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A Comprehensive List of Geothermal Reservoir Properties for the Development of Geothermal Occurrence Models

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A Comprehensive List of Geothermal Reservoir Properties for the Development of Geothermal Occurrence Models GRC Transactions, Vol. 37, 2013 A Comprehensive List of Geothermal Reservoir Properties for the Development of Geothermal Occurrence Models Greg Salwen1, Kermit Witherbee2, and Katherine Young2 1State University of New York at Binghamton 2National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA. Keywords and permeability of the reservoir is required for geothermal en- Geothermal occurrence models, structure, OpenEI, geology, ergy production, it is important to be able to accurately capture exploration, dataset the physical characteristics of the reservoirs in developing cost- effective exploration programs. While some geothermal systems are more easily found due ABSTRACT to surface manifestations—such as hot springs, fumaroles, and geysers (Figure 2) — many systems do not develop such features Despite the fact that geothermal occurrence models (GOMs) at the surface. These “blind” geothermal systems require alter- are essential components of early stage exploration, few attempts native methods of discovery. Before drilling or applying other have been made to compile comprehensive lists of data on world- expensive exploration techniques, most exploration geologists wide geothermal resources in order to develop such models. The (e.g., King 2013) consider the development of GOMs to be “[a] properties of these geothermal resources– including the structural setting, geothermal features, tectonic setting, temperature of the reservoir, and host/cap rock character- istics–are being catalogued on OpenEI, a semantic wiki platform for crowdsourced knowledge-sharing. This additional in- formation added to the wiki platform will provide the public with access to an enor- mous amount of geothermal information, the goal of which is to stimulate the devel- opment of GOMs and aid in exploration. This paper reviews the significance of the project, the methodologies involved in the classification of resources, and the intended future work. Introduction Modern geothermal technologies pro- duce electricity from geothermally heated water. Hot water is either flashed to steam or is used to heat liquids with a low boil- ing point to generate gas, which is then directed through large turbines. Next, a generator converts the mechanical energy Figure 1. Geothermal surface manifestations at Yellowstone National Park. Clockwise from top left: of the turbines to electrical energy. Because mudpot, geyser (Old Faithful), hot spring (Grand Prismatic Spring), fumaroles (Roaring Mountain). Photos the combination of high heat flow, water, by: Gregory Salwen, NREL. 321 Salwen, et al. n essential component of early stage exploration” (p. 1). Thus, proceedings. Over 100 productive geothermal fields from 24 a categorization of known geothermal resource areas based on countries were identified and their properties were catalogued tectonic setting, structure, relict geothermal features, and a variety (See Figure 2 for world map of productive geothermal fields). of other parameters would be helpful in developing such GOMs. The data from this study have been stored in OpenEI1 on Prior to this study, Bjornsson and Bodvarsson (1990) and respective Geothermal Area pages under “Technical Info” and Bertani (2005) had compiled what appear to be the most com- “Geology” tabs. The public is free to sign up for an OpenEI ac- prehensive published reference lists on the permeability, porosity, count and then they may add, update, and organize data on any salinity, and temperatures of many geothermal fields. This study page using the “edit” feature. Though this particular study was seeks to expand the data collected to include all worldwide intended to promote the development of GOMs, OpenEI has been geothermal areas and many more of their characteristics. While populated and structured in such a way that the members of the the ultimate goal of this project is to benefit the development of geothermal community may add to the database in the future and GOMs, the list will also provide basic data for the geothermal analyze the data at their discretion. An example of one such pos- community and allow for the analysis and discovery of cor- sible analysis is described in the discussion section and illustrated relations between various hydrological, thermal, and structural in Figure 4. parameters. OpenEI is a semantic media-wiki platform for crowdsourcing Parameters energy information that will host this collection of data. As new research in this area is completed by those in the geothermal com- The chosen parameters collected for this study are reviewed munity, the OpenEI platform allows the latest information to be below. A full list of the parameters used in this study and their added so that the database of information continues to grow. This classifications can be found in the Appendix. paper reviews the significance of the project, the methodologies involved in the classification of resources for this study, and the Tectonic Setting intended future work. One of the most basic and important parameters involved in classifying a geothermal area is its tectonic setting because the Methodology heat source and the permeability of a geothermal system are de- The primary goal of this project is to catalogue data relevant pendent on it. The tectonic framework determines the occurrence to the process of exploration of geothermal resources. Of specific of advective or conductive heat processes as well as the strain interest are patterns in the properties of productive fields, as indus- rates that keep fault/fracture networks open. try could potentially use these patterns to predict the locations of Volcanism is conducive to geothermal systems as it induces undiscovered geothermal systems. As the basis for GOMs, these high heat flow and strain rates. Volcanism is often generated at patterns “describe a set of geophysical, geochemical, tectonic, subduction zones (encompassing about half of all productive structural, and geological features that are associated with a geo- geothermal fields according to this study), areas of rifting, and thermal resource” (King 2013, p. 1). Therefore, the geothermal hot spots. While extensional processes that thin the crust (such data on OpenEI have been organized in a way that promotes the as in the Basin and Range province and Western Turkey) are documentation of parameters relevant to geothermal resource also favorable settings for geothermal production, they typically exploration and the formation of GOMs. Secondary parameters generate geothermal systems of lower enthalpy. Recently, some of potential interest to the geothermal community are documented low-energy systems have been discovered in continental interiors as well (e.g., fluid properties). such as in Australia and Alaska. These systems, classified for this We performed an extensive literature review for this study, study as “non-tectonic,” are thought to have a higher-than-average collecting data from nearly 250 papers, reports, and conference radiogenic input from underlying granites which accounts for the high heat flow. Transtensional zones (e.g., Gulf of California Rift and Walker Lane), rift zones (e.g., the East African Rift), and leaky transform faults (e.g., Azores and Las Tres Virgenes) have been grouped for the purpose of this study into the single category of “transtensional” zones because their extensional processes often lead to the advective transfer of heat from the mantle, which powers geothermal systems. Unlike in “transtensional” zones, the extensional processes occurring in areas like the Basin and Range province and Western Turkey (deemed “extensional” for this study) have geothermal systems typically associated Figure 2. Worldwide map of productive geothermal fields that are the focus of the first stage of catalogu- with conductive heat allowed by crustal ing on OpenEI. Courtesy of ThinkGeoEnergy and Google, Map Data © 2013 MapLink. thinning. 322 Salwen, et al. Structural Classification The structural settings that control the fault/fracture permeabil- ity of a reservoir—and thus the flow of hydrothermal fluids—are of particular interest in the exploration phase of geothermal develop- ment because without adequate permeability, sufficient fluids for energy production cannot be extracted. Faulds et al. (2011) and Cashman et al. (2012) demonstrated the significance of structural settings in geothermal exploration by showing that the presence of a hydrothermal system is statistically linked to structural set- tings in various orogenic structural zones. For example, 43% of geothermal systems in central Nevada are hosted in stepovers or relay ramps in normal fault zones, but this structural setting is host to only 8% of geothermal systems found in the Walker Lane Region of the United States (Cashman 2012). Analyses performed using data collected for this study (and posted on OpenEI) would ideally lead to similar conclusions. The structures that accommodate fault/fracture networks have been documented in detail for the U.S. Basin and Range region by Faulds et al. (2011) (see Figure 3). As a part of this study, Fauld’s structural classifications have also been applied to regions outside of the Basin and Range. Structural classifications not previously discussed by Faulds but utilized in this study include intrusion margins and associated fractures, stratigraphic boundaries, fissure swarms, caldera rim margins, and lithographic controls. These structural classifications can also aid in the understanding ofknown geothermal areas—for extrapolation to exploration of unidentified resources—by
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