightly although decreases the waternear basedAs there on wasbenthic no datainvertebrates between theseproduced sites byit qualityDarkhan slightly (Figure decreases 18). However, near Darkhan the (Figurewater MoMowas not project possible by tomean compare value results. (Figure 20). As 18).quality However, of the Kharaathe water River quality at the of reachthe Kharaa near there was no data between these sites it was River at the reach near Baruunkharaa has de- not possible to compare results.

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As macroinvertebrates are emerging as promis- sin for the period from 2005 to 2010. ing ecological indicators of water quality and ecological health. The evaluation of the eco- The number of total individuals of Taxa, and logical status of the Kharaa River is based on Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera (EPT) aquatic macroinvertebrate communities data individuals found in the Kharaa River are shown monitored at two sites in the Kharaa River Ba- in Figure 17.

Figure Figure 18. 18.TheThe Kharaa Kharaa river river water water quality quality assessed as- Figure 19. AnnualAnnual variation of the Kharaa river sessedby Biotic by Biotic index index waterwater qualityquality assessed by BioticBiotic indexindex

Due to lack of data, the assessment of the sites. A ‘moderate’ status, detected at two ecological water quality of the Kharaa River sites in the watershed, is caused by the Dueis mainly to lack based of data, on thethe availableassessment data. of theAs shownabsence (MoMo, of ubiquistic 2009) a species,‘good’ or showing ‘very good’ no ecologicalpart of the water first-phase quality ofof thethe MoMoKharaa projectRiver is ecologicalclear deficits status in theat most ecological of the monitoring integrity of sites. the mainly(MoMo, based 2009), on thethe availableecology data.of the As Kharaapart of Afish ‘moderate’ fauna. Most status, of detected the fish atspecies two sites known in the theRiver first-phase was assessed of the based MoMo on project monitoring (MoMo, of watershed,to occur in isthe caused Kharaa by Riverthe absence Basin (Dulmaa, of ubiqu-

2009),fish communities the ecology of andthe Kharaamacroinvertebrate River was as- istic1999) species, were detected; showing however,no clear deficitssome species in the sessedcommunities. based on The monitoring monitoring of was fish conducted communi- ecologicalseem to be integrity very rare of suchthe fishas taimenfauna. (HuchoMost of tiesat 10and sites macroinvertebrate between 2006 communities. and 2009. TheThe thetaimen) fish ,species lenok known(Brachymystax to occur inlenok) the Kharaa and monitoringresults of this was MoMo conducted project at10 monitoring sites between are Riverarctic Basingrayling (Dulmaa, (Thymallus 1999) arcticus) were .detected; Even in summarized below. biocoenotic regions, where they find optimal 2006 and 2009. The results of this MoMo proj- however, some species seem to be very rare conditions, the average sum of adult fish of ect monitoring are summarized below. such as taimen (Hucho taimen), lenok (Brachy- Figure 17.Number of total individuals of Taxa and EPT The analyses of fish community and of the these species is very low, ranging from 0.5 chemical and physic-chemical components mystaxto 7.7 individualslenok) and caught arctic duringgrayling one (Thymallus hour of Thewere analyses based onof thefish resultscommunity of all andconducted of the arcticus).sampling. Even in biocoenotic regions, where chemicalexpeditions, and where physic-chemical an overall componentsamount of they find optimal conditions, the average sum The analysis of the macroinvertebrate com- creased since 2005 and has reached the same were54,789 based fish on werethe results caught of all and conducted released. ex- ofThe adult analysis fish of these of speciesthe macroinvertebrate is very low, ranging munities at two sites of the Kharaa River Ba- levels as those near the city of Darkhan in 2009 peditions,Since the whereanalysis an ofoverall the macroinvertebrateamount of 54,789 fromcommunities 0.5 to 7.7 along individuals the Kharaa caught River during basin one sin indicates good ecological conditions of the and 2010. This shows that the quality of the fishsamples were iscaught much and more released. time consumingSince the analy due- hourhas also of sampling. indicated good ecological conditions river. The number of total individuals of Taxa is river’s water at the Baruunkharaa monitoring sisto theof the (un)availability macroinvertebrate of laboratory samples facilities, is much at most of the monitoring sites. However, at almost three times higher at the Darkhan moni- site has been continuously declining for the last morethe results time consuming of only two due expeditions to the (un)availabili could be- Themany analysis sites ofof the macroinvertebratemain channel, i.e. commu in the- toring site than at the Baruunkharaa site. How- six years, while it stays stable near the city of tyused of laboratory to assess the facilities, ecological the results status. of However, only two nitieslower along part theof Kharaathe middle River basinregion has and also the in- ever, the number of highly pollution-sensitive Darkhan. expeditionstwo different could seasons be usedwere toincluded assess theand eco the- dicatedtransition good to theecological down region, conditions and atalso most in itsof individuals of EPT is almost the same. logicalassessment status. was However, based twoon differentthe analysis seasons of thetributaries, monitoring deficits sites. inHowever, benthic at communities many sites of In terms of the annual distribution, water qual- weremore includedthan 106,000 and the individuals. assessment Criteria was based for thecould main be channel, shown. i.e.These in theare lower mainly part caused of the the selection of sampling points were: 1) by the absence of the EPT individuals The Kharaa River water quality has been also ity is lower during spring and autumn and gets on the analysis of more than 106,000 individu- middle region and the transition to the down to include upper, middle and downstream (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera) in als. Criteria for the selection of sampling points region, and also in its tributaries, deficits in been assessed using the Biotic Index at the better in summer (Figure 19). reaches of the basin; 2) to study the influences the community composition, the absence two monitoring sites. The water quality of the were:of larger 1) to settlements include upper, in themiddle basin and such down as- benthicof so-called communities indicator could organisms, be shown. especially These Kharaa River meets the ‘clean’ level of the wa- The results of the two sites are similar to that streamZuunkharaa, reaches Baruunkharaa of the basin; and2) to Darkhan; study the and in- areof themainly order caused Plecoptera, by the absenceand an ofabnormal the EPT ter quality classification at both sites in Baru- results of integrated ecological assessment that fluences3) to study of largera typical settlements range of in anthropogenic the basin such individualsincreased (Ephemeroptera,percentage of Plecoptera,fine sediment Tri- unkharaa and Darkhan, although the water based on benthic invertebrates produced by asimpacts Zuunkharaa, like land Baruunkharaa use and mining. and Darkhan; choptera)colonisers. in the community composition, the quality slightly decreases near Darkhan (Figure MoMo project by mean value (Figure 20). As and 3) to study a typical range of anthropogen- absence of so-called indicator organisms, espe- 18). However, the water quality of the Kharaa there was no data between these sites it was icThe impacts assessment like land of usethe andfish mining.communities has cially of the order Plecoptera, and an abnormal River at the reach near Baruunkharaa has de- not possible to compare results. shown (MoMo, 2009) a ‘good’ or ‘very good’ increased percentage of fine sediment colonis- Theecological assessment status of at the most fish of communities the monitoring has ers.

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●blue: very good

●green: good

●yellow: moderate

●orange: poor

●red: bad ●gray: no data

Figure 20. Ecological assessment of the Kharaa River Basin (MoMo, 2009) Figure 20. Ecological assessment of the Kharaa River Basin (MoMo, 2009)

The analysis of the water quality conditions ‘very-polluted’ near urban settlements such based on benthic invertebrates (MoMo, 2009) as Darkhan, Baruunkharaa and Zuunkharaa. showed ecological deficits in the Kharaa This indicates that the Kharaa River water

TheRiver analysis near the of city the of water Baruunkharaa quality conditions and city occasionallyquality is highly to vulnerable‘moderately-polluted’ to pollution, and in basedof Khongor, on benthic as sensitiveinvertebrates groups (MoMo, (EPT) 2009) had ‘very-polluted’particular in areas near closeurban to settlements point sources such ofas showedlow numbers ecological in these deficits areas. in Figurethe Kharaa 20 shows River Darkhan,pollution, Baruunkharaa such as urban and areas, Zuunkharaa. and in source This the integrated ecological assessment based areas of diffuse pollution, such as agriculture near the city of Baruunkharaa and city of Khon- indicates that the Kharaa River water quality is gor,on aas five sensitive class groupscategory (EPT) from had ‘very low good’numbers to highlyand mining. vulnerable to pollution, in particular in in‘bad‘ these. As areas. shown Figure in the 20 figure, shows the the ecological integrated areas close to point sources of pollution, such ecologicalwater quality assessment ranked based‘very good’on a five and class ‘good’ cat- asOn urban the areas,other andhand, in sourcethe self-purification areas of diffuse egoryby mean from value ‘very in good’ all parts to of‘bad. the Asriver. shown By the in pollution,rate in the such Mongolian as agriculture rivers and is usually mining. high, theworst figure, values, the theecological upper waterreaches quality of the ranked river with their self-purification distances ranging ranked ‘clean’, whereas in the river section between 6 and 18 kilometers. The self- ‘very good’ and ‘good’ by mean value in all On the other hand, the self-purification rate in between Baruunkharaa and Darkhan ranked purification distance of the Kharaa River is partsfrom of‘moderate’ the river. Byto the‘bad’ worst and values, improved the upto- theestimated Mongolian 10 kilometers. rivers is usually high, with their per‘clean’ reaches at the of theriver river outlet. ranked ‘clean’, whereas self-purification distances ranging between 6 in the river section between Baruunkharaa and andThat 18explains kilometers. why theThe waterself-purification quality of thedis- DarkhanThe above ranked assessment from ‘moderate’ shows that to the ‘bad’ water and tanceKharaa of Riverthe Kharaa improved River to is ‘clean’estimated status 10 kiat- improvedquality of tothe ‘clean’ Kharaa at Riverthe river Basin outlet. decreases lometers.its outlet, Thathaving explains no negative why the impact water onquality the occasionally to ‘moderately-polluted’ and ofOrkhon the Kharaa River Riverwater improved quality. to ‘clean’ status The above assessment shows that the water at its outlet, having no negative impact on the quality of the Kharaa River Basin decreases Orkhon River water quality.

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3.5.3.5. GroundwaterGroundwater quality quality in inthe the Kharaa Kharaa River River Basin Basin

The groundwater quality is the most important The only available data on groundwater Thefor the groundwater drinking water quality quality, is the asmost groundwater important Thequality only wasavailable a single data onchemical groundwater analysis quality of foris thethe drinkingmain drinking water quality, water assource groundwater in the wasgroundwater a single chemical at various analysis locations of ingroundwater the Kharaa isKharaa the main River drinking Basin. water Presently, source inthere the Kharaais no atRiver various Basin, locations reported in the in Kharaa an unpublished River Basin, Rivergroundwater Basin. Presently, quality theremonitoring is no groundwater network in reportedtechnical in report an unpublished on “The groundwater technical report quality on qualitythe basin. monitoring Only a fewnetwork groundwater in the basin. wells Only are “Theoverview” groundwater (Jadambaa, quality 2000). overview” The results (Jadam of- aused few groundwaterfor drinking wellswater are extraction. used for drinkingHence, baa,2000).Thethis analysis are results presented of this in analysis Table 19. are pre- watergroundwater extraction. quality Hence, data groundwater is very scares. quality sented in Table 19. data is very scares.

Table 19. Groundwater quality parameters Table 19. Groundwater quality parameters

Lon Lat TDS Ca Mg NaK HCO3 SO4 CI Hard- pH NH4 NO2 NO3 Fe ness mg/l mg-eqv/l mg/l 106.21 48.92 691 40.6 13.4 151. 262.3 143 81 3.15 8.0 0.00 0.00 10.0 0.00 105.92 49.49 611 40.5 14.7 110 366.0 45.0 35 3.84 7.2 0.00 0.03 8.0 0.00 105.98 49.43 527 40.1 25.5 80 231.8 114 36 4.10 7.5 0.10 0.50 0.0 0.20

106.75 48.64 504 40.1 11.5 77.9 335.6 34.5 4.3 2.95 7.0 0.10 0.00 0.0 0.00

105.93 49.3 413 32.1 15.8 65.8 213.5 18.1 68 2.90 7.2 0.20 0.00 0.0 0.20 106.63 48.85 351 22.1 12.2 57 213.5 25.0 21 2.10 6.7 0.30 0.01 0.0 0.30 106.27 48.82 509 58.1 22.5 56.3 286.7 62.5 23 4.75 7.9 0.20 0.00 1.0 0.00 105.92 49.5 478 44.1 25.5 55.6 305.1 15.6 32 4.30 7.0 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.00 106.48 48.85 417 52.1 17.0 44.6 244.0 45.2 14 4.00 7.9 0.30 0.01 1.0 0.00

106.08 48.91 426 54.1 15.7 38.9 237.9 65.8 14 4.00 7.8 0.20 0.00 2.0 0.00

106.78 48.82 330 43.1 12.2 28.1 189.1 47.1 10 3.15 7.1 0.10 0.00 0.0 0.30 106.48 48.81 291 36.1 14.6 26.2 164.7 34.6 15 3.00 7.9 0.10 0.00 1.0 0.00 106.52 48.8 243 32.1 10.9 16.1 140.3 34.6 8.9 2.50 7.5 0.40 0.00 1.0 0.00 106.26 49.49 233 27.1 13.4 15.6 143.4 25.0 8.9 2.45 7.0 0.00 0.00 0.7 0.00 106.76 48.64 340 50.1 26.1 4.65 213.6 34.5 11 4.65 7.0 0.40 0.05 2.0 0.00

Data source: Jadambaa, 2000

The chemical composition of groundwater is abundance of cations is Ca2+>Na++K+>Mg2+, almost the same as in the Kharaa River water. and the order of abundance of anions is The chemical composition of groundwater is order of abundance2- - of anions is HCO ->SO 2- The mineralization of groundwater is in the HCO3->SO4 >Cl . 3 4 almostrange betweenthe same 233 as in and the 691 Kharaa mg/l. River Similar water. to >ClAccording-. to nitrogen (N) concentrations, the Thethe mineralizationKharaa River water,of groundwater the calcium is in andthe nutrient level in groundwater in aquifers in rangebicarbonate between are 233 theand dominant691 mg/l. Similarions into Accordingthe Kharaa to River nitrogen Basin (N) is very concentrations, low, indicating the thegroundwater Kharaa River at all water, sampled the points.calcium The and order bicar of- nutrientthat groundwater level in groundwater is clean. in aquifers in the bonate are the dominant ions in groundwater Kharaa River Basin is very low, indicating that at all sampled points. The order of abundance groundwater is clean. of cations is Ca2+>Na++K+>Mg2+, and the

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4.4. AssessmentAssessment ofof pollutionpollution hotspotshotspots inin thethe KharaaKharaa RiverRiver Basin Basin

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An assessment of water pollution hotspots The water quality assessment of the Kharaa in the Kharaa River Basin was conducted as River Basin, described in the previous part of the water quality assessment of the section, shows that there are no potentially- basin. This included the identification of serious water quality problems in the basin, potential pollution hotspots and their effects except for the localized and seasonal water on the water quality of the basin, as well as quality degradation due to the impacts the identification of possible threats to the of municipal wastewater effluents on the environment and human health. river water quality downstream of urban areas and a potential risk of bacteriological In general, a water pollution hotspot is an contamination by livestock waste. However, area where the concentration of a pollutant the basin is becoming more sensitive to exceeds the standards. Pollution hotspots are pollution, as there are growing pressures from characterized by both a high concentration, population growth, urbanization, industrial or loading, of a pollutant and a high risk that development, and increasing farming and the pollutant enters adjacent water bodies tourism activities that are likely to generate such as rivers, lakes, groundwater aquifers, more pollution. causing water pollution. The pollution The assessment focused on both point and hotspots assessment is useful in identifying diffuse pollution sources in the Kharaa River areas with most serious pollution risks, Basin in order to have a comprehensive thus allowing the decision-makers to target overview of existing, or potential, pollution compliance efforts on the problem sites. hotspots.

4.1. Pollution from urban areas

The Kharaa River Basin includes several population density of about 300 people per large and small urban areas. The largest sq.km. urban area in the basin is the industrial city of Darkhan—the second biggest city In addition to being an industrial city, of Mongolia with a population of about Darkhan is the second largest educational 75,000. Moreover, a total of 24 soums (an center in Mongolia too, with 10 universities administrative unit equivalent to small and higher education institutions, 25 towns) are located in the basin. The basin is secondary schools and 14 pre-school shared by three provinces: Selenge, Tuv and establishments and kindergartens. In Darkhan Uul aimags (Figure 21). addition, several research institutions are located in the city of Darkhan, including: the The entire population of the Kharaa River Basin Institute of Management and Development; is about 133,000, which is approximately 5 Regional Business Development Center; and percent of the total population of Mongolia. Horticultural and Agricultural Research and The basin has the highest population density Training Institute. Every year, hundreds of in Mongolia, which is about 9.2 persons students come Darkhan from other parts of per sq.km. The Darkhan city has the highest Mongolia to study.

4.1.1. Municipal wastewater

Municipal wastewater and runoff from urban The discharge of inadequately-treated areas are, in general, the largest point source municipal wastewater to surface water of water quality impairments. resources is a major water quality concern in the Kharaa River Basin.

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FigureFigure 21.21. The administrative administrative units units in in the the Kharaa Kharaa River river Basinbasin There are five Wastewater Treatment Plants ment processes and discharges its effluents di- (WWTPs)There are infive the Wastewater Kharaa River Treatment Basin, twoPlants of rectlyprimary to thebiological Kharaa River,treatment too. processes and which(WWTPs) discharge in the theirKharaa treated River wastewaterBasin, two diof- discharges its effluents directly to the Kharaa rectlywhich into discharge the Kharaa their River. treated The wastewaterother three TheRiver, WWTPs too. in Zuunkharaa, Baruunkharaa plantsdirectly have into no directthe Kharaa outlet toRiver. the Kharaa The otherRiver. and Khongor soums, which are located in the Mostthree soumsplants (small have towns) no direct do not outlet have towaste the- upstreamThe WWTPs reaches in Zuunkharaa,of the basin, areBaruunkharaa smaller and waterKharaa treatment River. Most facilities soums and (small infrastructure. towns) do A haveand Khongor no direct soums, outlet to which the Kharaa are located River. inThese the not have wastewater treatment facilities and upstream reaches of the basin, are smaller majority of households in soums use simple tra- WWTPs have mechanical and primary biologi- infrastructure. A majority of households in and have no direct outlet to the Kharaa River. ditional pit latrines in their compounds. cal treatment processes. The treated wastewa- soums use simple traditional pit latrines in These WWTPs have mechanical and primary ter of these plants is discharged to infiltration their compounds. biological treatment processes. The treated The Wastewater Treatment Plant in the Dark- pondswastewater and the of sludgethese plantsis disposed is discharged of in sludge to hanThe cityWastewater treats both Treatment municipal Plantand industrial in the fieldsinfiltration close pondsto the Kharaaand the River. sludge Consequently, is disposed wastewaterDarkhan city and dischargestreats both its effluentsmunicipal directly and thereof in sludgeis a potential fields closerisk of to pollution the Kharaa of ground River.- toindustrial the Kharaa wastewater River. The and Wastewater discharges Treat its- water,Consequently, soil and riverthere water is aby potential leakage fromrisk theof menteffluents Plant directly in Salkhit to the(a railway Kharaa station River. town) The sludgepollution ponds. of groundwater, soil and river hasWastewater mechanical Treatment and primary Plant biological in Salkhit treat (a- water by leakage from the sludge ponds. railway station town) has mechanical and Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant is chemical treatment processes. Some biological biggestThe Darkhan in the Kharaa Wastewater River BasinTreatment (Figure Plant 22). is It processesand chemical are affected treatment by the processes. cold weather Some and wasbiggest commissioned in the Kharaa in1968. River Basin (Figure 22). slowbiological down, processes or cease, are at affectedlower temperatures by the cold It was commissioned in 1968. duringweather winter. and slowDue todown, the cold or cease,climate, at the lower pol- The plant treats both municipal and industrial ishingtemperatures ponds cannot during be winter. used inDue winter to the time. cold wastewater.The plant treats It has both mechanical, municipal biologicaland industrial and climate, the polishing ponds cannot be used wastewater. It has mechanical, biological in winter time.

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TheThe plant has nono denitrificationdenitrification system.system. RawRaw ThisThis areaarea is islargely largely residential, residential, and closeand toclose the wastewaterwastewater entering entering the the plant plant is initially is initially passes ‘ger’to the district ‘ger’ (adistrict district (a of districttraditional of traditionalMongolian throughpasses mechanicalthrough mechanical screens and screens then treated and housingMongolian and housing small houses). and small houses). biologicallythen treated in biologicallyprimary and insecondary primary sediand- mentationsecondary tanks.sedimentation The plant hastanks. a chlorinationThe plant TheThe ‘ger’‘ger’ districtsdistricts andand small small villages villages are are not not unithas fora chlorination the disinfection unit of for treated the disinfection wastewater connectedconnected to thethe sewagesewage systemsystem ofof the the city. city. of treated wastewater before its discharge to The wastewater from these areas is discharged before its discharge to the river. However, the The wastewater from these areas is discharged chlorinationthe river. However, system is thetemporarily chlorination out of system order. intointo simplesimple traditional traditional pit pit latrines latrines or soakor soak pits. Theis temporarily Darkhan Wastewater out of order. Treatment Plant has Manypits. Many of these of theselatrines latrines are inadequately are inadequately main- a laboratory for the chemical analyses of waste- tained,maintained, and overflowing and overflowing latrines are latrines often a maare- The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant often a major source of pollution in ‘ger’ water. jor source of pollution in ‘ger’ areas of the city, has a laboratory for the chemical analyses of areas of the city, especially during heavy wastewater. The total capacity of the Darkhan especiallyrainfalls. during heavy rainfalls. The total capacity of the Darkhan Wastewater Wastewater Treatment Plant is 50,000 m3/ Treatmentday. However, Plant theis 50,000 plant is m3/day. operating However, at one TheThe Darkhan WaterWater SupplySupply andand Wastewater Wastewater thethird plant of isits operating design capacity,at one third treating of its designfrom CompanyCompany (Darkhan USAG) isis responsibleresponsible forfor capacity,15,000 to treating 17,000 from m3/ 15,000day wastewater. to 17,000 Only m3/ waterwater supplysupply and and wastewater wastewater collection collection treat- daywastewater wastewater. from Only apartment wastewater buildings from apart and- menttreatment in the in city. the city. mentadministrative buildings andand administrativeservices areas, and which services are areas,connected which to are the connected sewage system to the sewageof the city, sys- InIn order to evaluateevaluate thethe efficiencyefficiency andand raterate ofof temis treated of the atcity, the is plant. treated at the plant. wastewaterwastewater treatmenttreatment of theof Darkhanthe Darkhan Waste- Wastewater Treatment Plant, data of the water Treatment Plant, data of the chemical The Darkhan Thermal Power Plant (DTPP) is chemical analyses of treated wastewater at The Darkhan Thermal Power Plant (DTPP) is analyses of treated wastewater at the plant thethe largestlargest useruser of water inin thethe city.city. ItIt hashas its its outletthe plant have outlet been haveanalyzed been for analyzed the period for from the own wastewater tratment facility. The own wastewater treatment facility. The waste- 2002period to from 2012. 2002 The towastewater 2012. The treatment wastewater rate wastewater of the plant is discharged into treatment rate of the plantvariesbetween water of the plant is discharged into the Kharaa of the plantvariesbetween 76.8 and 98.1 per- the Kharaa River through 12 oxidation 76.8 and 98.1 percent (Figure 23). However, Riverponds through and a 12bioaquifer oxidation system. ponds andHowever, a bio- centin most (Figure of 23).the However,time, the intreatment most of the rate time, is aquiferthe DTPP system. wastewater However, thetreatment DTPP wastewa facility- thebelow treatment 90 percent, rate is which below means 90 percent, to a certain which ter treatment facility often encounters technical means to a certain extent that polluted water is often encounters technical problems, and extent that polluted water is discharged into problems,untreated andindustrial untreated wastewater industrial is dischargedwastewater dischargedthe Kharaa intoRiver. the Kharaa River. isinto discharged the area outsideinto the thearea plant. outside the plant.

FigureFigure 23. 23. Wastewater Wastewater treatment treatment rate rate of the of theDark- Figure 24.BODFigure concentrations24. BOD concentrations of treatedwastewater of han WWTP of the Darkhan WWTP Darkhan WWTP treatedwastewater of the Darkhan WWTP

Thus,Thus, concentrationsconcentrations ofof BOD and suspendedsuspended isThe discharged results are into presented the Kharaa in Figure River. 24andThe results 25, solidssolids of of the the treated treated wastewater wastewater have have been been an- arerespectively. presented in Figure 24and 25, respectively. alyzedanalyzed to determine to determine how howmuch much polluted polluted water water is discharged into the Kharaa River.

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The wastewater BOD concentrations at the outlet of the The plant has no denitrification system. Raw This area is largely residential, and close to the plantTheThe wastewaterrange between BOD 3.1 concentrationsconcentrations and 33.6 mg/land atat the therarely outletoutlet exceed of of the the wastewater entering the plant is initially passes ‘ger’ district (a district of traditional Mongolian Maximumplantplant rangerange Acceptable betweenbetween 3.13.1 Concentration andand 33.633.6 mg/landmg/l of and20 rarely mg/l,rarely exceedset exceed by the through mechanical screens and then treated housing and small houses). MongolianMaximumthe Maximum AcceptableNational Acceptable Standard Concentration Concentration for Discharge of 20 of of 20mg/l, Treated mg/l, set set Wasteby by the - biologically in primary and secondary sedi- waterMongolianthe Mongolian into Nationalthe NationalEnvironment Standard Standard forMNS:4943-2011 Discharge for Discharge of Treated (NSA, of Treated Waste2011). - mentation tanks. The plant has a chlorination The ‘ger’ districts and small villages are not ThiswaterWastewater shows into thatthe into evenEnvironment the thoughEnvironment theMNS:4943-2011 treatment MNS:4943-2011 rate of(NSA, the (NSA, plant2011). is unit for the disinfection of treated wastewater connected to the sewage system of the city. notThis2011). highshows This enough, that shows even the that thoughtreated even the wastewater though treatment the discharged rate treatment of the into plant rate the is before its discharge to the river. However, the The wastewater from these areas is discharged Kharaanotof thehigh Riverplant enough, hasis not no the significanthigh treated enough, wastewaterorganic the pollutant treated discharged wastewaterin most into of the discharged into the Kharaa River has no significant organic chlorination system is temporarily out of order. into simple traditional pit latrines or soak pits. cases.Kharaa River has no significant organic pollutant in most of the pollutant in most of the cases. The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant has Many of these latrines are inadequately main- cases. Figure 22.The Darkhan Wastewa- Figure 22.ter The Treatment Darkhan Plant Wastewater a laboratory for the chemical analyses of waste- tained, and overflowing latrines are often a ma- Figure 22.The Darkhan Wastewa- OnOn the otherother hand,hand, the the concentrations concentrations of of suspended suspended solids solids terTreatment Treatment Plant Plant water. jor source of pollution in ‘ger’ areas of the city, ofOnof treated the other wastewaterwastewater hand, the areare concentrations quite quite high high and and of regularly suspendedregularly exceed exceed solids especially during heavy rainfalls. theofthe treated MaximumMaximum wastewater Acceptable Acceptable are Concentrationquite Concentration high and of regularly 50of mg/l,50 mg/l,exceedas per The total capacity of the Darkhan Wastewater MNS:4943-2011theas perMaximum MNS:4943-2011 Acceptable (NSA, 2011). Concentration(NSA, In general,2011). oftheIn 50 general,concentrations mg/l, asthe per Treatment Plant is 50,000 m3/day. However, The Darkhan Water Supply and Wastewater ofMNS:4943-2011concentrations suspended solids of (NSA, suspendedin wastewater 2011). Insolids general, are similarin thewastewater toconcentrations those ofare the the plant is operating at one third of its design Company (Darkhan USAG) is responsible for Kharaaofsimilar suspended Riverto those water. solids of the in Kharaawastewater River are water. similar to those of the capacity, treating from 15,000 to 17,000 m3/ water supply and wastewater collection treat- Kharaa River water. day wastewater. Only wastewater from apartment in the city. ment buildings and administrative and services areas, which are connected to the sewage sys- In order to evaluate the efficiency and rate of tem of the city, is treated at the plant. wastewater treatment of the Darkhan Waste- water Treatment Plant, data of the chemical The Darkhan Thermal Power Plant (DTPP) is analyses of treated wastewater at the plant The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant the largest user of water in the city. It has its outlet have been analyzed for the period from own wastewater treatment facility. The waste- 2002 to 2012. The wastewater treatment rate water of the plant is discharged into the Kharaa of the plantvariesbetween 76.8 and 98.1 per- River through 12 oxidation ponds and a bio- cent (Figure 23). However, in most of the time, aquifer system. However, the DTPP wastewa- the treatment rate is below 90 percent, which ter treatment facility often encounters technical means to a certain extent that polluted water is Figure 25.SuspendedFigure 25. Suspended solids concentrations solids concentrations in treated inwastewater treated of problems, and untreated industrial wastewater discharged into the Kharaa River. Figure 25.Suspendedwastewater solidsthe Darkhan concentrations of the WWTPDarkhan in treatedWWTP wastewater of is discharged into the area outside the plant. the Darkhan WWTP The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant requires The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant requires substan- substantial technical upgrading and construction

Thetialmaintenance. technicalDarkhan upgrading WastewaterMost treatment and Treatment construction process Plant units maintenance. requires of the substanplant Most - treatmenttialare technicaloutdated, process upgrading with units rather ofand mediocrethe construction plant aretreatment outdated, maintenance. efficiencies. with rather Most mediocretreatmentThe construction processtreatment unitsof efficiencies. a ofnew the wastewaterplant The are construction outdated, treatment with of plant arather new wastewatermediocremay be needed. treatment treatment efficiencies. plant may be The needed. construction of a new The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant wastewater treatment plant may be needed. The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant TheThe MoMoMoMo project project (2009) (2009) developed developed a simulation a simulation modeling ofThemodeling the MoMo Darkhan of project the Wastewater Darkhan (2009) developed TreatmentWastewater a Plant simulation Treatment to improve modeling Plant and optimizeofto theimprove Darkhan the treatmentand Wastewater optimize processes Treatmentthe oftreatment the plant,Plant toinprocesses termsimprove of bothofand theoptimizethe qualityplant, the andin treatment quantityterms ofprocesses of both treated the of wastewater, thequality plant, andin as terms wellquantity ofas bothwith regardtheof treatedquality to the andwastewater, energy quantity consumption of as treated well ofwastewater,as the with plant regard for as thewell toaeration as the with ofregardenergy the biologicalto consumption the energy tanks. consumption ofIn thethe plantframework of for the the plant of aerationthe for follow the ofaeration up the the Figure 23. Wastewater treatment rate of the Dark- Figure 24.BOD concentrations of treatedwastewater biological tanks. In the framework of the follow up the han WWTP of the Darkhan WWTP MoMoof the biological project first-stage, tanks. In researchersthe framework of the of Helmholtzthe follow Centreup the MoMo project first-stage, researchers of the Helmholtz forMoMo Environmental project first-stage, Research researchers of Germany of havethe Helmholtz developed Centre an in- Centre for Environmental Research of Germany have tegratedfor Environmental concept forResearch decentralized of Germany wastewater have developed treatment an and in- developed an integrated concept for decentralized Thus, concentrations of BOD and suspended is discharged into the Kharaa River. The results havetegratedwastewater built concept a pilottreatment plantfor decentralized to and test ithave in local wastewaterbuilt Mongolian a pilot treatment conditions.plant toand solids of the treated wastewater have been an- are presented in Figure 24and 25, respectively. Inhavetest May itbuilt in 2012, locala pilot the Mongolian plant decentralized to test conditions. it in wastewaterlocal Mongolian In May pilot 2012, conditions.plant thewith alyzed to determine how much polluted water integratedIndecentralized May 2012, wood thewastewater production decentralized waspilot commissionedwastewater plant with pilot andintegrated plant handed with Outlet of the Darkhan WWTP integratedwood production wood production was commissionedwas commissioned and and handed handed Outlet of the Darkhan WWTP

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over to the College of Polytechnics in Darkhan wastewater from various industries and of the Mongolian University of Science tanneries is combined with the municipal and Technology. This innovative concept wastewater of Darkhan without any pre- was developed through the cooperation of treatment, which may cause serious Mongolian and German researchers with environmental and health problems. A the aim to contribute to solving problems wide variety of industries are located in such as the lack of access to appropriate Darkhan, including slaughter houses, wool sanitation; increasing water scarcity and factories, bakeries and confectioneries, deforestation, caused by a high demand of pharmaceutical companies, hospitals, power wood for heating (www.ufz.de). stations, printing houses, vehicle repair In addition to municipal wastewater, shops, etc.

4.1.2. Solid waste

At the national level, the amount of municipal on Household and Industrial Waste and Law solid waste is growing rapidly, while the on Hazardous and Toxic Chemicals. It has composition of solid waste is becoming introduced 3R ‘reduce, recycle, and reuse’ more and more diversified with increasing principles. volumes of non-biodegradable waste such as plastics. In general, solid waste management Over the past years, solid waste management is inadequate throughout the country and the is becoming an increasingly significant absence of a proper waste disposal system problem the Kharaa River Basin, mainly due creates significant environmental and health to the concentration of the population in concerns. In early 1990s, outdoor burning of urban areas, changes in economic structure, household garbage was commonly practiced growing consumption and changing lifestyles, as a method of waste disposal throughout the as in any other parts of Mongolia. There are country to reduce household waste quantities growing concerns about inappropriate solid and also to separate recyclable material waste management and increasing litter. from waste. Concerns about the impact of Municipal solid waste, including garbage this practice on air quality led to its banning from larger cities and small towns, account nationwide. However, no new solutions for for the biggest share of solid waste generated waste management have been introduced and disposed of in the region. However, thus far, and open burning continues to there are no systematic and comprehensive be practiced in some places. Only a small data to quantify the amount of solid waste portion of solid waste is recycled despite a generated in the Kharaa River Basin as a potential market for recycled waste materials whole. While, in larger cities, municipal such as plastics, glass bottles, and scrap solid waste is collected and disposed of in metals. In 2012, the Parliament of Mongolia landfills or dumpsites, most small towns do adopted a new “Law on Solid Waste”. This not have proper solid waste management new law replaces the previously existing Law systems.

Solid waste management in Darkhan

The city of Darkhan–the largest urban centre on this assessment, the city’s solid waste in the Kharaa River Basin–accounts for the generation has increased nine times during biggest share of the municipal solid waste the past decade. The amount of municipal generated in the basin. solid wastes collected and disposed of in the A feasibility assessment of solid waste Darkhan area is summarized in Table 20. As management in the city of Darkhan was shown in the table, total waste generation in conducted by the Ministry of Nature, the Darkhan city was approximately 49,640 Environment and Tourism of Mongolia, in tons in 2010, with a per capita waste cooperation with the Korea Environment generation of about 1,8 kg per day (MNET, Cooperation, in 2011 (MNET, 2011). Based 2011).

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TableTable 20.Quantities 20.Quantities and and composition composition of of solid solid waste waste generated generated in in Darkhan Darkhan by by source source category, category, 2010 2010 (tons/ (tons/ year,year, wet wet weight) weight)

Source Apartment ‘Ger’ Office buildings and Streets and Total building district service public area area areas space Paper 1057.3 744.6 2283.4 297.8 4383.2 Cardboard 2730.2 282.9 2591.2 620.5 6224.9 Glass 1588.6 819.1 2874.2 397.1 5678.8 Metal 1022.6 1027.6 357.4 248.2 2655.7 Plastic 953.1 794.2 1360.1 - 3107.5 Wood/green waste 1444.5 1384.9 1747.3 248.2 4825.0 Animal remains 680.1 868.7 1653.0 1092.1 4293.9 Other organic 585.8 1310.5 1002.7 - 2899.0 Other inorganic 1007.7 2874.2 412.0 516.3 4810.1 HHW 238.3 387.2 665.2 - 1290.6 Mixed waste 610.6 794.2 511.3 496.4 2412.5 Total 12613.5 16832.9 16277.0 3916.6 49640.0 Data source: MNET, 2011 In apartment buildings, the solid waste is de- implemented a project on rehabilitation of the In apartment buildings, the solid waste is of Nature, Environment and Tourism. At positeddeposited in ina aroom room on on the the ground floor andand Baraatthe request central of solidthe Ministry,waste disposal the Institute site. The of collectedcollected by wastewaste managementmanagement companies.companies. projectGeo-ecology was financed of the byMongolian the Ministry Academy of Nature, of InIn areas withwith lowerlower buildingsbuildings andand individual individual EnvironmentSciences developed and Tourism. general At guidelinesthe request for of houses,houses, communitycommunity bins bins are areavailable available for each for thea landfill Ministry, facility the Institute in Mongolia. of Geo-ecology In 2008, of thethe block.each block.Residents Residents of ‘ger’ ofdistricts ‘ger’ districtsare required are Mongoliansolid waste Academyat the Baraat of disposalSciences developed torequired deposit to their deposit household their household wastes in designated wastes in generalsite was guidelines removed forto a a smallerlandfill facilitydisposal in Mon- designated areas. area in order to reduce the site area, through areas. golia. In 2008, the solid waste at the Baraat dis- posalthe financial site was supportremoved from to a thesmaller Ministry disposal of

TheThe city’scity’s solid solid waste waste is disposed is disposed of at ofthe at Bara the- areaNature, in order to reduce the site area, through atBaraat central central waste wastedisposal disposal site and site other and five other un- theEnvironment financial support and Tourism, from the as partMinistry of the of Na- five unofficial disposal sites. The Baraat waste project. Rehabilitation works and tree official disposal sites. The Baraat waste disposal ture, Environment and Tourism, as part of the sitedisposal is located site atis thelocated northern at the edge northern of the cityedge in project.planting Rehabilitation works and tree planting of the city in 15 kilometers from Darkha. 15 kilometers from Darkhan. The site covers an works werewere implemented,implemented, as as well. well. The site covers an area of 15.02 hectares. In 2010, the Municipality of Darkhan area of 15.02 hectares. The disposal site does The disposal site does not have a waste developed not have a waste sorting facility. In 2010, the Municipality of Darkhan devel- sorting facility. The Public Utility Services a programme “Darkhan – a clean city”, oped a programme “Darkhan – a clean city”, Department of the adopted by the Darkhan City Council of TheMunicipality Public Utility of Darkhan Services Departmentis responsible of thefor adoptedRepresentatives. by the Darkhan City Council of Rep- Municipalityoverseeing the of collection Darkhan andis responsibletransportation for resentatives.The programme The will programme be implemented will be imple- overseeingof municipal the solid collection waste fromand thetransportation apartment mentedfor the period for the from period 2010 from to 2010 2014. to 2014. ofbuildings municipal area, solid ‘ger’ waste districts, from office the buildings,apartment This programme has three main objectives, buildingsservice areas area, such ‘ger’ as districts, hotels, restaurantsoffice buildings, and Thisas programme has three main objectives, as serviceshopping areas centers, such as hotels,well as restaurantsfor street andand follows:follows: shoppingpublic space centers, cleaning. as well Wasteas for collectionstreet and Objective 1: Establish an efficient and publictrucks spacepick up cleaning. mixed Wastesolid wastes. collection All truckssolid Objectivesuitable 1: Establish an efficient and suitable pickwastes up mixedare transported solid wastes. to Allthe solid disposal wastes sites are system forfor wastewaste separation separation at at source: source: transportedwithout presorting. to the disposal There sitesis no without system pre-for • • Develop Develop a methodology a methodology to todetermine determine sorting.waste separation There is no at system source. for Thewaste city separation has no thethe amount, amount, types types and and composition composition of solid of atofficial source. recycling The city programhas no official in place recycling as of yet.pro- wastessolid from apartment buildings, ‘ger’ dis- gram in place as of yet. tricts,wastes enterprises from apartment and industrial buildings, plants, ‘ger’ and In 2007, the city of Darkhan developed and conductdistricts, relevant studies on waste genera- Inimplemented 2007, the city a project of Darkhan on rehabilitation developed and of tion;enterprises and industrial plants, and the Baraat central solid waste disposal site. conduct relevant studies on waste The project was financed by the Ministry generation; Pollution threats and hotspots assessment 51 The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the Pollutionproject. threats and hotspots assessment 51 UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

• Develop a database on solid waste raw materials. generation in the Darkhan-Uul aimag (province), with an inventory system for solid Objectives 3. Improve the collection, wastes from households, business areas and transportation and disposal of solid wastes. industries; • Transport all solid wastes from enterprises, • Implement pilot projects of waste separation public organizations and households; in selected districts and select optimal • Modernize waste disposal systems of alternatives for waste separation in apartment enterprises; building areas, ‘ger districts’, and business • Improve waste collection, storage and and service areas; transportation services; • Establish a specific site for the collection • Select waste collection and storage sites of recycled waste materials in order to taking into account of specific conditions of support the voluntary collection and sale of different areas such as service and business recyclable waste materials by individuals areas, public areas, apartment building areas, and residents; and ‘ger’ districts, respectively; • Increase the involvement of enterprises • Increase public awareness by disseminating in waste separation by providing waste information handouts and training pamphlets separation containers to shops, supermarkets, about more efficient management of solid service providers and in the streets. wastes; • Develop new routines and schedules for Objective 2: Establish a waste sorting and cleaning streets and public spaces, and waste recycling plant and implement projects collection from enterprises, apartments on reuse and recycling of household and buildings and ‘ger’ districts; industrial wastes and waste materials • Estimate costs of waste removal and the • Adopt economic tools to motivate to reclamation of land used by enterprises and produce less waste and use the resources individuals for the purposes such as more efficiently in production, services and unfinished construction and garages, and other sectors at the local level; collect these costs from them; • Operate a regular site for the exchange and • Support public officers, administrators of sale of used materials (such as books, clothing, local communities and public organizations, newspapers, journals, home furniture, apartment co-ownership associations, etc.), as well as for sharing information and enterprises and individuals for their advertisements of enterprises that collect/ accomplishments and efforts made in purchase secondary raw materials (recyclable improving waste management in their waste materials), in order to support waste communities; separation, recycling and reuse with • Organize a “Organization with No Waste” increased participation of residents and competition amongst local communities, individuals; public organizations, apartment co- • Conduct a study on the quantity, types ownership associations, enterprises and and composition of secondary raw materials industries with no open-waste disposal sites; (recyclable waste materials) and on technical • Implement technologies for solid waste and economic feasibility of waste recycling, disposal in landfills. and build a waste recycling and sorting plant; • Implement projects on waste recycling/ Consequently, the solid waste management reprocessing and sorting, based on the in the Darkhan city is expected to improve composition of wastes from different over the coming years, as a result of the sources, including projects to separate and “Darkhan – a clean city” programme. process organic wastes from households and restaurants to produce compost for use as a fertilizer; • Support enterprises operating storage, collection and transportation of secondary

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4.2.4.2. IndustrialIndustrial pollution pollution

TheThe citycity of of Darkhan, Darkhan, which which is located is located in the inKharaa the RiverKharaa Ba - sin,River is oneBasin, of theis one largest of theindustrial largest centres industrial in Mongolia. centres inIt is homeMongolia. to most It is of home country’s to most large of industries, country’s including large industries, steel pro - duction,including construction steel production, and building construction material andmanufacturing, building textilematerial and manufacturing, leather factories, textileand food and processing. leather Manyfactories, other industriesand food areprocessing. located in Many Darkhan, other including industries food are processing, located vehiclein Darkhan, repair, includingand the production food processing, of woolen vehicle textiles, repair, carpets, and the production of woolen textiles, carpets,dressed dressed sheepskins, and clothing. Lime quarrying and metal foundriessheepskins, have andalso experiencedclothing. Lime a large quarrying growth, becomingand metal im - portantfoundries contributors have also experiencedto the local economy. a large growth, There becoming has been a significantimportant growthcontributors in the todairy the industrylocal economy. and milk There production has been a significant growth in the dairy industry and milk too. The Darkhan Thermal Power Plant (a coal power plant) production too. The Darkhan Thermal Power Plant (a coal suppliespower plant) electricity supplies for the electricity city, as wellfor theas tocity, other as largerwell as cities. to Theother size larger of thesecities. enterprises varies greatly. In general, most The Darkhan city enterprises are quite small. The size of these enterprises varies greatly. In general, Themost construction enterprises industry, are quitewhich oncesmall. was The the biggestconstruction employ - er,industry, has been which declining once wasover the the biggest past years employer, and now has employs been onlydeclining six percent over theof thepast labor years force and of now the employscity. In the only last six few years,percent the of economythe labor hasforce begun of the to city. diversify In the withlast fewinvestments years, inthe transportation, economy has storage begun and to communications diversify with owinginvestments to good roadin transportation, and rail links to storageother large and cities communications such as Ulaanbaatar owing and Erdenet.to good road and rail links to other large cities such as Ulaanbaatar and Erdenet. The steel production and processing industry has experienced The steel production and processing industry has the greatest growth in the past few years. The Darkhan Metal- experienced the greatest growth in the past few years. lurgical Plant, located in the city of Darkhan, is the only steel The Darkhan Metallurgical Plant, located in the city of andDarkhan, iron processing is the only plant steel in andMongolia. iron processing The plant wasplant estab in - lishedMongolia. in 1994 The plantand employs was established 500 staff. in It1994 produces and employs 100,000 tons of steel per year from iron ore and scrap. 500 staff. It produces 100,000 tons of steel per year from The Darkhan city iron ore and scrap. Environmental impact assessments have not been conducted forEnvironmental most of small enterprises.impact assessments have not been conducted for most of small enterprises. Critical concentrations of toxic heavy metals were reported at aCritical sampling concentrations site one kilometer of toxic downstream heavy metals of thewere city reported of Dark - hanat a (MNET,sampling 2011).The site one kilometerconcentration downstream of mercury of theat thecity sam of - plingDarkhan site was(MNET, 0,5 µg/l.2011).The Increased concentration concentrations of mercuryof chromium at the sampling site was 0,5 μg/l. Increased concentrations were also detected, which can be caused by pollution from of chromium were also detected, which can be caused by leather industries in the city. pollution from leather industries in the city.

4.3.4.3. MiningMining

OpenOpen miningmining is is one one of ofthe the major major sources sources of pollution of pollution in the studyin the area. study Several area. miningSeveral reservesmining arereserves found are in thefound Kharaa in Riverthe Kharaa Basin andRiver occupy Basin anand area occupy of about an area 16 percentof about of 16 the The Darkhan city totalpercent area of of the the total basin. area of the basin.

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Some of the mines are not yet exploited, which company in Mongolia, which produces over meansSome ofthat the exploration mines are and not development yet exploited, li- 1.000.000company intons Mongolia, of coal per which year—is produces also locat over- censeswhich of thesemeans reserves that mayexploration have been issuedand ed1.000.000 in the Kharaa tons Riverof coal Basin. per year—is also development licenses of these reserves may located in the Kharaa River Basin. to mining companies, with mining operations have been issued to mining companies, with not having started. The mining area under op- There are no systematically observed data to mining operations not having started. The There are no systematically observed data to erationmining representsarea under 1.5 operation percent ofrepresents the total area1.5 assessassess thethe pollutionpollution fromfrom miningmining activitiesactivities inin ofpercent the basin, of the which total isarea about of the 9.3 basin, percent which of the is thethe basin,basin, which which may may have have serious serious negative negative im- totalabout area 9.3 for percent mining of purposes the total (Figurearea for 26). mining pactsimpacts not notonly onlyon surface on surface water quality,water quality,but also purposes (Figure 26). onbut groundwater also on groundwater and soil. Heavy and soil.metals Heavy (such One of the most productive gold mining sites asmetals mercury (such and as cyanide) mercury were and commonlycyanide) were used ofOne Mongolia, of the most the productiveBoroo Gold gold Mine, mining is located sites incommonly small-scale used gold inmines small-scale mines until gold the minesuse of inof theMongolia, Boroo Riverthe Boroo Basin, Gold which Mine, is one is located of the mercurymines until mercury the usefor miningof mercury and extract mercury miner for- tributaryin the Boroo of the River Kharaa Basin, River. which The is Sharyn one of Golthe alsmining was bannedand extract in 2008. minerals was banned in Coaltributary Mines—the of the Kharaa second River. largest The coalSharyn mining Gol 2008. Coal Mines-the second largest coal mining

FigureFigure 26.26. MiningMining areas areas of of the the Kharaa Kharaa River river Basin basin

An incident of a possible mercury and heavy metals in the river water and sediment Ancyanide incident contamination of a possible mercury of groundwater and cyanide inhad the a river correlation water and to sedimentmining activitieshad a correla and- contaminationcaused by a tailings of groundwater spill from a smallcaused mining by a tiontended to mining to increase activities in areas and tendeddownstream to increase from tailingsoperation spill in from Khongor a small soum mining was operationrecorded inin inmining areas sites.downstream In the Boroo from River,mining for sites. example, In the Khongor2007. soum was recorded in 2007. Borooconcentrations River, for of example,arsenic in concentrationsthe surface water of arsenicwere above in the the surface threshold water level were for above drinking the AsAs partpart of theof MoMothe MoMo project project(2009), concen(2009),- thresholdwater of 10 level μg/l, for and drinking elevated water concentrations of 10 µg/l, trationsconcentrations of heavy ofmetals heavy in surfacemetals watersin surface and andof arsenic, elevated lead, concentrations chromium, of mercuryarsenic, lead,and thewaters river and sediment the river were sediment measured. were measured. The study chromium,nickel were mercury found in and the nickel sediment. were found in indicatedThe study that indicated the concentrations that the concentrations heavy metals the sediment.

54 The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be Water used Quality by a third of the party Kharaa before River consulting Basin, Mongolia: with the 54project. Water Quality of the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia: UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

Boroo GoldGold Mine Mine

The BorooBoroo GoldGold Mine Mine (Figure (Figure 27) 27) is islocated located in tonsof 2010 of gold (www.boroogold.mn). through the end of 2010The Boroo(www. 110in 110 kilometers kilometers to the to northwestthe northwest of the ofcapital the boroogold.mn).project consists The of Borooa suspended project consistsopen-pit of citycapital of Ulaanbaatarcity of Ulaanbaatar and about and 230 about kilometers 230 amine, suspended an inactive open-pit heap mine, leach an inactive processing heap tokilometers the south to of the internationalsouth of the boundaryinternational with leachfacility, processing an operating facility, anprocessing operating processplant,- a tailings facility, ore and waste rock Russia,boundary at 48°45’ with Russia, North andat 48°45’ 106°10’ North East. and ing plant, a tailings facility, ore and waste rock 106°10’ East. stockpiles, and other surface infrastructure stockpiles, and other surface infrastructure nor- The Boroo Mine was the first hard-rock gold normally associated with an open pit mining Themine Boroo established Mine inwas Mongolia the first andhard-rock the largest gold mallyoperation. associated Wastewater with an and open sludge pit mining from theop- mineforeign established investment in in Mongolia the country and at the the largest time eration.mining operation of the Boroo Gold Mine is foreignit began investment production. in The the Boroocountry Gold at the Mine time is stored in a tailings facility (a reservoir behind itowned began byproduction. the Canadian The Boroomining Gold company, Mine is Wastewatera dam). and sludge from the mining opera- ownedCenterra by theGold Canadian Inc. It mining began company, commercial Cen- tion of the Boroo Gold Mine is stored in a tail- terraproduction Gold Inc. in It Marchbegan commercial2004 and productionproduced ings facility (a reservoir behind a dam). inmore March than 2004 46 tons and ofproduced gold through more thethan end 46

Figure 27. The Boroo Gold mining site Figure 27. The Boroo Gold mining site The tailings facility is located in the Ikh Dashir pansion. In 2011, the tailings dam walls were Valley and connected to the process plant by a raised by 2.5 meters and its final design capac- five-kilometer pipeline (Figure 28). This facility ity for the existing Boroo mineral reserves was received the government’s approval in 2003. completed. The current design of the tailings It has a storage facility designed to store used facility provides a total storage capacity of 16.9 water for reclamation and re-use. The bottom million cubic meters of tailings, which is suffi- of the tailings facility is sealed with a compact- cient to store the entire volume of tailings over ed clay liner and a high-density polyethylene the lifetime of the mine. liner on all embankments. In 2007, Centerra Inc. constructed an extension to the original The leaching of the tailings is monitored at tailings dam. In 2008, lateral dykes were con- eight monitoring wells (MW), located down- structed for water management purposes. In stream of the tailing dam. The monitoring of 2009, an additional storage capacity was cre- both groundwater levels and the water quality ated by increasing the height of dykes in the in the aquifers is conducted by an independent north. In 2010, the facility increased the height company and is reported to the (former) Na- of the south, east and west walls for further ex- tional Water Authority.

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Table 21. Results of chemical analysis of the monitoring wells Table 21.Results of chemical analysis of the monitoring wells

Elements Averages of 2012 samples (January -October) Monitoring wells MAC levels MW#4 MW#7 MW#8 MW#9 MW#14 MW#4A MW#3 MW#1 (MNS 6148:2010) K na 1.93 8.34 1.66 2.34 2.7 2.76 2.7 2.19 Na na 112.8 284 129.4 65.5 139.4 113.6 83.2 96 CI 3 0.34 0.32 0.3 0.3 0.34 0.32 0.37 0.45 SO4 350 97 324 98.7 80.8 112 110 82.8 61.5 NO2 500 242.3 1042 212.7 196.5 251.7 315.8 420 120.2 NO3 1 0.14 0.14 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.15 0.02 0.02 pH 50 2.79 8.36 2.9 2 2.18 5.2 5.3 5.7 CN total 6.5-8.5 7 6.88 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.0 7 6.9 CN free 0.1 <0.002 <0.00 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 2 CN WAD 0.005 <0.002 <0.00 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 2 Cr na <0.05 <0.05 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 AI 0.07 <0.02 <0.02 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 Mn 0.5 <0.015 <0.01 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 5 Mo 0.1 <0.01 <0.01 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 Ba 0.04 <0.03 <0.03 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 Zn 2 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 Ni 5 <0.01 <0.01 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 Co 0.1 <0.01 <0.01 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 Ag na <0.05 <0.05 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 U 0.02 0.016 0.016 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 Fe 0.3 0.02 0.02 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 As 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 Cd 0.003 <0.005 <0.00 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 5 Cu 1 <0.01 <0.01 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 Pb 0.05 <0.01 <0.01 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 Hg 0.002 <0.001 <0.00 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 1 Se 0.04 <0.05 <0.05 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 Data source: Boroo Gold Mine, 2013

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TheThe averageaverage depth depth of of these these monitoring monitoring wells wells is Acceptablethe Maximum Concentration Acceptable value. Concentration Also, it was 50-65is 50-65 meters, meters, the groundwaterthe groundwater table istable 38.2 tois notvalue. clear Also, whether it wasconcentrations not clear of whetherselected 44.6238.2 to meters 44.62 and meters yield and is 0.02 yield to is 0.9 0.02 l/s. to 0.9 pollutantsconcentrations and some of selectedheavy metals pollutants such as andcya- l/s. nidesome (CN), heavy cadmium metals (Cd), such selenium as cyanide (Se), cobalt(CN), According to the average values of the water (Co),cadmium arsenic (Cd), (As) selenium and mercury (Se), (Hg)cobalt in (Co),some qualityAccording parameters to the of average2012 of thesevalues eight of mon the- wellsarsenic exceeded (As) and the MACmercury values. (Hg) The in concen some- water quality parameters of 2012 of these wells exceeded the MAC values. The itoring wells (Table 21), the concentrations of trations of these pollutants were reported as mosteight pollutantsmonitoring were wellsbelow the(Table Maximum 21), theAc- lessconcentrations than certain levels,of these without pollutants indicating were their ceptableconcentrations Concentrations of most pollutants in most of were the belowmoni- exactreported values. as less than certain levels, without toringthe Maximum wells, set Acceptablein the Mongolian Concentrations National indicating their exact values. in most of the monitoring wells, set in the Standard on Water Quality: Permissible Levels However, it still should be noted that in case of Mongolian National Standard on Water However, it still should be noted that in case forQuality: Groundwater Permissible Pollutants Levels forMNS Groundwater 6148:2010 aof leakage, a leakage, the tailingsthe tailings from fromthe mine the minemay cause may (NSA, 2010). heavy metals contamination in the Boroo River Pollutants MNS 6148:2010 (NSA, 2010). cause heavy metals contamination in the (aBoroo tributary River of (a thetributary Kharaa of River)the Kharaa and conseRiver)- InIn only only one one case, case, the concentrationthe concentration of a pollut of a- quentlyand consequently will have potentially will haveserious potentially impacts on antpollutant exceeded exceeded the MAC the level, MAC where level, the where con- bothserious surface impacts water on and both groundwater surface water resources and centrationthe concentration of sulfates of (SO4) sulfates in the(SO4) Monitoring in the ofgroundwater the Kharaa Riverresources Basin. of the Kharaa River WellMonitoring No.7 was Well twice No.7 higher was than twice the higher Maximum than Basin.

4.4.4.4. AgricultureAgriculture

Mongolia’sMongolia’s most most productive productive agricultural agricultural areas ingoccupies wheat 11.9and percentbasic vegetables of the total and area occupies of the lands are found in the Kharaa River Basin Kharaa River Basin. This area contains 30 are found in the Kharaa River Basin and the 11.9 percent of the total area of the Kharaa Riv- surroundingand the surrounding region. The region. region’s The soilregion’s and natsoil- erthousand Basin. This hectares area containsof soil suitable 30 thousand for arable hect- uraland climaticnatural climaticconditions conditions are favorable are favorable for the arescrops of soiland suitable 1,287.8 for arablethousand crops hectares and 1,287.8 for cultivationfor the cultivation of cereals of and cereals vegetables, and vegetables, especially thousandvegetable hectaresproduction. for vegetable production. potatoes.especially There potatoes. are 35There agricultural are 35 agricultural producers Despite the expansion of the urban economy, producers and agricultural cooperatives in Despite the expansion of the urban economy, and agricultural cooperatives in the Kharaa livestock farming is still the main activity and Riverthe Kharaa Basin. River Basin. majorlivestock means farming of sustaining is still the livelihoods main activity and foodand major means of sustaining livelihoods and security of the rural population. There are ap- The cropland in the valleys along the Kharaa food security of the rural population. There TheRiver cropland and its intributaries the valleys is alongused mainlythe Kharaa for proximatelyare approximately 130,000 130,000 heads headsof livestock of livestock in the Rivergrowing and itswheat tributaries and isbasic used vegetablesmainly for grow and- Darkhan-Uulin the Darkhan-Uul aimag (NSO, aimag 2010). (NSO, 2010).

FigureFigure 29.29. Cropland area on the KharaaKharaa River bank

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FigureFigure 30.30. Bornuur croplandcropland farming nearnear thethe BorooBoroo RiverRiverbank bank

InIn Mongolia,Mongolia, thethe useuse of of chemical chemical fertilizers fertilizers in to,close or directlyto, or directlyon, the bankson, the of thebanks Kharaa of Rivthe- agriculturein agriculture is insignificant. is insignificant. Traditionally, Traditionally, fertiliz- erKharaa (Figures River 29 and(Figures 30). The29 proximityand 30). ofThe the erfertilizer is not used is not for used cereals for production. cereals production. Currently, croplandproximity to of surface the cropland waters mayto surface have potential waters naturalCurrently, fertilizer natural such fertilizer as animal such manure as animal is the impactsmay have on potential water quality impacts and onsedimentation water quality of mostmanure widely is theused most fertilizer widely for vegetables.used fertilizer Ac- theand river sedimentation systems of theof the basin. river systems of the cordingfor vegetables. to the information According providedto the information by the of- basin. 3 ficialsprovided of the by Ministrythe officials of Food of andthe MinistryAgriculture, of According to data of land use and land cover theFood total and fertilizer Agriculture, use is the about total 1,200 fertilizer tons useper studiesAccording (Hudelmer, to data of 2006), land usemore and than land 60 cover per- is about 1,200 tons per year in Mongolia. studies (Hudelmer, 2006), more than 60 year in Mongolia. Consequently, the impact of cent of the total area of the Kharaa River Ba- Consequently, the impact of fertilizer use percent of the total area of the Kharaa River fertilizer use in agriculture on the water quality sin is used as pasture land for livestock graz- in agriculture on the water quality of the Basin is used as pasture land for livestock ofKharaa the Kharaa River BasinRiver Basinis insignificant, is insignificant, given given the ing.grazing. Hence, Hence, the livestockthe livestock grazing grazing is the ismajor the the insignificant amount of fertilizer used in non-point source of pollution to surface waters, insignificant amount of fertilizer used in crop major non-point source of pollution to surface cropproduction. production. leadingwaters, toleading fecal contamination to fecal contamination and direct nutriand- entdirect inputs nutrient to the inputs river to water the river during water warm during sea- However, some some of of the the cropland cropland is located is located close sons.warm seasons.

4.5. Pollution hotspots mapping 4.5. Pollution hotspots mapping Based on the identification of major pollution The overview of the areas of concern in the sources in the Kharaa River Basin, a pollution Kharaa River Basin is shown in Figure 31. Basedhotspots on mapping the identification was carried of majorout. The pollution areas sin.The Thepollution overview hotspots of the areasmapping of concern has shown in the sourcesof concern, in the or Kharaa potential River pollution Basin, a pollutionhotspot, Kharaasimilar Riverresults Basin as the is shownmajor pointsin Figure of concern31. hotspotshave been mapping identified was with carried regard out. to Thepotential areas identified by the MoMo project (2009). ofimpacts concern, on the or qualitypotential of surfacepollution waters hotspot, and The pollution hotspots mapping has shown havegroundwater been identified resources with in regardthe Kharaa to potential River similar results as the major points of concern impactsBasin. on the quality of surface waters and identified by the MoMo project (2009). groundwater resources in the Kharaa River Ba-

3 3Statement of Mr. Sh. Baranchuluun, Senior officer at Ministry of Industry and Agriculture, during the National Workshop conducted in the framework ofStatement this study in Ulaanbaatar, of Mr. Sh. Mongolia, Baranchuluun, on 04 June 2013 Senior officer at Ministry of Industry and Agriculture, during the Na- tional Workshop conducted in the framework of this study in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, on 04 June 2013

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Figure 31. Map of areas of concern (potential pollution hotspots) in the Figure 31.Map of areas of concern (potential pollution hotspots) in the KharaaKharaa River River BasinBasin

4.6. Environmental and health impacts

The Kharaa River Basin became a Mongolia’s waters and groundwater systems across the 4.6.major Environmental industrial and agricultural and regionhealth basin. impacts Other environmental factors such as in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s with deforestation, over-grazing, and land use

the establishment of the industrial city of changes resulting from the extensive tillage The KharaaDarkhan River (on 17Basin October became 1961) a andMongolia’s an agro- offor pollutants cereal and to crop surface production waters and have groundwater become majorindustrial industrial farming and agricultural complex toregion change in thethe systemsincreasingly across apparent, the basin. too. Other As a result environmental of these country’s economic base from traditional environmental impacts of industrial and late 1950’s and early 1960’s with the establish- factors such as deforestation, over-grazing, and ment livestockof the industrial production city into of Darkhanmodern industrial (on 17 landagricultural use changes activities, resulting the lower from and the middle extensive and agricultural economies. The political reaches of the basin have shown degradation Octoberand 1961)economic and anchanges agro-industrial from the farmingsocialist tillageof the forpristine cereal natural and crop environment. production have be- complexregime to tochange a democratic the country’s system and economic a market come increasingly apparent, too. As a result of base fromeconomy traditional in 1990-1991 livestock productionresulted in into the theseThe water environmental demand in impactsthe basin of is industrialincreasing and moderncollapse industrial of agricultural and agricultural production. economies. Currently, agriculturalyear after yearactivities, due to the population lower and growth, middle The politicalthe agricultural and economic sector ischanges rebounding from withthe reachesindustrialization, of the basin mining have showndevelopment, degradation socialistincreasing regime wheatto a democratic production system over the and past a ofgrowth the pristine of irrigated natural agriculture environment. and lifestyle several years. changes. Furthermore, climate change market economy in 1990-1991 resulted in the impacts are becoming more evident. The collapseThe ofindustrial agricultural and agriculturalproduction. development Currently, Thecurrent water and demand future climate in the changes basin isand increasing their the agriculturalof the region, sector hence, is reboundinghas become withthe main in- yearimpacts, after coupledyear due with to population enhanced growth,climate in- creasingdriver wheat of productionenvironmental over change the past in sevthe- dustrialization,variability, will likelymining increase development, water scarcity growth eral years.Kharaa River Basin. The discharge of poorly ofin irrigatedthe Kharaa agriculture River Basin, and lifestyleas well aschanges. in treated municipal and industrial wastewater Furthermore,Mongolia as aclimate whole change(Batimaa impacts et al, 2005 are be- due to outdated wastewater plants has led to and 2011). The industrialincreasing and loadings agricultural of pollutants development to surface of coming more evident. The current and future the region, hence, has become the main driver climate changes and their impacts, coupled of environmental change in the Kharaa River with enhanced climate variability, will likely in- The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the Basin.Pollution Theproject. threatsdischarge and hotspots of assessment poorly treated munici- crease water scarcity in the Kharaa River 59Basin, pal and industrial wastewater due to outdated as well as in Mongolia as a whole (Batimaa et wastewater plants has led to increasing loadings al, 2005 and 2011).

Pollution threats and hotspots assessment 59 UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem" Hence, the impact of climate change on water in the country’s economy. With the expansion resources’ and water availability is seen as an of the mining industry, concerns over environ- equally important concern for the future water mental and health impacts of mining activities suppliesHence, of the the country. impact of climate change on areimportant becoming part increasing in the country’simportant, economy. especially water resources’ and water availability is With the expansion of the mining industry, because the Boroo Gold Mine (one of the most Sinceseen the as 1990an equally transition, important mining concern activities for the productiveconcerns goldover minesenvironmental in Mongolia) and is healthlocated future water supplies of the country. impacts of mining activities are becoming have grown significantly in the region and gold in the Kharaa River Basin. increasing important, especially because the miningSince is playing the 1990 an increasinglytransition, mining important activities part Boroo Gold Mine (one of the most productive have grown significantly in the region and gold mines in Mongolia) is located in the gold mining is playing an increasingly Kharaa River Basin.

Figure 32. Runoff forming and river bank protection zone Figure 32. Map of areas of concern (potential pollution hotspots) in the Kharaa River Basin Several incidents of releases of hazardous and mental contamination. The initial investigations highly toxic substances such as mercury and were conducted jointly by the World Health cyanideSeveral into incidents the environment of releases were of hazardous caused andby Organization,were conducted the jointlyjoint UNEP/OCHA by the World HealthEnviron- lack highlyof compliance toxic substances with environmentalsuch as mercury and and mentOrganization, Unit, and thethe Mongolian joint UNEP/OCHAauthorities and cyanide into the environment were caused by Environment Unit, and the Mongolian healthlack safety of compliance regulations with for environmentalthe management and highlightedauthorities theand need highlighted to conduct the a healthneed torisk and healthdisposal safety of tailings regulations from formining the management activities. assessmentconduct a forhealth the populationrisk assessment at risk. for Uponthe and disposal of tailings from mining activities. requestpopulation of the at Mongolian risk. Upon Government, request of a theJoint The Themost seriousmost serious incident incident occurred occurredin Khongor in UNMongolian mission Government,consisting of internationala Joint UN mission experts soumKhongor in April soum 2007 in and April was 2007 caused and wasby the caused re- fromconsisting the World of international Health Organization experts from (WHO), the leaseby of the large release quantities of large of mercury quantities and of cyanide mercury theWorld United Health Nations Organization Environmental (WHO), Programme the into andthe cyanidesoil and into groundwater the soil and from groundwater a small- (UNEP)United andNations the FoodEnvironmental and Agriculture Programme Organi- from a smallscale mining operation. The (UNEP) and the Food and Agriculture scale mining operation. The Khongor incident zation (FAO), took place in February-March Khongor incident has raised a serious Organization (FAO), took place in February- has raisedconcern a serious over amongconcern the over local among population the lo- 2008March to assess2008 theto assesssituation the with situation regards with to ef - cal populationover environmental over environmental and health and healtheffects fectsregards of mercury to effects and of cyanide mercury contamination and cyanide on effectswhich which might might result result from from this environmentalthis environ- humancontamination health, food on production, human health, animal health,food contamination. The initial investigations production, animal health,

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andand thethe environment. environment. The The results results of neurological of neurological and medical and examinationsmedical examinations conducted byconducted WHO among by WHO the local among population the atlocal risk populationdid not suggest at risk any did health not effectssuggest which any healthcould be effects attrib - utedwhich to couldmercury be exposure attributed or toacute mercury cyanide exposure poisoning. or acute cyanide poisoning. To address growing concerns over Toenvironmental address growing and concernshealth impacts over environmental of the miningindustry, and health impactsthe Parliament of the ofminingindustry, Mongolia adopted the theParliament Law on Prohibitionof Mongolia of Mineral Exploration and Mining Activities in areas in adopted the Law on Prohibition of Mineral Exploration and the Headwaters of Rivers, River Protection Zones and The Orkhon River Valley Mining Activities in areas in the Headwaters of Rivers, River Forested Areas (2009). This law prohibits any economic Protectionactivity in Zonesareas ofand the Forested headwaters Areas of(2009). rivers, This streams, law prohib and - itscreeks any economicand in a distanceactivity in of areas 200 ofmeters the headwaters and more ofin rivers, the streams,riparian andzone creeks of a river.and in Consequently, a distance of 200 the meters former and Water more inAuthority the riparian has zoneidentified of a river. river Consequently, protection zones the formerin all rivers Water Authorityin Mongolia. has identifiedThe Institute river of protectionMeteorology zones and in Hydrology all rivers in Mongolia.has defined The also Institute the headwaters of Meteorology areas and of Hydrology all river basins has de - finedof Mongolia. also the headwatersThe map of areas the ofriver all riverprotection basins ofzones Mongolia. and Theheadwaters map of the areas river of protection the Kharaa zones River and Basin headwaters is shown areas in of theFigure Kharaa 32. River Basin is shown in Figure 32. A Hayland

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5.5. Conclusions Conclusions and and RecommendationsRecommendations

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5.1. Conclusions

The Kharaa River Basin is one of the main study focused on: the survey of water quality tributaries of the Orkhon-Selenge River characteristics of the Kharaa River; the system, which ultimately drains to Lake identification of anthropogenic impacts on Baikal. The Orkhon River is the longest river the river’s water quality; the identification of in Mongolia and the valley along the river is major threats to the water quality in the basin; an archaeologically-rich cultural landscape. and the development of recommendations The Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape has on pollution prevention and control in the been designated by UNESCO as a World Kharaa River Basin. Heritage Site. The Selenge River is the largest river by volume of flow. The upper basin is in The assessment of the water quality in the a relatively pristine state and has experienced Kharaa River is based on both hydrochemical minimal anthropogenic impacts. The lower and hydrobiological parameters. The basin is characterized by diverse economic hydrochemical assessment is based on activities such as industry, agriculture and hydrochemical monitoring data collected by livestock breeding, which may potentially the Central Laboratory for Environment and have significant impacts on the quantity Meteorology for the period from 1986 through and quality of water resources of the basin. 2011. The hydrobiological assessment is Furthermore, the basin provides drinking based on macroinvertebrates data collected water for the rapidly-growing Darkhan City, by the Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology which water supplies largely rely on alluvial and Environment for the period from 2005 to aquifers containing shallow-depth 2010. As part of the Mongolia’s freshwater groundwater, and the inhabitants of small quality monitoring network, the Kharaa River human settlements in the basin. water quality has been monitored at four

sampling points at two monitoring stations Driven by climate change, urbanization and since 1986. The upper monitoring station, rapid economic growth, Mongolia’s water which is the reference site of the study, is resources are under increasing pressure. The located near Zuunkharaa (a small urban

Kharaa River Basin is facing relatively high settlement) and has two sampling points anthropogenic pressures on both water quality upstream and downstream from Zuunkharaa. and water quantity from rapid urbanization, The second monitoring station is located rising water demand and climate change. near to Darkhan city and has two sampling The pollution of the Kharaa River Basin is points too-upstream and downstream from becoming a growing concern due to the the city. The overall assessment of the high vulnerability of the basin to urban chemical composition has shown good and industrial pollution. The assessment chemical conditions at all sampling sites on of water quality and water pollution in the the Kharaa River. The Kharaa River water Selenge River Basin, undertaken by this is moderately mineralized and moderately study, focused on a case-study on pollution hard. The monthly mean concentrations hotspots and pollution threats in the Kharaa of total dissolved salts (the sum of Ca2+, + + 2+ 2- - River Basin, including urban water pollution Na +K , Mg , HCO3 -, SO4 and Cl ), or in the city of Darkhan, Mongolia. mineralization, in the Kharaa River vary between 162.2-335.7 mg/l and show a The main objectives of this study were to tendency to increase towards downstream. assess the current state of the water quality The concentrations of total dissolved salts of the Kharaa River Basin, assess water increase also during snow melting periods. pollution from diffuse and point sources, identify pollution hotspots in the basin, and determine the main pressures on the water quality of the Kharaa River, with a qualitative description of their impacts. The

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InIn aa vast vast majority majority of of the the cases, cases, the the order order of ofabundance abundance of ofcat - ionscations is Ca is2+ Ca>Na2+>Na++K++K+>Mg+>Mg2+2+, and, and the the order order of of abundance abundance of of anions is HCO ->SO2- - 2->Cl-. The pH values range anions is HCO3->SO3 4 >Cl4 . The pH values range between 6.5between and 8.5, 6.5 which and 8.5, is within which the is withinstandard the range standard for river range wa - ters.for river waters.

TheThe dissolved dissolved oxygen oxygen concentration concentration of theof theKharaa Kharaa River River range range from 3.8 to 14.0 mg/l. The concentrations biological from 3.8 to 14.0 mg/l. The concentrations biological oxygen oxygen demand (BOD) varies between 0.3 mg/l and 7.8 demand (BOD) varies between 0.3 mg/l and 7.8 mg/l. In most mg/l. In most of the cases, the BOD concentrations are ofbelow the cases, the Maximum the BOD concentrationsAcceptable Concentration are below the of Maximum 5 mg/l, Acceptablethe standard Concentration set by the ofMongolian 5 mg/l, the National standard Standardset by the Mongolianfor Water NationalQuality Standardof the Aquatic for Water Environment: Quality of the General Aquatic Environment:Requirements General MNS Requirements4586-98. This MNS indicates 4586-98. that This in in - dicatesgeneral that the inriver general water the is riverclean. water However, is clean. it shouldHowever, be it shouldnoted thatbe notedthe BOD that concentrationsthe BOD concentrations occasionally occasionally exceed Water crown exceedthe Maximum the Maximum Acceptable Acceptable Concentrations Concentrations (5 mg/l) (5 at mg/l) both at bothsampling sampling sites sites during during summer. summer. This This may may show show that that organic organ- icpollutants pollutants originating originating from from urban urban and and industrial industrial areas areas and and livestocklivestock wastes wastes enter enter the the river river with with surface surface washing washing during heavyduring rainfall heavy events rainfall in events summer. in summer.

Monthly mean concentrations of ammonium-nitrogen Monthly mean concentrations of ammonium-nitrogen (NH - (NH4-N) range between 0.09 and 0.38 mg/, while the 4 N) range between 0.09 and 0.38 mg/, while the concentrations concentrations of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) vary from of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) vary from 0.01 to 0.84 mg/l for the 0.01 to 0.84 mg/l for the period from 1985 to 2010. The periodconcentrations from 1985 of to phosphate 2010. The (PO4-P)concentrations are in ofthe phosphate range The Selenge River (POfrom4-P) 0.01 are into the 0.21 range mg/l. from The 0.01 phosphate to 0.21 mg/l. concentrations The phosphate concentrationsin the Kharaa in theRiver Kharaa were River much were muchlower lower than than the the nitrogen concentrations. Both phosphate and nitrogen con- nitrogen concentrations. Both phosphate and nitrogen centrationsconcentrations show show a decreasing a decreasing trend trend near near Zuunkharaa, Zuunkharaa, while therewhile is thereno trend is nonear trend the citynear of Darkhan.the city ofThe Darkhan. concentrations The concentrations of NO3-N near Zuunkharaa have of NO3-N near Zuunkharaa have decreased since 1990s. Simi- decreased since 1990s. Similarly, PO4-P concentrations larly, PO4-P concentrations have decreased near Zuunkharaa. have decreased near Zuunkharaa.

The nutrient concentrations in the Kharaa River water usually increasedThe nutrient during concentrations spring and summer in the time Kharaa and sometimesRiver water ex - usually increased during spring and summer time ceeded the Maximum Acceptable Concentrations by the order and sometimes exceeded the Maximum Acceptable of 2 to 3 times. However, the number of cases, in which the Concentrations by the order of 2 to 3 times. However, nutrientthe number concentrations of cases, in exceeded which the the nutrient MAC concentrationslevels represents Bayangol crop area lessexceeded than 5 percentthe MAC of levelsall samples. represents less than 5 percent of all samples. There are very limited observed data on metals, except for ironThere (Fe) are and very chromium limited observed (Cr6+) ions, data which on metals, are measured except for at theiron downstream (Fe) and chromium sampling (Cr points6+) ions, of both which monitoring are measured sites. Theat monthlythe downstream mean concentrations sampling points of Feof bothvary betweenmonitoring 0.08 sites. and 0.15The mg/lmonthly with concentrationsmean concentrations increasing of duringFe vary rainy between seasons. The0.08 Cr and6+ concentrations0.15 mg/l with rangeconcentrations below the increasing detection duringlevel to 6+ 0.01rainy mg/l seasons. and also The increase Cr concentrations in rainy seasons. range below the detection level to 0.01 mg/l and also increase in rainy HorsesA hot day under a tree seasons.

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At the upper reaches of the river near the indicating that groundwater is clean. Zuunkharaa monitoring station, the quality of the Kharaa River water can be classified The major point source of pollution appears as ‘very clean’ to ‘clean’, except for few to be the wastewater treatment plants in urban cases. The river water quality decreases in areas. There are five wastewater treatment lower reaches of the river near the city of plants in the Kharaa River Basin, two of Darkhan. However, more than 95 percent of which discharge their treated wastewater the all samples show that the river’s water directly into the Kharaa River. quality can be classified as ‘clean’. A slight deterioration in the river’s water quality The other three plants have no direct outlet to to the ‘slightly-polluted’ level is observed the Kharaa River. Most soums (small towns) during high-water periods of snowmelt in do not have wastewater treatment facilities April to May, as well as in low-water periods and infrastructure. A majority of households in June. in soums use simple traditional pit latrines in their compounds. The Darkhan WWTP is The analysis of the macro-invertebrate biggest in the basin and discharges its treated communities at the two monitoring sites of wastewater directly into the Kharaa River. the Kharaa River watershed indicates that The wastewater treatment rate of the plant the ecological condition of the river is good. varies between 76.8 and 98.1 percent. The assessment of the fish communities has shown a good, or a very good, ecological However, in most of the time, the treatment status at the sites. A moderate status, detected rate is below 90 percent, which means to a at two sites in the watershed, is caused by the certain extent that polluted water is absence of ubiquistic species, showing no discharged into the Kharaa River. The clear deficits in the ecological integrity of the WWTPs in Zuunkharaa, Baruunkharaa and fish fauna. Most of the fish species are known Khongor soums, which are located in the to occur in the Kharaa River Basin. According upstream reaches of the basin, are smaller to the Biotic Index and EPT criteria, the water and have no direct outlet to the Kharaa River. quality of the Kharaa River can be classified On the other hand, the treated wastewater of as ‘clean’ at both monitoring sites. these plants is discharged to infiltration ponds and the sludge is disposed of in sludge fields However, the water quality of the Kharaa close to the Kharaa River. The sludge field of River has been decreasing at the reach near the Zuunkharaa WWTP is located particularly Baruunkharaa since 2005, while it stays stable close to the river bank and therefore, there is at Darkhan. This shows that the quality of the a potential risk of pollution of groundwater, river’s water at the reach near Baruunkharaa soil and river water by leakage from the has been continuously declining for the last sludge ponds. six years. During high water periods, especially in In general, the water quality of the Kharaa snow melting times, the water quality of the River is lower in spring and improves in Kharaa River deteriorates to ‘moderately- summer. polluted’ and ‘very-polluted’ near urban settlements such as Darkhan, Baruunkharaa The groundwater of the Kharaa River and Zuunkharaa. This indicates that Basin has a similar chemical composition the Kharaa River water quality is highly as the Kharaa River water. In general, the vulnerable to pollution; in particular, in areas calcium and bicarbonate are the dominant close to point sources of pollution, such as ions at all groundwater sampling points. urban areas, and in source areas of diffuse The order of abundance of cations is pollution, such as agriculture and mining. Ca2+>Na++K+>Mg2+,whereasthe order of - 2- - abundance of anions is HCO3 >SO4 >Cl . Open mining is one of the major sources of The nutrient level in groundwater in aquifers pollution in the study area. in the Kharaa River Basin is very low,

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Several large mining reserves are located More than 60 percent of the total area of the in the Kharaa River Basin and occupy an Kharaa River Basin is used as pasture land for area of about 16 percent of the total area livestock grazing. Hence, the livestock of the basin. Some of the mines are not yet grazing is the major non-point source of exploited. The Boroo Gold Mine, which is pollution to surface waters, leading to fecal one of the most productive gold mines of contamination and direct nutrient inputs to Mongolia, is located in the basin. There are the river water during warm seasons. no systematically observed data to assess the pollution from mining activities in the basin, The assessment also shows that the self which may have serious negative impacts purification rate in the Mongolian rivers not only on surface water quality, but also on is usually high with the distance of self groundwater and soil. Heavy metals (such as purification of 6 to 18 kilometers. The self mercury and cyanide) were commonly used purification distance of the Kharaa River in small-scale gold mines until the use of appears to be 10 kilometers downstream mercury for mining and extract minerals was from the city of Darkhan. Consequently, banned in 2008. Elevated concentrations of the Kharaa River water becomes clean at heavy metals, but not exceeding the MAC its outlet at the confluence with the Orkhon levels, were detected in groundwater in River, with no adverse impacts on the water monitoring wells near the tailings facility quality of the Orkhon and Selenge rivers. of the Boroo Gold Mine. An incident of a possible mercury and cyanide contamination In overall, the results of the study show that of groundwater caused by a tailings spill the water quality of the Kharaa River Basin from a small mining operation in Khongor is clean and has good ecological conditions, soum was recorded in 2007. although The water quality of the Kharaa River decreases occasionally to ‘moderately- Mongolia’s most productive agricultural polluted’ and ‘very-polluted’ near urban and areas are found in the Kharaa River Basin and industrial areas, as well as during high water the surrounding region. The region’s soil and periods and snow melting times. This shows natural climatic conditions are favorable for that moderate pollution occurs near urban the cultivation of cereals and vegetables, areas and in snow melting periods, with especially potatoes. The use of chemical no serious degradation in the water quality fertilizers in agriculture is insignificant. of the whole basin. The main sources of Traditionally, fertilizer is not used for cereals water pollution in the basin are urban areas, production. Natural fertilizer such as animal agriculture and mining activities. Due to rapid manure is the most widely used fertilizer for urbanization and economic development, vegetables. According to the information pollution from municipal wastewater and provided by the officials of the Ministry of mining activities may become a concern in Food and Agriculture, the total fertilizer use the future. Furthermore, the Kharaa River is about 1,200 tons per year in Mongolia. Basin is facing growing pressures from Consequently, the impact of fertilizer use climate change and rising water demands. in agriculture on the water quality of the Kharaa River Basin is insignificant, given the Hence, the sustainable use and management insignificant amount of fertilizer used in crop of water resources of the Kharaa River Basin production. However, some of the cropland is of crucial importance in securing future is located close to, or directly on, the banks water supplies in the area. of the Kharaa River. The proximity of the cropland to surface waters may have potential impacts on water quality and sedimentation of the river systems of the basin.

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5.2. Recommendations

Based on the results of the water quality solids, the effect of the sediments on the assessment of the Kharaa River Basin, quality of the overlying water and the the following observations are made and biological system that will predominate. recommendations for future improvements • There is no regular groundwater quality in key areas are outlined below. monitoring in the Kharaa River Basin. The existing groundwater monitoring wells do Water quality monitoring not monitor the quality of groundwater. It is recommended to establish a groundwater • The monitoring and analysis of key water monitoring network in the basin to quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen, monitor both the water level and quality of biological oxygen demand, and heavy metals groundwater. is limited to only the Darkhan monitoring station. It is recommended to modify the • The sampling sites for chemical and monitoring programme and include all biological monitoring are located in different these parameters in all sampling points of all parts of the basin. It is recommended to monitoring stations in order to identify more conduct biological, and chemical monitoring reliably the sources of pollution. at the same sites, if possible.

• The water quality monitoring does not Wastewater management hydrological parameters such as the river water discharge. It is recommended to • The wastewater treatment plants are the main source of pollution. The wastewater measure the river streamflow at the time of water sampling. treatment plants in the basin are outdated, poorly maintained and based on obsolete • The Kharaa River water quality monitoring technology. There is a need to make is carried out once a month during the substantial investment to upgrade existing months from April through November at the wastewater treatment plants and build new Zuunkharaa (upstream) monitoring station, ones. and once a month throughout the year at the Darkhan monitoring station. Samples are • The Darkhan Wastewater Treatment Plant, collected mostly in the second half of each which is the biggest in the basin, is not able to month. It is recommended to increase the fully treat raw sewage before discharging the sampling/ monitoring intervals and carry treated wastewater directly into the Kharaa out sampling according to hydrological River. Its wastewater treatment rate is mostly conditions (for example, snowmelt, summer below 90 percent. The Salkhit Wastewater baseflow, heavy rain events, etc.) in addition Treatment Plant also discharges its treated to the routine sampling intervals. wastewater directly into the Kharaa River after only primary mechanical and biological • The monitoring carries out the chemical treatment. It is recommended to rehabilitate analysis only of the river water, but not of urgently the Darkhan and Salkhit Wastewater bottom sediments and particulate matters in Treatment Plants, which discharge their the river water. It is recommended to analysis effluents directly into the Kharaa River. particulate matters in the river water. Particulate matters and bottom deposits are • The wastewater treatment facilities in the an important factor in the study of water small cities and villages in the Kharaa River quality in that it yields valuable information Basin are mostly out of operation. Most of about the source of settle able particulate these facilities discharge their treated

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wastewaterwastewater in ininfiltration infiltration ponds. ponds. The The sludge sludge from from these these plantsplants is disposedis disposed of inof sludge in sludge fields fields located located close closeto the toKharaa the Kharaa River. ThisRiver. raises This a concernraises a concernover groundwater over groundwater nutrients nutrients and heavy and metalheavy contamination metal contamination by leakage by from leakage sludge from fields. sludge It is fields. rec- ommendedIt is recommended to reconstruct to reconstruct the wastewater the wastewater treatment treatment plants in plantsZuunkharaa, in Zuunkharaa, Baruunkharaa, Baruunkharaa, and Khongor and Khongorsoums and soums re- habilitateand rehabilitate infiltration infiltration ponds and ponds sludge and fieldssludge of fields these of facili these- ties.facilities.

Agricultural pollution A groundwater well Agricultural pollution At the well • • The The river river banks banks of the of Kharaathe Kharaa River River Basin—especially, Basin—especial the- Boroo River bank near Bornuur—are heavily used for ly, the Boroo River bank near Bornuur—are heavily used for cropland,cropland, leading leading to soilto soiland andriver river bank bank erosion. erosion. This, inThis, turn, in causesturn, increasedcauses increased suspended suspended solids in solids the river in the water. river It water. is rec It- ommendedis recommended to limit to thelimit use the useof river of river banks banks for for cultivation cultivation andand implement implement soil soil conservation conservation tillage tillage measures. measures.

• • The The use useof chemical of chemical fertilizers fertilizers in agriculture in agriculture is insignificant. is insignificant.Currently, Currently, natural natural fertilizer fertilizer such such as as animal animal manure is thethe mostmost widely widely used used fertilizer fertilizer for vegetables. for vegetables. The impact The impact of fertil- of izerfertilizer use in agricultureuse in agriculture on the onwater the qualitywater quality of the Kharaaof the Kharaa River River Basin is insignificant, given the insignificant amount Basin is insignificant, given the insignificant amount of fertilizer A forest near the Kharaa River The rainbow usedof fertilizerin crop production.used in crop It isproduction. encouraged It isto encouragedavoid and/or to restrictavoid theand/or use ofrestrict chemical the use fertilizers of chemical in the fertilizersfuture. in the future. MiningMining pollution pollution

• Open mining is one of the major sources of pollution in • Open mining is one of the major sources of pollution the study area. There are no systematically observed data to in the study area. There are no systematically observed data to assess the pollution from mining activities in the basin. The assess the pollution from mining activities in the basin. The wa- water use and waste management is controlled in the most ter use and waste management is controlled in the most of the of the mining sites. However, the amounts of toxic waste mining sites. However, the amounts of toxic waste containing containing heavy metals particularly mercury and cyanide heavyare unknown.metals particularly A more systematicmercury and monitoring cyanide are and unknown. reporting A more systematic monitoring and reporting of compliance of compliance with environmental regulations needs to be BirdsTailing in the facility tailing of facility the Boroo of the Boroomining mining withdeveloped environmental for all mining regulations operations. needs to be developed for all mining operations. • Heavy metals (such as mercury and cyanide) were • commonly Heavy usedmetals in (such small-scale as mercury gold and mines cyanide) until were the use com of- monlymercury used forin small-scalemining and gold extract mines minerals until the wasuse ofbanned mercury in for2008. mining There and extractis a need minerals to implement was banned measures in 2008. to cleanThere upis a needresidual to mercuryimplement in themeasures environment. to clean up residual mercury in the environment. • An incident of a possible mercury and cyanide • contamination An incident ofof a possiblegroundwater mercury andcaused cyanide contamby -a inationtailings of groundwaterspill from causeda small by a tailingsmining spill operation from a small in miningKhongor operation soum in Khongorwas recorded soum wasin 2007.recorded Such in 2007.cases Suchmay cases have may havepotentially potentially serious serious impactsimpacts on theon the The Orkhon River

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environment and human health and • Climate change is likely to increase the should be avoided in the future. There is river bank erosion in addition to the impact an urgent need to implement “responsible of agricultural activities near the river banks. mining” practices and closely monitor the In order to reduce the river bank erosion, it is environmental safety of mining operations in recommended to introduce river bank the basin. prevention measures, such as planting trees along the river bank. Mining pollution • The Kharaa River water at its confluence to • Although the water quality of the Kharaa the Orkhon River is still clean. It is, however, River Basin is clean and has good ecological needed to make efforts to preserve the water conditions, the water quality of the Kharaa quality of the river in order to maintain the River decreases occasionally near urban and integrity of the basin and its ecosystems. industrial areas. It is recommended to take necessary measures to enhance and protect the water quality of the Kharaa River from urban and industrial pollution.

The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the 70project. Water Quality of the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia: UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

References

1. Barbour, M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. 1999. Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams and Wadeable Rivers: Periphyton, Benthic Macroinvertebrates and Fish, Second Edition. EPA 841-B-99-002. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, D.C.

2. Batimaa, P., B.Bolortsetseg, T.Ganbaatar, B.Erdenetsetseg, M.Erdenetuya, T. Hudelmer, 2005. Climate change impact on natural resources base. The potential Impacts of Climate Change and V&A Assessment for the Livestock sector in Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar, Admon. pp.151.

3. Batimaa, P., 1998. Water chemistry and quality of the rivers in Mongolia. Executive summary of the Ph.D. Thesis. Ulaanbaatar. 4. Batimaa, P., B. Myagmarjav, N.Batnasan, N. Jadambaa, and P.Khishigsuren, 2011. Urban water vulnerability to climate change in Mongolia. Water Authority, Mongolia. pp.26-33. 5. Batsukh, N., 2007. Hydrogeological Report for Darkhan. Ulaanbaatar, National University of Mongolia. 6. Battsetseg, M., 2011. Changes in the Kharaa River water regime. In Climate Change in Cool Climate: Water Resources and Permafrost. Workshop proceedings. Muren, Khuvsgul. pp.45-51.

7. Boroo Gold Mine, 2013. Report on Groundwater Monitoring 2012. Boroo Gold LLC.

8. Bulgan, T., 2008. Methodologies for chemical analysis in water. Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism (MNET), Ulaanbaatar, pp. 166-167.

9. Myagmarjav, B., G. Davaa, R. Oyunbaatar, S.Tumurchudur, 2012. Surface Water Resources Assessment. in Integrated Water Resources Management Plan Development.

Ulaanbaatar. Volume 1. pp. 9-98.

10. Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology, 2013. The Kharaa River Water Hydro-chemical Data Analysis. (Unpublished report prepared for this study by Erdenebayar Y.) 11. Dorjgotov, D., 2003. Soils of Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar. pp 24. 12. Dulmaa, A., 1999. Fish and Fisheries in Mongolia. In T. Petr (ed.) Fish and Fisheries at Higher Altitudes: Asia. 385, Rome. 13. UNIDO, 2013. Hot-Spot and TEST methodologies. Available on: http://www.unido.org/what-we-do/environment/ 14. Hudelmer, D., 2006. Land Cover Change in Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar. (unpublished technical report) 15. Hunt, R.J., and I.H.Christiansen, 2000. Dissolved Oxygen: Information Kit. ACRC Sugar Technical Publication. 16. Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment, 2013. The Kharaa River Water Hydrobiological Data Analysis. (Unpublished report prepared for this study by Tumertsooj D.)

The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the 72project. Water Quality of the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia: UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

17. Jadambaa, N.,2000. Groundwater Quality Overview. Ulaanbaatar. (unpublished technical report)

18. Jadambaa, N.,2012. Groundwater Assessment of Mongolia. Technical report. Ulaanbaatar. 19. Ministry of Environment, Nature and Tourism (MNET), 2011. Research report on waste management in Darkhan city, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. 20. MoMo, 2009. Integrated Water Resources Management for Central Asia–MoMo” Final report. 21. Myagmarjav, B., and G. Davaa (eds),1999. Surface Water Resources of Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar. 22. National Atlas, 2009. Institute of Geography (Editor: Dorjgotov D.) Ulaanbaatar. 23. National Standard Agency (NSA),1998. National Standard for Water Quality of the Aquatic Environment: General Requirements. MNS 4586-98. Ulaanbaatar.

24. National Standard Agency (NSA), 2010. Mongolian National Standard on Water Quality: Permissible Levels for Groundwater Pollutants MNS 6148:2010. Ulaanbaatar 25. National Standard Agency (NSA), 2011.Mongolian National Standard for Discharge of Treated Wastewater into the Environment MNS 4943-2011. Ulaanbaatar

26. NSO, 2010. Population and housing inventory. Ulaanbaatar. 27. NSO, 2010. Statistics 2011. Ulaanbaatar 28. Vidon, P., C. Allan, D. Burns, T. P. Duval, N. Gurwick, S. Inamdar, R. Lowrance, J. Okay, D. Scott, and S. Sebestyen, 2010. Hot spots and hot moments in riparian zones: potential for improved water quality management, in Journal of the American Water Resources Association.

Vol.46, No.2, pp 278-298.

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Annex

1. Mongolian National Standard for Water Quality of the Aquatic Environment: General Requirements. MNS 4586-98. Ulaanbaatar. (in Mongolian)

2. Mongolian National Standard on Water Quality: Permissible Levels for Groundwater Pollutants MNS 6148:2010 (in Mongolian).

3. Mongolian National Standard for Discharge of Treated Wastewater into the Environment MNS 4943-2011. Ulaanbaatar. (in Mongolian)

The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the 74project. Water Quality of the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia: UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

Data analyses

1. The Kharaa River Water Hydro-biological Data Analysis for the period 2005-2010 A data analysis report prepared based on data provided by the Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment of Mongolia. The report was prepared in the framework of this study by Tumertsooj D. (in Mongolian language)

2. The Kharaa River Water Hydro-chemical Data Analysis for the period 1986-2011 A data analysis report prepared based on data provided by the Central Laboratory for Environment and Meteorology of Mongolia. The report was prepared in the framework of this study by Erdenebayar Y. (in Mongolian language)

The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the Pollutionproject. threats and hotspots assessment 75 UNDP-GEF project "Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Baikal Basin Transboundary Ecosystem"

The intellectual property rights belong to UNOPS and UNDP, the information should not be used by a third party before consulting with the 76project. Water Quality of the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia: